PSYCH 209 - UNIT 1 READING NOTES

FEATURES OF GOOD SCIENTIFIC THEORIES

•*BACKGROUND!!!! ON FEATURES OF GOOD SCIENTIFIC THEORIES* 1. *IN SCIENTIFIC PRACTICE, SOME THEORIES ARE BETTER THAN OTHERS!!!* 2. *THE BEST THEORIES...* a. *ARE SUPPORTED BY DATA!! FROM STUDIES!!!* b. *ARE FALSIFIABLE!!!* c. *ARE PARSIMONIOUS!!!!!* --------------------------------------------- •*FEATURES OF GOOD SCIENTIFIC THEORIES* 1. *BEST THEORIES CHARACTERISTIC #1: GOOD THEORIES ARE SUPPORTED BY DATA!!!!!!!!* a. *IS THE MOSTTT!!!!!! IMPORTANT FEATURE!!!!* b. *CONSIDER HARLOW'S THEORY AGAIN!* =In this respect, the contact comfort theory of infant attachment turned out to be better than the cup- board theory because it was supported by the data. c. *HARLOW'S THEORY IS GOOD BC HIS IS CONSISTENT!!!! WITH OUR OBSERVATIONS OF THE REAL WORLD!!!!* d. *MORE!!! IMPORTANTLY: SCIENTISTS NEED TO CONDUCT MULTIPLE!! STUDIES!!!, USING A VARIETY OF METHODS!! TO ADDRESS DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE THEORY* =A theory that is supported by a large quantity and variety of evi- dence is a good theory. 2. *BEST THEORIES CHARACTERISTIC #2: GOOD THEORIES ARE FALSIFIABLE* a. *DEFINITION OF A FALSIFIABLE!!! THEORY: THE THEORY CAN BE SHOWN!!!! TO BE FALSE!!!! BY AN OBSERVATION!!! OR EXPERIMENT!!!* =A theory must lead to hypotheses that, when tested, could actually fail to support the theory. b. *HARLOW'S THEORY WAS FALSIFIABLE!!!!* =If the monkeys had spent more time on the wire mother than the cloth mother, the contact-comfort theory would have been shown to be incorrect. c. *WHY BEING FALSIFIABLE IS IMPORTANT: TAKING RISKS AND ACCEPTING TO BE POTENTIALLY WRONG CAN LEAD US TO FIND ACTUAL ANSWERS!!!! AND TECHNIQUES!! THAT ACTUALLY WORK!!* =IF WE DONT HAVE THAT, THEN WE DONT REALLY GET ANYWHERE 3. *BEST THEORIES CHARACTERISTIC #3: GOOD THEORIES HAVE PARISMONY* a. *DEFINITION OF PARISMONY: suggests that when several long conclusions or several competing theories try to explain something, the correct definition tends to be the simplest.* =THEORIES ARE SUPPOSED TO BE SIMPLE!!! =IF 2 THEORIES EXPLAIN THE DATA EQUALLY WELL, MORE SCIENTISTS WILL OPT FOR THE SIMPLER, MORE PARSIMONIOUS THEORY!!!* b. *PARSIMONY SETS A STANDARD!!! FOR THE THEORY-DATA CYCLE!!!* =As long as a simple theory predicts the data well, there should be no need to make the theory more com- plex. c. *HARLOW'S THEORY WAS PARSIMONIOUS!!! BC IT POSED A SIMPLE EXPLANATION!!! FOR INFANT ATTACHMENT* =Contact comfort drives attachment more than food does. As long as the data continue to support the simple theory, the simple theory stands. d. *HOWEVERRR, WHEN THE DATA CONTRADICTS!!! THE THEORY, THE THEORY HAS TO CHANGE!! IN ORDER TO ACCOMMODATE THE DATA* -IE: For example, over the years, psychologists have collected data showing that baby monkeys do not always form an attachment to a soft, cozy mother. If monkeys are reared in complete social isolation during their first, crit- ical months, they seem to have problems forming attachments to anyone or any- thing. Thus, the contact comfort theory had to change a bit to emphasize the importance of contact comfort for attachment especially in the early months of life. e. *TAKEAWAY FROM ABOVE: THEORY IS SLIGHTTLY LESS!!!! PARSIMONIOUS NOW, BUT IT DOES A BETTER!!!! JOB OF ACCOMODATING THE DATA*

BENEFITS!! AND RISKS!!! OF JOURNALISM COVERAGE

•*BACKGROUND!!!!!! ON BENEFITS!! AND RISKS!!! OF JOURNALISM COVERAGE* 1. *PSYCHOLOGISTS CAN BENEFIT FROM JOURNALISTS PUBLICIZING THEIR RESEARCH* a. *BY READING ABOUT PSYCHOLOGICAL RESERACHES IN THE NEWSPAPER, the general public can learn what psychologists really dO* =ADDITIONALLY, THEY APPLY THAT KNOWLEDGE TO BENEFIT THEIR LIFE IN ALL SORTS OF AREAS 2. *THESE IMPORTANT BENEFITS OF SCIENCE WRITING DEPEND ON TWO THINGS!!!!!!!!!!!!!* a. *THING #1: JOURNALISTS NEED TO REPORT ON THE MOST IMPORTANT!!!!! SCIENTIFIC STORIES* b. *THING #2: THEY MUST DESCRIBE THE RESEARCH ACCURATELY!!* -------------------------------------- •*THE BENEFITS!! AND RISKS!!! OF JOURNALISM COVERAGE (THE 2 THINGS IMPORTANT BENEFITS OF SCIENCE DEPEND ON)* 1. *THING #1: JOURNALISTS NEED TO REPORT ON THE MOST IMPORTANT!!!!! SCIENTIFIC STORIES* =AKA IS THE STORY IMPORTANT?? a. *IMPORTANT TO ASK YOURSELF WHY THE JOURNALIST CHOSE THE SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE THEY DID* =have they chosen research that has been conducted rigorously, that tests an important question, and that has been peer-reviewed? OR =have they chosen a study simply because it is cute or eye-catching? b. *BOTH!!! HAPPEN!!!! THEREFORE, ITS IMPORTANT TO KNOW HOW TO NOTICE IT* b. *CONSIDER THE EXAMPLE OF JOURNALIST ARTICLE: "DOES UR DOG HATE HUGS?"* =HOWEVERRR, THE ORIGINAL!!! CLAIM OF THE STUDY HAD NOTTTTTT BEEN PEER REVIEWED OR PUBLISHED IN AN EMPIRICAL JOURNAL =JOURNALISTS SHOULD NOTTT HAVE RUN THE STORY =THEY ALSO LEFT OUT IMPORTANT DETAILS 2. *THING #2: THEY MUST DESCRIBE THE RESEARCH ACCURATELY!!* =AKA IS THE STORY ACCURATE?? a. *EVEN WHEN JOURNALISTS REPORT ON RELIABLE, IMPORTANT RESEARCH, THEY DONTTT ALWAYSS GET THE STORY RIGHT* =NOT ALL JOURNALISTS DO A GOOD JOB IN SUMMARIZING RESEARCH ACCURATELY b. *CAN BE FOR MANY REASONS...* =Perhaps the journalist does not have the scientific training, the motivation, or the time before deadline to understand the original science very well. =Maybe the journalist dumbs down the details of a study to make it more accessible to a general audience. And sometimes a journalist wraps up the details of a study with a more dramatic headline than the research can support. d. *THE MOZART EFFECT!!!!!!* *REFER TO PIC* -*THE MOZART EFFECT:* A MEDIA COVERAGE PHENOMENON!!!! =PROVIDES AN EXAMPLE OF HOW JOURNALISTS MISREPRESENT SCIENCE WHEN THEY WRITE FOR A POPULAR AUDIENCE -IE: RESEARCHER FOUND THAT CHILDREN WHO LISTEN TO CLASSICAL MUSIC HAVE SHOWED IMPROVED!!!! SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE!!! (AKA AN ASPECTTTT OF INTELLIGENCE!!!)...... THE MEDIA EXAGGERATED!!! THOSE FINDINGS BY WRONGFULLY SAYING HOW THEY IT BENEFITS GENERAL!! INTELLIGENCE =FOUND THAT EFFECTS OF LISTENING TO MOZART IS NOT V STRONG ON GENERAL INTELLIGENCE --------------------------------------- •*HOW TO PREVENT BEING MISLED BY A JOURNALISTS COVERAGE IN SCIENCE?* =LEARN FROM ORIGINAL SOURCE (MORE DETAILS IN CHAPTER 2 Another approach is to maintain a skeptical mindset when it comes to popular sources.

FINDING SCIENTIFIC SOURCES

•*FINDING SCIENTIFIC SOURCES* 1. *WHERE TO START: USING THE TOOLS!! IN UR UNIVERSITY'S LIBRARY!!!* a. *LIBRARY'S REFERENCE STAFF* =EXTREMELY HELPFUL!! =CAN TEACH U HOW TO FIND APPROPRIATE ARTICLES!!! OR CHAPTERS!!! 2. *WHAT TO USE WHEN WORKING ON YOUR OWN: DATABASES!!* -IE: PSYCINFO, GOOGLE SCHOLAR

SCIENTISTS DIG DEEPER!!!

•*SCIENTISTS DIG DEEPER!!!* 1. *PSYCH SCIENTISTS! RARELY!!!!! CONDUCT A SINGLE INVESTIGATION AND THEN STOP* a. *INSTEAD: EACH STUDY LEADS!!! THEM TO ASK A NEW QUESTION!!!!!!!* -IE: SCIENTISTS MIGHT START W A SIMPLE EFFECT AND THEN ASK WHY!!!, WHEN!!!!! DOES IT HAPPEN!!!, WHO!!! DOES IT APPLY TO!!!. WHAT ARE THE LIMITS????!!!!!!!

WHY THE PRODUCER ROLE IS IMPORTANT

•*WHY THE PRODUCER ROLE IS IMPORTANT* 1. *THE SKILLS YOU ACQUIRE BY CONDUCTING RESEARCH CAN TEACH YOU HOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENTISTS ASK QUESTIONS!!! AND HOW THEY THINK ABOUT THEIR DISCIPLINE* 2. *OVERALL: BY PARTICIPATING IN A ROLE AS A PRODUCER, YOU CAN DEEPEN!!!!!! YOUR UNDERSTANDING!!! OF PSYCHOLOGICAL INQUIRY*

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING: 1. What happens to a theory when the data do not support the theory's hypotheses? What happens to a theory when the data do support the theory's hypotheses? 2.Explainthedifferencebetweenbasicresearchandappliedresearch,and describe how the two interact. 3. Whycan'ttheoriesbeprovedinscience? 4. When scientists publish their data, what are the benefits? 5.Describetwowaysjournalistsmightdistortthesciencetheyattempt to publicize.

ANSWERS 1. See the discussion of Harlow's monkey experiment on p. 13. 2. See p. 16. 3. See p. 15. 4. See p. 17. 5. See pp. 18-21.

THEORY, HYPOTHESIS, AND DATA!!!

PICTURE OF THEORY DATA CYCLE ATTACHED •*THEORY, HYPOTHESIS, AND DATA!!!* REFER TO PICTURE 1. *THEORY* a. *DEFINITION: REFERS TO A SET!!!! OF STATEMENTS!!!! THAT DESCRIBES GENERAL PRINCIPLES!!! ABOUT HOW VARIABLES!! RELATE TO ONE ANOTHER* b. *EXAMPLE OF THEORY: HARLOW'S THEORY!!* (AS PREVIOUSLY DISCUSSED) =FOUND THAT CONTACT COMFORT WAS THE PRIMARY BASIS!!! FOR ATTACHMENTS TO MOTHERS c. *THAT THEORY LED HARLOW TO INVESTIGATE PARTICULAR!!!! KINDS OF QUESTIONS* =CHOSE ISOLATE FOOD!!! AGAINST CONTACT COMFORT!!! IN HIS RESEARCH d. *THEORY MEANT THAT HARLOW AAALLSOOO!!!!!!!! CHOSE NOT TO STUDY UNRELATED QUESTIONS!!!* (such as the babies' food preferences or sleeping habits.) d. *THE THEORY NOT ONLY LED TO QUESTIONS BUT ALSO!! LED TO SPECIFIC HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE ANSWER* 2. *HYPOTHESIS* a. *DEFINITION: REFERS TO A PREDICTION!!!!!! AKA A SPECIFIC OUTOCME!!! THE RESEARCHER EXPECTS TO STUDY!!!! IF THE THEORY IS ACCURATE!!!!* b. *HARLOW'S HYPOTHESIS/PREDICTION* =*THAT THE BABIES WOULD SPEND MORE TIME W THE COZY MOTHER THAN THE FOOD MOTHER* c. *IMPORTANT NOTE: A SINGLE!! THEORY CAN LEADD!!!!! TO A LARGE!!! NUMBER!!! OF HYPOTHESES!!!!!!!!* -REASON: A SINGLE STUDY IS NOTTTTTT SUFFICIENT FOR TESTING A THEORY (requires more studies to be fully supported) d. *STUDIES ARE ONLY!!! MEANT TO TEST A PART!!!! OF THE THEORY!!!* Most researchers test their theories with a seriesof empirical studies, each designed to test anindividual hypothesis. 3. *DATA* a. *DEFINITION OF DATA: DATA ARE A SET!!!!!!!! OF OBSERVATIONS!!!!!!!!!!* b. *HARLOW'S DATA: were the amount of time the baby monkeys stayed on each mother* c. *DATA MAY!!! SUPPORT!!!!!!!!! ORRR CHALLENGE!!!!!!!!!! A THEORY!!!* (Depending on whetherthe data are consistentwith hypotheses basedon a theory) d. *WHEN THE DATA!! MATCHES!!!.....* -*DATA THAT MATCHES!! THE HYPOTHESIS:* STRENGTHENS!!! THE RESEARCHERS CONFIDENCE!!! IN THE THEORY* f. *WHEN THE DATA DOESNT!!! MATCH....* -RESULTS INDICATE THAT THEORY NEEDS TO BE: =REVISED!!!!!!!!! OR =RESEARCH DESIGN!!!!!! NEED TO BE IMPROVED!! --------------------------------------------- 4. *PHOTO PROVIDED SHOWS THE STEPS!!!! ABOVE WORK AS A CYCLE!!*

FINDING RESEARCH IN LESS SCHOLARLY PLACES

•*FINDING RESEARCH IN LESS SCHOLARLY PLACES* 1. *OTHER SOURCES FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH* (although research in its original form is the best way to get a thorough, accurate, and peer-reviewed report of scientific evidence) a. *-IE: NONACADEMIC BOOKS WRITTEN FOR GENERAL PUBLIC, WEBSITES, POPULAR NEWSPAPERS, AND MAGAZINES* =CAN BE GOOD AS LONG AS U CHOOSE THEM CAREFULLY!!

THE 5 TYPES OF BIASES!!!: AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC

•*AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC* 1. *DEFINITION OF AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC: STATES THAT THINGS THAT POP UP EASILY IN OUR MIND TEND TO GUIDE OUR THINKING!!!* a. *AKA THE EVENTS/MEMORIES THAT ARE VIVID!!!/RECENT/MEMORABLE!! POP INTO OUR HEAD EASILY, LEADING US TO OVERESTIMATE HOW OFTEN THINGS HAPPEN* 2. *CONSIDER THE EXAMPLE...* a. *EXAMPLE#1: WOMAN DIES IN AUSTRALIAN SHARK ATTACK* b. *W AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC, WE BELIEVE THAT SHARK ATTACKS ARE COMMON* c. *HOWEVER, EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE SHOWS THAT THEYRE NOT COMMON AT ALL d. *WE HAVE THIS BELIEF BC IT COMES TO MIND SO EASILY!!!!* =SO WE INFLATE THE ASSOCIATED RISK e. *EXAMPLE #2: YOU SEE A WOMAN IN A HIJAB A FEW TIMES ON CAMPUS AND ASSUME THERES LOTS OF MUSLIM WOMEN THERE* =People who practice many other religions do not stand out, so you may underestimate their frequency. 3. *WHY!!! WE HAVE AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC* a. *WE ARE ALSO TOO BUSY/LAZY!! TO THINK BEYOND THE ANSWER!!*

THE 3 KINDS OF SOURCES!!! SCIENTISTS USUALLY PUBLISH THEIR RESEARCH IN #1: JOURNAL ARTICLES

•*BACKGROUND ON JOURNAL ARTICLES* ------------------------------------------- •*JOURNAL ARTICLES* 1. *GETS RELEASED!! MONTHLY!!! OR QUARTERLY* a. *IS NOTT!! SIMILAR TO POPULAR MAGAZINES* =POP MAGAZINES DONT COME OUT MONTHLY AND POP MAGAZINES ARE GLOSSY W ADS 2. *WHERE TO FIND* a. *#1: IN SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS IN COLLEGE!!* b. *#2: UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES* c. *#3: ONLINE ACADEMIC DATABASES* (WHICH ARE GENERALLY AVAILABLE THRU ACADEMIC LIBRARIES) 3. *WHO THEYRE WRITTEN FOR: AN AUDIENCE OF OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENTISTS!! ORR PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS!!!!!* 4. *THERE ARE 2!!! TYPES OF JOURNAL ARTICLES* a. *TYPE #1: EMPIRICAL JOURNAL ARTICLES* -*REPORTS FIRST!! TIME RESULTS!! OF AN EMPIRICAL RESEARCH STUDY* -*CONTAIN DETAILS!!! ABOUT THE STUDY'S METHOD!!!, STATISTICAL TESTS USED!!, AND THE RESULTS!!!!! OF THE STUDY* =*ARE!!!! PEER REVIEWED* b. *TYPE #2: REVIEW JOURNAL ARTICLES* -*IS A SUMMARY!!!! OF ALLLL THE PUBLISHED STUDIES!!! THAT HAVE BEEN DONE IN ONE RESEARCH AREA* -IE: A REVIEW ARTICLE BY ANDERSON AND HIS COLLEAGUES SUMMARIZES 130 STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS OF PLAYING VIOLENT VIDEO GAMES ON AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR IN CHILDREN!! -*META-ANALYSIS:* IS A QUANTITATIVE TECHNIQUE SOMETIMES USED IN THESE!! (definition of meta-analysis: combines the results of many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude or the EFFECT SIZE of a relationship) -*EFFECT SIZE:* refers to the strength of an effect (or relationship difference). It also tells us about the differences between groups. IMPORTANT BC IT weights each study proportionately!!!! and does not allow cherry-picking particular studies!! in review journal articles =*AREEE PEER REVIEWED* c. *REQUIREMENT!!!!!!! OF EMPIRICAL JOURNAL ARTICLES!! AND REVIEW JOURNAL ARTICLES: BOTH MUST BE PEER REVIEWED!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!*

RESEARCH IS PROBABILISTIC

•*BACKGROUND ON RESEARCH IS PROBABILISTIC* 1. *ALTHOUGH RESEARCH IS USUALLY MORE ACCURATE THAN INDIVIDUAL EXPERIENCE, SOMETIMES OUR PERSONAL STORIES CONTRADICT RESEARCH RESULTS!!* a. *PERSONAL EXPERIENCE = POWERFUL!!!* =and we often let a single experience distract us from the lessons of more rigorous research =SHOULD WE TRUST IT? 2. *AT TIMES, YOUR PERSONAL EXPERIENCE MAY BE AN EXCEPTION TO RESEARCH* =you may be tempted to conclude: The research must be wrong. -------------------- •*RESEARCH IS PROBABILISTIC* 1. *HOWEVERRR, BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH!!!!! IS PROBABILISTIC!!!!!* a. *DEFINITION OF BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH BEING PROBABALISTIC: FINDINGS ARE NOTTT EXPECTED TO EXPLAIN ALL CASES ALL THE TIME* 2. *INSTEAD, THE CONCLUSIONS OF RESEARCH ARE MEANT!!! TO ONLY EXPLAIN A CERTAIN PROPORTION!!!! OF POSSIBLE CASES* =In practice, this means scientific conclusions are based on patterns that emerge only when researchers set up comparison groups and test many people. 3. *THE RESEARCH IS MEANT TO SUGGEST A STRONGGGGGGGG PROBABILITY!!!! OF SOMETHING*

EXPERIENCE IS CONFOUNDED

•*EXPERIENCE IS CONFOUNDED* 1. *IS REASON #2 WHY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE IS PROBLEMATIC* a. *WHY: IN EVERYDAY LIFE, TOO MUCH IS GOING ON AT ONCE* =EVEN WHEN A CHANGE HAS OCCURRED, WE CANT FIGURE OUT WHAT CAUSED IT 2. *DEFINITION OF A CONFOUND: THE SEVERAL POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS FOR AN OUTCOME* =AKA ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS a. *CONFUSED!!! = ANOTHER WORD FOR CONFOUNDED* b. *AKA REFERS TO occurs when you think one thing caused an outcome but in fact other things changed, too, so you are confused about what the cause really was* 3. *WHAT TO DO WHEN WE HAVE A CONFOUND* a. *NOTICE THAT ITS HARD TO ISOLATE THE VARIABLES* b. *IN RESEARCH SETTINGS, SCIENTISTS CAN USE CAREFUL CONTROLS!!!! TO BE SURE THEYRE ONLY CHANGING ONE FACTOR AT A TIME*

READING THE RESEARCH: THE 6 COMPONENTS OF AN EMPIRICAL JOURNAL ARTICLE

•*BACKGROUND!! ON COMPONENTS OF AN EMPIRICAL JOURNAL ARTICLE* 1. *MOST ARE WRITTEN IN A STANDARD!! FORMAT!!* (AS RECOMMENDED BY THE APA!!) a. *MOST INCLUDE ALL 6 SECTIONS, WRITTEN IN THIS ORDER...* -ABSTRACT -METHOD -RESULTS -DISCUSSION -REFERENCES 2. *Each section contains a specific kind of information.* --------------------------------------------- •*THE 6 COMPONENTS OF AN EMPIRICAL JOURNAL ARTICLE* 1. *ABSTRACT* a. *IS A CONCISE!! SUMMARY OF THE ARTICLE* =USUALLY 120 WORDS LONG b. *BRIEFLY DESCRIBES THE STUDY'S....* -HYPOTHESES -METHOD -AND MAJOR RESULTS!! c. *CAN HELP YOU QUICKLY DECIDE WHETHER THE ARTICLE!! IS WHAT YOURE LOOKING FOR* (OR TO MOVE ONTO THE NEXT ARTICLE 2. *INTRODUCTION* a. *THE FIRST!! SECTION OF REGULAR TEXT* b. *EXPLAINS!! THE TOPIC OF STUDY* c. *WHAT ELSE IT INCLUDES...* -THE BACKGROUND ON THE STUDY -THE THEORY being tested -FINDINGS FROM PREVIOUS STUDIES -WHY THE STUDY IS IMPORTANT -THE RESEARCH QUESTION!! -GOALS!! OF STUDY -HYPOTHESES 3. *METHOD* a. *EXPLAINS IN DETAIL HOW THE RESEARCHER CONDUCTED THEIR STUDY* b. *USUALLY INCLUDES...* -PARTICIPANTS -MATERIALS -PROCEDURE -APPARATUS c. *AN IDEAL ONE GIVES YOU ENOUGH DETAIL IN ORDER TO REPLICATE!!!!!! IT* (WITHOUT ASKING THE AUTHOR) 4. *RESULTS* a. *DESCRIBES THE QUANTITATIVE!!!//RELEVANT!!/QUALITATIVE!! RESULTS!!! OF THE STUDY* -IE: THE STATISTICAL TESTS USED TO ANALYZE THE DATA b. *USUALLY PROVIDES...* -TABLES!! AND FIGURES!!! THAT SUMMARIZE KEY RESULTS c. *DOES NOTTT INTERPRET ANY RESULTS!! HERE... RESULTS ARE ONLYYY STATED* 5. *DISCUSSION* a. *FIRST: IT TYPICALLY SUMMARIZES THE STUDY'S RESEARCH QUESTION!! AND METHODS//INDICATES HOW WELL!!! THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY SUPPORTED THE HYPOTHESES!!! b. *NEXT, IT TYPICALLY DISCUSSES THE STUDY'S IMPORTANCE!!!* =Perhaps their hypothesis was new, or the method they used was a creative and unusual way to test a familiar hypothesis, or the partic- ipants were unlike others who had been studied before. c *THEN, AUTHORS MAY DISCUSS ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS!!!!!!! FOR THEIR DATA!! AND POSE INTERESTING QUESTIONS!!!!! RAISED AFTERWARDS* 6. *REFERENCES* a. *CONTAINS FULL BIBLIOGRAPHIC LISTING OF ALL THE SOURCES!! THE AUTHORS CITED!!! IN WRITING THEIR ARTICLE* =ALLOWS READERS TO LOCATE THEIR STUDIES

EXPERIENCE HAS NO COMPARISON GROUP

•*BACKGROUND!!! ON EXPERIENCE HAS NO COMPARISON GROUP* 1. *IS A REASON WHY PERSONAL EXPERIENCE IS PROBLEMATIC* 1. *MOST IMPORTANT REASON NOTTT TO TAKE PERSONAL EXPERIENCES INTO ACCOUNT: A COMPARISON!!! GROUP!!!! IS USUALLY NEVER TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT* 2. *DEFINITION OF COMPARISON GROUP: IS A GROUP THAT ENABLES!!!! US TO COMPARE WHAT WOULD HAPPEN BOTH WITH!!!! AND WITHOUT!!!!! THE THING WE ARE INTERESTED IN* -IE: both with and without tanning beds, online games, or kinesio-tape --------------------------------------------- •*EXPERIENCE HAS NO COMPARISON GROUP* 1. *CONSIDER THE TROUBLING!!!! EXAMPLE!!!! OF WHY A COMPARISON GROUP IS SO IMPORTANT!!!!!* a. *CENTURIES AGO, DR. RUSH USED BLOOD LETTING AS A STRATEGY TO CURE PATIENTS!! BC IT WAS BELIEVED THAT "TOO MUCH BLOOD" WAS THE REASON FOR PEOPLES ILLNESSES* =IT WAS BELIEVEDTO WORK b. *HOWEVER, WHEN A COMPARISON GROUP IS ADDED, ITS CLEAR THAT IT DOESNT WORK* =BC HE BLED EVERY PATIENT!! 2. *WHY WE NEED A COMPARISON GROUP* a. *PERSONAL EXPERIENCE IS NOTTT RELIABLE!!!* =YOUR EXPERIENCE MAY NOT BE CONSISTENT W EVERYONE ELSES EXPERIENCE b. *IN ORDER TO REACH THE CORRECT CONCLUSION ON THINGS, WE NEED TO KNOW ALLL THE VALUES!!!* -IE: DR RUSH BLED EVERY PATIENT AND NEVER HAD THE CHANCE TO SEE HOW PATIENTS WOULD RECOVER WITHOUT BEING BLED

THE 5 TYPES OF BIASES!!!: ACCEPTING A CONCLUSION JUST BC IT SEEMS NATURAL!!! OR MAKES SENSE!!!*

•*BEING SWAYED BY A GOOD STORY* 1. *BIAS TYPE #1: ACCEPTING A CONCLUSION JUST BC IT SEEMS NATURAL!!! OR MAKES SENSE!!!* a. *WE TEND TO BELIEVE IN GOOD STORIES, EVEN THE ONES THAT ARE FALSE* b. *CONSIDER THE EXAMPLE OF SIGMUND FREUD* =hose models of mental distress focused on the harmful effects of suppressing one's feelings and the benefits of expressing them =BELIEVED WE WORKED LIKE THE STEAM MACHINES BACK THEN (aka we would work better if we released esome steam* C. *CONSIDER ANOTHER EXAMPE OF THE SCARED STRAIGHT PROGRAM* =BELEIVES IT WORKS BC ITS COMMON SENSE!! THAT IF UR SCARED U WONT DO IT AND ITLL ACTUALLY CHANGE U =WRONGG 2. *IMPORTANT!! TO REALIZE THE LIMITATIONS OF YOUR INTUITION!!!* a. *BELIEVE IN EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE!!!* =THATS THE ONLY RELAIBALE THING

THE 3 KINDS OF SOURCES!!! SCIENTISTS USUALLY PUBLISH THEIR RESEARCH IN #2: CHAPTERS IN EDITED BOOKS

•*CHAPTERS IN EDITED BOOKS* 1. *DEFINITION: A COLLECTION OF CHAPTERS IN AN EDITED BOOK THAT ALL HAVE A COMMON TOPIC!!! EACH CHAPTER IS WRITTEN BY A DIFFERENT CONTRIBUTOR* a. *WHAT AN EDITED BOOK IS SPECIFICALLY: A COLLECTION!! OF CHAPTERS!!! ON A COMMON TOPIC!!!* b. *EXAMPLE* IE: THE CHAPTER TITLE: "EMOTIONAL REGULATION IN ADOLESCENCE!!!" WRITTEN BY MICHAELA RIEDEGER!!!, IN THE EDITED BOOK: THE HANDBOOK OF EMOTIONAL REGULATION =BOOK CONTAINS A TOTAL OF 30 CHAPTERS, ALL WRITTEN BY DIFFERENT RESEARCHERS =ALL RESEARCHERS WERE INVITED BY THE EDITOR, JAMES GROSS!!! TO CONTRIBUTE 2. *TARGET AUDIENCE: OTHER PSYCHOLOGISTS!! AND PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS!!!* 3 *IS NOTTTT THE FIRST PLACE A STUDY IS PUBLISHED* a. *INSTEAD, THE SCIENTIST IS SUMMARIZING!!! A COLLECTION!! OF RESEARCH!! AND EXPLAINING THE THEORY BEHIND IT!!* 4. *IS A GREAT!!! SOURCE TO FIND A SUMMARY!!!!! OF A SET OF RESEARCH!!! A PARTICULAR PSYCHOLOGIST HAS DONE* (IN THIS SENSE, THESE ARE SIMILAR TO REVIEW ARTICLES!! IN JOURNALS) 5. *ARE NOTTTTTTTT PEER REVIEWED!!!!* (atleast as rigorously as empirical journal articles or review articles) a. *HOWEVER, THE EDITOR IS CAREFUL TO ONLY INVITE EXPERTS!!! TO WRITE THE CHAPTERS*

THE 5 TYPES OF BIASES!!!: CONFIRMATION BIAS

•*CONFIRMATION BIAS* 1. *DEFINITION OF CONFIRMATION BIAS: THE TENDENCY TO LOOK ONLY!!!! AT INFORMATION!!! THAT AGREES W WHAT WE ALREADY BELIEVE!!!!* a. *AKA WE CHERRY-PICK THE INFO WE TAKE IN* =seeking and accepting only the evidence that supports what we already think. b. *AKA ONLY SEEKING!!!!! AND ACCEPTING!!!!!!! THE EVIDENCE THAT SUPPORTS WHAT WE ALREADY KNOW* 2. *CONSIDER THE IQ EXAMPLE* a. *WHAT HAPPENED: PARTICIPANTS TOOK AN IQ TEST!!!!! AND THEN WERE TOLD THAT THERES WAS EITHER HIGH OR LOW* =THEY THEN WERE TOLD TO LOOK THRU MAGAZINES!! b. *THOSE W A LOWER IQ: SPENT MORE TIME LOOKING AT ARTICLES THAT CRITIZED!! IQ!!!* AND VICE VERSA W HIGH IQS (They all wanted to think they were smart, so they analyzed the available information in biased ways that supported this belief.) c. *People keep their beliefs intact (in this case, the belief that they are smart) by selecting only the kinds of evidence they want to see.* 3. *THE CONFIRMATION BIAS OPERATES IN A WAY THAT IS DECIDEDLY NOTTTTTTTTTTT SCIENTIFIC!!!!* (UNLIKE THE HYPOTHESIS TESTING METHOD) If interviewers were testing the hypoth- esis that their target was an extrovert, they asked the questions that would confirm that hypothe- sis and did not ask questions that might discon- firm that hypothesis. Indeed, even though the students could have chosen neutral questions (such as "What do you think the good and bad points of acting friendly and open are?"), they hardly ever did. In follow-up studies, Snyder and Swann found that student interviewers chose hypothesis-confirming questions even if they were offered a big cash prize for being the most objective interviewer, suggesting that even when people are trying to be accurate, they cannot always be. 4. *OVERALL, WITHOUT SCIENTIFIC TRANSING, WE ARE NOT VERY RIGOROUS IN GATHERING EVIDENCE!!! TO TEST OUR IDEAS* a. *Psychological research has repeatedly found that when people are asked to test a hypothesis, they tend to seek the evidence that supports their expectations* b. *AS A RESULT, PPL TEND TO GATHER ONLY CERTAIN KIND OF INFO!! AND THEN THEY CONCLUDE THAT THEIR BELIEFS ARE SUPPORTED* =This bias is one reason clini- cal psychologists and other therapists are required to get a research methods education (Figure 2.6).

FINDING AND READING THE RESEARCH

•*FINDING AND READING THE RESEARCH* =WE NEED TO LEARN WHERE TO FIND PROPER RESEARCH IN ORDER TO BASE OUR BELIEFS OFF OF EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE RATHER THAN EXPERIENCE ------------------------------------------- •*CONSULTING SCIENTIFIC SOURCES* 1. *PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENTISTS USUALLY!!! PUBLISH THERE RESEARCH IN 3!!!!!!!!!! KINDS OF SOURCES* =THOSE 3 SOURCES ARE.... .a *ONE: ARTICLES!! IN SCHOLARLY JOURNALS!!!* =THE MOST COMMON!!!!!! b. *SECOND: AS SINGLE!!! CHAPTERS!!! WITHIN EDITED BOOKS!!* c. *THIRD: FULL LENGTH SCHOLARLY BOOKS!!!*

FINDING RESEARCH IN LESS SCHOLARLY PLACES: WIKI AS A RESEARCH SOURCE

•*FINDING RESEARCH IN LESS SCHOLARLY PLACES: WIKI AS A RESEARCH SOURCE* 1. *WIKIS CAN PROVIDE QUICK, EASY TO READ FACTS ON ALMOST ANY TOPIC!!!!!* 2. *WHO CAN WRITE IT: ANYBODY!!!!* a. *ANYONE CAN CREATE NEW ENTRIES, CONTRIBUTE TO THE CONTENT OF A PAGE, AND ADD DETAILS!!!* 3. *WIKI IS SELF-CORRECTING!!!!* a. *WRONG FACTS ARE CORRECTED BY OTHER USERS* 4. *OTHER DISADVANTAGES!!!* a .*DISADVANTAGE #1: THEY ARE NOTTTT COMPREHENSIVE!!! IN COVERAGE* =AKA U CANT READ ABOUT IT IF NO ONES WROTE ABOUT IT b. *DISADVANTAGE #2: THE REFERENCES SECTION MAY NOT STATE ALL THE REFERENCES USED* =they are idiosyncratic, representing the preferences of wiki contributors. c. *DISADVANTAGE #3: THE DETAILS ON THE PAGES MIGHT BE INCORRECT!!* d. *DISADVANTAGE #4: VANDALISM!! IS A POTENTIAL PROBLEM!!!!* =SOMETIMES PEOPLE WILL PURPOSELY!! PUT WRONG ANSWERS

FINDING RESEARCH IN LESS SCHOLARLY PLACES: THE POPULAR MEDIA!!

•*FINDING RESEARCH IN LESS SCHOLARLY PLACES: THE POPULAR MEDIA!!* 1. *OVERALL, POPULAR MEDIA COVERAGE IS GOOD FOR PSYCH!!!!* a. *JOURNALISTS PLAY AN IMPORTANT ROLE!!!! IN TELLING THE PUBLIC ABOUT EXCITING FINDINGS!!!! IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE!!!* -IE: psych can be featured in in online magazines (such as Slate and Vox), in news outlets, and in podcasts and blogs -IE: Some outlets, such as Psychology Today and the Hidden Brain podcast, are devoted exclusively to covering social science research for a popular audience 2. *HOWEVER, JOURNALISTS ARE NOTT!!! TRAINED IN SCIENCE WRITING!!!* -THEREFORE THEY MIGHT NOT CORRECTLYYYY SUMMARIZE A SCIENTIFIC ARTICLE!!! a. *THEY MAY OVERSIMPLIFY THINGS!!* AND b. *EVEN MAKE CLAIMS!!! THE STUDY DIDNT SUPPORT*

THE 3 KINDS OF SOURCES!!! SCIENTISTS USUALLY PUBLISH THEIR RESEARCH IN #3: FULL-LENGTH BOOKS

•*FULL-LENGTH SCIENTIFIC BOOKS* 1. *NOTTTTT COMMONLY WRITTEN BY PSYCHOLOGISTS* a. *HOWEVER, IT ISSS COMMON IN OTHER DISCIPLINES* =such as anthropology, art history, or English 2. *TARGET AUDIENCE: OTHER PSYCHOLOGISTS!!! AND PSYCHOLOGY STUDENTS!!* (IFFFF THEY ARE WRITTEN BY A PSYCH) WHICH IS RARE 3. *WHERE ITS FOUND: MOST LIKELY TO BE FOUND IN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES!!!*

HOW SCIENTISTS APPROACH THEIR WORK

•*HOW SCIENTISTS APPROACH THEIR WORK* 1. *PSYCHOLOGISTS ARE DEFINED!!!! BY WHAT!!!! THEY DO!!!! AND HOW!!!! THEY THINK!!!* a. *ARE NOTTT!! DEFINED BY DEGREES AND LAB COATS* 2. *REST OF CHAPTER 1: WILL FOCUS ON EXPLAINING THE FUNDAMENTAL WAYS!!!! PSYCHOLOGISTS APPROACH THEIR WORK!!!* =HOW PSYCHOLOGISTS APPROACH THEIR WORK STEP BY STEP a. *FIRST: they act as empiricists in their investigations, meaning that they systematically observe the world* b. *SECOND: they test theories through research and, in turn, revise their theories based on the resulting data.* c. *THIRD: , they take an empirical approach to both applied research, which directly targets real-world problems, and basic research, which is intended to contribute to the general body of knowledge.* d. *FOURTH: they go further: Once they have discovered an effect, scientists plan further research to test why, when, or for whom an effect works.* e. *FIFTH: psychologists make their work public: They submit their results to journals for review and respond to the opinions of other scientists* =MAKING WORK PUBLIC INVOLVES SHARING FINDINGS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH W POPULAR MEDIA (WHO MAY OR MAY NOT GET STORY RIGHT)

READING THE RESEARCH

•*READING THE RESEARCH* 1. *THIS SECTION WILL TEACH YOU HOWWW TO READ A JOURNAL ARTICLE

READING WITH PURPOSE: CHAPTERS AND REVIEW ARTICLES

•*READING WITH PURPOSE: CHAPTERS AND REVIEW ARTICLES* 1. *GET AN OVERVIEW!!! OF EACH!! BY READING EACH HEADING!!!!* 2. *WHEN READING THESE SOURCES, ASK YOURSELF THESE IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:* a. *QUESTION #1: WHAT IS THE ARGUMENT?* b. *QUESTION #2: WHAT IS THE EVIDENCE?* c. *QUESTION #3: WHAT IS THE PURPOSE/AUTHORS STANCE?* 3. *IN THESE, THE EVIDENCE!!!!! IS THE RESEARCH THAT THE AUTHOR REVIEWS!!!!!* How much previous research has been done? What have the results been? How strong are the results? What do we still need to know? 4. *WITH PRACTICE... YOULL BE ABLE TO...* =get better at reading efficiently. You'll learn to categorize what you read as argument or evidence, and you will be able to evaluate how well the evidence supports the argument.

READING WITH PURPOSE: EMPIRICAL JOURNAL ARTICLES

•*READING WITH PURPOSE: EMPIRICAL JOURNAL ARTICLES* 1. *DONTTTT READ EVERY WORD ARTICLES!!!!* a. *INSTEAD, READ WITH PURPOSE!!!!!!!* 2. *IN ORDER TO READ WITH PURPOSE, ASK YOURSELF THESE TWO QUESTIONS!!!!* a. *QUESTION #1: WHAT IS THE ARGUMENT??* b. *QUESTION #2: WHAT IS THE EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT THE ARGUMENT???* 3. *IN ORDER TO ANSWER THOSE QUESTIONS, DO THIS...* a. *FIRST: READ THE ABSTRACT* =EMPIRICAL ARTICLES ARE STORIES!!! FROM THE TRENCHES OF THE THEORY-DATA CYCLE!!!* =*THEREFORE, AN EMPIRICAL ARTICLE REPORTS ON THE DATA!!T HAT ARE GENERATED TO TEST A HYPOTHESIS!!! AND THE HYPOTHESIS IS FRAMED AS TEST OF A PARTICULAR THEORY b. *SECOND: SKIP TO END!!! OF INTRODUCTION!!! TO FIND THE GOALS!!! AND HYPOTHESES!!! OF THE STUDY* c. *THIRD: READ THE REST OF THE INTRO!!!* =TO LEARN MORE ABOUT THE THEORY!! THAT THE HYPOTHESES ARE TESTING -*ANOTHER PLACE TO FIND ARGUMENT:* FIRST PARAGRAPH OF THE DISCUSSION!! (where authors usually summarize) d. *FOURTH: LOOK AT METHOD!! AND RESULTS!! TO FIND EVIDENCE!!!!! *

RESEARCH IS BETTER THAN EXPERIENCE

•*RESEARCH IS BETTER THAN EXPERIENCE* 1. *CONSIDER THE EXAMPLE FOR A SCIENTIST SETTING UP AN EXPERIMENT THAT SETS UP A SYSTEMATIC COMPARISON THAT CONTROLSS!! CONFOUNDS* a. *WHAT THE EXPERIMENT WAS* =WANTED TO TEST WHETHER VENTING!!! MADE A PERSON LESS ANGRY -*GROUP 1:* DIDNT GET TO VENT. WAS INSTRUCTED TO SIT QUIETLY FOR 2 MINS -*GROUP 2:* KINDA GOT TO VENT. INSTRUCTED TO PUNCH A PUNCHING BAG -*GROUP 3:* INSTRUCTED TO PUNCH A PUNCHING BAG W STEVES FACE ON IT. b. *HYPOTHESIS: GROUP 3!! SHOULDVE CALMED DOWN THE MOST* c. *RESULTS: GROUP 1 WHO DIDNT GET TO VENT SHOWED THE LEAST ANGER AFTERWARDS!!!!* =WHILE GROUP 3 WHO GOT TO VENT SHOWED THE MOSTTT ANGER AFTERWARDS!! =People's anger subsided more quickly when they sat in a room quietly than if they tried to vent it d. *NOTICE THE POWER OF SYSTEMATIC COMPARISON ABOVE!!!* 2. *RESEARCHERS CAN ALSO CONTROL!! FOR POTENTIAL CONFOUNDS* a. *RESEARCH IS BETTER THAN EXPERIENCE BC YOU CAN USE DIFFERENT MULTIPLE STUDIES TO TEST THE THEORY TO FIND A MORE SUPPORTED ANSWER*

RESEARCH PRODUCERS VS RESEARCH CONSUMERS

•*RESEARCH PRODUCERS VS RESEARCH CONSUMERS* 1. *RESEARCH PRODUCERS* a. *ARE PRODUCERS!!! OF RESEARCH* =ARE FASCINATED BY RESEARCH PROCESS b. *JOBS THEY TYPICALLY DO* -STUDYING BRAIN ANATOMY -DOCUMENTING BEHAVIOR -ADMINISTERING PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRES -OBSERVING CHILDREN -ANALYZING DATA AND -WRITING UP THEIR RESULTS!!! AND PRESENT THEM AT RESEARCH MEETINGS -*EXAMPLE CAREERS INCLUDE:* SCIENTISTS/PROFESSORS 2. *RESEARCH CONSUMERS* a. *ARE PEOPLE WHO ARE INTERESTED IN BEING CONSUMERS!! OF RESEARCH!!* =RATHER THAN CONDUCTING IT b. *ARE PEOPLE WHO MAY NOT WANNA WORK IN LABS* =HOWEVER, THEY DO ENJOY STUDYING STRUCTURE OF BRAIN!!! OR BEHAVIOR OF ANIMALS, PERSONALITIES OF STUDENTS =THEY CONSUME RESEARCH IN ORDER TO APPLY IT TO THEIR WORK!!!!!, HOBBIES, RELATIONSHIPS, OR PERSONAL GROWTH -*EXAMPLE CAREERS INCLUDE:* family therapists, teachers, entrepreneurs, guidance counselors, or police officers, and they expect psychology courses to help them in these roles. 3. *MANY PSYCHOLOGIST ENGAGE IN BOTTHHHH ROLES!!!!* a. *THEY CAN PLAN NEW RESEARCH/CREATE NEW KNOWLEDGE WHILEEEEE!!!! STUDYING THE WORK OF OTHERS!!!* b. *PSYCHOLOGISTS IN BOTH!!! ROLES #1: REQUIRE CURIOSITY!!! ABOUT BEHAVIOR, EMOTION, AND COGNITION!!!!* c. *PSYCHOLOGISTS IN BOTH ROLES #2: SHARE A COMMITMENT TO A PRACTICE OF EMPIRICISM!!!!!* =AKA to answer psychological questions with direct, formal observations, and to communicate with others about what they have learned.

SCIENTISTS ARE EMPIRICISTS

•*SCIENTISTS ARE EMPIRICISTS* 1. *DEFINITION OF EMPIRICISM (EMPIRICAL METHOD OR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH)* a. *DEFINITION: INVOLVES USING EVIDENCE!!! FORM THE SENSES!!! (SIGHT/TOUCH/HEARING/SMELL) OR!!!! FROM INSTRUMENTS!! THAT ASSIST!!!!!! THE SENSES!!! (SUCH AS THERMOMETERS, PHOTOS, TIMERS, WEIGHT SCALES, QUESTIONNAIRES) AS THE BASIS FOR THEIR CONCLUSIONS!!!* b. *EMPIRICISTS DO NOTTTTTT base conclusions on intuition, on casual observations of their own experience, or on what other people say!* 2. *THE AIM!!! OF EMPIRICISTS* a. *AIM: TO BE SYSTEMATIC!!!!!, RIGOROUS!!!!!, AND TO MAKE THEIR WORK INDEPENDENTLY!!! VERIFIABLE!!1 BY OTHER OBSERVERS!! OR SCIENTISTS!!* ------------------------------------------- (in chapter 2, you will learn more about why empiricism is considered the most reliable basis for conclusions when compared with other forms of reasoning, such as expe- rience or intuition. For now, we'll focus on some of the practices in which empiricists engage.)

SCIENTISTS TACKLE APPLIED!!! AND BASIC!!! PROBLEMS

•*SCIENTISTS TACKLE APPLIED!!! AND BASIC!!! PROBLEMS* =THE EMPIRICAL METHOD CAN BE USED FOR APPLIED AND BASIC RESEARCH Q'S 1. *APPLIED RESEARCH* a. *DEFINITION: APPLIED RESEARCH IS RESEARCH DONE WITH A PRACTICAL PROBLEM IN MIND!!!!* =RESEARCHERS CONDUCT THEIR WORK IN A PARTICULAR REAL WORLD CONTEXT!! b. *CONSIDER THE EXAMPLE!!!!* =AN APPLIED RESEARCH STUDY MAY ASK: IF A SCHOOLS DISTRICT'S NEW METHOD OF TEACHING LANGUAGE ARTS IS WORKING BETTER THAN THE FORMER ONE =It might test the efficacy of a treatment for depres- sion in a sample of trauma survivors. c. *WHAT APPLIED RESEARCHERS MIGHT BE LOOKING FOR: better ways to identify those who are likely to do well at a particular job, and so on.* 2. *BASIC RESEARCH* a. *DEFINITION: GOAL OF BASIC RESEARCH IS ENHANCE!!!!! THE GENERAL BODY OF KNOWLEDGE!!!* =IN OPPOSITION TO ADDRESSING A SPECIFIC, PRACTICAL PROBLEM!!! (IN APPLIED RESEARCH) b. *EXAMPLES OF THINGS BASIC RESEARCHERS WANNA KNOW* -IE: understand the structure of the visual system, the capacity of human memory, the motivations of a depressed person, or the limitations of the infant attachment system. c. *BASIC RESEARCHERS DO NOTTTTTTTT JUST GATHER FACTS AT RANDOM....* =the knowledge they generate may be applied to real-world issues later on. 3. *TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH* a. *DEFINITION: IS THE USE!!! OF LESSONS FROMMMM BASIC RESEARCH!!! TO DEVELOP!!! AND TEST!!!! APPLICATIONS (for health care, psychotherapy, or other forms of treatment and inter- vention)* b. *WHAT TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH REPRESENTS!!!!!!: A DYNAMIC!! BRIDGE!!!! FROM BASIC!! TO APPLIED!!! RESEARCH* -IE: basic research on the biochemistry of cell membranes might be translated into a new drug for schizophrenia -IE: basic research on how mindful- ness changes people's patterns of attention might be translated into a study skills intervention -------------------------------------- 4. *THE INTERRELATIONSHIP!!!! OF ALL THREE TYPES OF RESEARCH* SHOWN IN ATTACHED PICTURE!!! Basic researchers may not have an applied context in mind AND applied researchers may be less familiar with basic theories and principles Translational researchers attempt to translate the findings of basic research into applied areas.

SCIENTISTS TALK TO THE WORLD: FROM JOURNAL TO JOURNALISM

•*SCIENTISTS TALKING TO THE WORLD: FROM JOURNAL TO JOURNALISM* 1. *ONE GOAL OF THIS TEXTBOOK: INFORM US ON HOW TO INTERROGATE!!! INFORMATION!!!! ABOUT PSYCHOLOGICAL!!! SCIENCE!!! (IN BOTH MAINSTREAM SOURCES AND SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS)* 2. *DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS VS MAINSTREAM SOURCES* a. *PSYCH SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS....* =Psychology's scientific journals are read primarily by other scientists and by psychology students; the general public almost never reads them b. *MAINSTREAM SOURCES/JOURNALISM...* =includes the kinds of news and com- mentary that most of us read or hear on television, in magazines and newspa- pers, and on Internet sites—articles in Psychology Today and Men's Health, topical blogs, relationship advice columns, and so on. =These sources are usually written by journalists or laypeople, not scientists, and they are meant to reach the general public; they are easy to access, and understanding their content does not require specialized education.!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 3. *HOW THE MEDIA FINDS OUT ABOUT THE LATEST SCIENTIFIC FINDINGS AND TURNS IT INTO A STORY OF THEIR OWN* a. *THEY READ IT IN A SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL OR BY HEARING IT FROM OTHER SCIENTISTS* b. *THEY PRODUCE A SUMMARY!!! OF THEIR FINDINGS* =AKA ITS IN THEIR OWN WORDS!! AND =SOEMTIEMS THEIR OWN OPINION IS USED c. *THEY GIVE IT AN INTERESTING HEADLINE!! TO APPEAL TO POPULAR AUDIENCE* -IE: he journal article by Mrazek and his colleagues on the effect of mindfulness on GRE scores was summarized by a journalist in the magazine Scientific American (Nicholson, 2013).

THE 5 TYPES OF BIASES!!!: THE PRESENT/PRESENT BIAS

•*THE PRESENT/PRESENT BIAS* 1. *DEFINITION OF PRESENT/PRESENT BIAS: THE FAILURE TO CONSIDER APPROPRIATE COMPARISON GROUPS!!!!* a. *THIS BIAS PREVENTS US FROM SEEING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EVENT!!!!! AND ITS OUTCOME!!!!!!!!* =AKA FORGETS TO SEEK OUT INFO THAT ISNTTT THERE!! -IE: When deciding if there's a pattern, for example, between bleeding a patient and the patient's recov- ery, or between using kinesio-tape and feeling better -IE: SHERLOCK HOLMES SOLVES A CRIME BC HE DOESNTTT HAVE PRESENT/PRESENT BIAS. a horse is stolen and they noticed a dog didnt bark all night. sherlock suggests that horse was stolen by someone who the dog was familiar w 2. *THE AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC BIAS!!!!!!!!! PLAYS A ROLE!!!!!! IN PRESENT/PRESENT BIAS!!!!* a. *THATS BC INSTANCES!! IN THE PRESENT/PRESENT

SCIENTISTS TEST THEORIES: THE THEORY DATA CYCLE

•*SCIENTISTS TEST THEORIES: THE THEORY DATA CYCLE* 1. *THE THEORY DATA CYCLE* a. *DEFINITION: IN THEY THEORY DATA CYCLE, SCIENTISTS COLLECT DATA TO TEST,/CHANGE/OR UPDATE!!! THEIR THEORIES!!!* =THEY TEST IDEAS AND HUNCHES OF THEIR OWN BY ASKING SPECIFIC QUESTIONS THAT ARE GROUNDED IN THEORY, MAKING REFLECTIONS, AND REFLECTING ON DATA!!! 2. *CONSIDER THE EXAMPLE: you wanna check on the weather so you open your weather app. the weather app appears to not be working bc no numbers are showing up. do other apps work? you check your apps to find that the ones that use wifi are the only ones that arent working. so you ask your sister if the wifi is working for her. she says YES so you restart your OWN device's wifi* a. *BY DOING THAT, YOU!!! WERE OPERATING UNDER THE THEORY DATA CYCLE!!!!!* -*FIRST:* YOU ASKED A PARTICULAR SET OF QUESTIONS!!! (such as is it my phone thats not working? or is it the wifi router?) THE QUESTIONS REFLECTED!!! YOUR THEORY!!! ABOUT HOW SUCH DEVICES WORK. . Your theory set you up to ask certain questions and not others. -*NEXT:* YOUR QUESTIONS LED YOU TO SPECIFIC PREDICTIONS!!! WHICH U TESTED BY COLLECTING DATA You tested your first idea about the problem (My device can't run any apps) by making a specific prediction (If I test any application, it won't work). -*THEN:* YOU SET UP A SITUATION!!! TO TEST YOUR PREDICTION (aka checking if your other apps work). THE DATA SHOWED THAT OTHER APPS DO WORK!!! WHICH SHOWED THAT YOUR INITIAL PREDICTION WAS WRONG!!!! THAT YOUR PHONE ISSSS WORKING AND ISNT BROKEN. -*NEXT:* YOU USE THAT OUTCOME TO CHANGE YOUT IDEA ABOUT THE PROBLEM (that its the apps that require wifi that are the ones that arent working) ETC ETC b. *OVERALL, THESE SYSTEMATIC!!!!!!!!!! STEPS USED TO SOLVE A PROBLEM ARE SIMILAR TO WHAT SCIENTISTS DO IN THE THEORY DATA CYCLE!!!!!!!*

THE BENEFITS OF BEING A GOOD CONSUMER

•*THE BENEFITS OF BEING A GOOD CONSUMER* 1. *ALLOWS YOU TO REALLY SEE WHAT REALLY WORKS/DOESNT WORK ORRR WHATS TRUE/FALSE* -IE: THE TV SHOWE SCARED STRAIGHT!!!! MAY SEEM TO WORK BUT NO EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE SUPPORTS IT a. *CAN SAVE YOU TIME!!! AND WORK!!!!* -IE: IF YOURE A THERAPIST, YOU CAN SEE WHICH METHODS WORK AND DOESNT AND APPLY THAT TO UR PATIENTS -IE: UR A STUDENT AND YOU HEAR A STUDY THAT MINDFULNESS CAN IMPROVE TEST SCORES!!! EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE CONFIRMS IT BY SAYING: Michael Mrazek and his colleagues assigned people to take either a 2-week mindfulness training course or a 2-week nutrition course (Mrazek, Franklin, Philips, Baird, & Schooner, 2013). At the end of the training, only the people who had practiced mindfulness showed improved GRE scores (compared to their scores beforehand). 2. *OVERALL: IT Your skills in research methods will help you become a better consumer of studies like this one, so you can decide when the research supports some programs (such as mindfulness for study skills) but not others (such as Scared Straight for criminal behavior).* ---------------------------------------------------- CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING! 1. Explain what the consumer of research and producer of research roles have in common, and describe how they differ. 2. Whatkindsofjobswoulduseconsumer-of-researchskills?Whatkindsof jobs would use producer-of-research skills?

THE 5 TYPES OF BIASES!!!: THE BIAS BLIND SPOT

•*THE BIAS BLIND SPOT* 1. *DEFINITION OF BIAS BLIND SPOT: THE BELIEF!!!! THAT WE ARE UNLIKELY!!! TO FALL PREY!!! TO THE OTHER BIASES PREVIOUSLY DESCRIBED!!!* a. *MOST OF US THINK WE'RE LESS BIASED THAN OTHERS* =so when we notice our own view of a situation is different from that of somebody else, we conclude that "I'm the objective one here" and "you are the biased one." 2. *CONSIDER THE STUDY: OF US AIRPORT TRAVELERS* a. *THE STUDY: IN A US AIRPORT, MOST PEOPLE SAID THE AVERAGE AMERICAN IS SO MUCH MORE BIASED THAN THEMSELVES* -IE: the travelers said that while most others would take personal credit for successes, the travelers themselves would not. 3. *THIS BIAS MAY BE THE SNEAKIEST!!! OF ALL THE BIASES!!! IN HUMAN THINKING* a. *MAKES US TRUST OUR FAULTY REASONING EVEN MORE* b. *IN ADDITION, IT CAN MAKE IT DIFFICULT TO INITIATE THE THEORY-DATA CYCLE* WE might say, "I don't need to test this conclusion; I already know it is correct." =PART OF SCIENCE IS TO NOT USE FEELINGS OF CONFIDENCE AS EVIDENCE!!!! The bias blind spot might be the sneakiest of all of the biases in human thinking. It makes us trust our faulty rea- soning even more. In addition, it can make it difficult for us to initiate the scientific theory-data cycle. We might say, "I don't need to test this conclusion; I already know it is correct." Part of learning to be a scientist is learning not to use feelings of confidence as evidence for the truth of our beliefs. Rather than thinking what they want to, scientists use data.

AN EXAMPLE!!1 OF THE THEORY DATA IN ACTION!!: THE CUPBOARD THEORY!!! VS THE CONTACT COMFORT THEORY!!!

•*THE CUPBOARD THEORY!!! VS THE CONTACT COMFORT THEORY!!!* 1. *BACKGROUND: RESEARCHER HARLOW WANTS TO FIGURE OUT WHETHER AN INFANT'S ATTACHMENT TOWARD THEIR MOTHER IS SUPPORTED BY THE CUPBOARD THEORY MORE!! ORR THE CONTACT COMFORT THEORY MORE!!* a. *THE CUPBOARD THEORY* =A MOTHER IS VALUABLE TO AN INFANT MAMMAL BECAUSE SHE PROVIDES FOOD AKA SOMETHING THATS ASSOCIATED W PLEASURE b. *CONTACT COMFORT THEORY* =A MOTHER IS VALUABLE TO AN INFANT BECAUSE OF THEIR COMFORT OF A COZY THOUGH 2. *HARLOW SET UP AN EXPERIMENT!!!* a. *WHAT THE EXPERIMENT CONSISTS OF* =A BABY MONKEY WHOS NEVER HAD CONTACT WITH A MOTHER BEFORE IS PLACED INTO A CHAMBER WITH TWO ARTIFICIAL MOTHERS. -*FIRST ARTIFICIAL MOTHER:* MADE OF WIRE/NO COMFORT AND GIVES MILK/FOOD!! -*SECOND ARTIFICIAL MOTHER:* MADE OF FUZZY CLOTH AND HEAT BULB. NOO FOOD GIVEN BY THIS MOTHER b. *TESTS 3!!!! POSSIBLE OUTCOMES* =IF BABY SPENDS MORE TIME W 1ST MOTHER, IT WOULD SUPPORT THE CUPBOARD THEORY =IF BABY SPENDS MORE TIME W 2ND MOTHER, IT WOULD SUPPORT THE COMFORT THEORY =IF BABY SPENDS EQUAL!!1 TIME, NEITHER THEORY WOULD BE SUPPORTED 3. *RESULTS: BABY MONKEY SPENT AN OVERWHELMING!!! TIME WITH CLOTH MOTHER, SUPPORTING!!! THE COMFORT THEORY!!!* =SPENT 12-18 HOURS W CLOTH MOTHER AND ONLY WENT TOWARD OTHER MOTHER FOR FOOD 4. *TAKEAWAY: Harlow used the two theories to make two specific predictions about how the monkeys would interact with each mother. Then he used the data he recorded (how much time the monkeys spent on each mother) to support only one of the theories. The theory-data cycle in action!*

THE INTUITIVE THINKER VS THE SCIENTIFIC REASONER

•*THE INTUITIVE THINKER VS THE SCIENTIFIC REASONER* 1. *WHEN WE THINK INTUITIVELY > SCIENTIFICALLY, WE MAKE MISTAKES* =Because of our biases, we tend to notice and actively seek information that confirms our ideas. 2. *IN ORDER TO COUNTERACT OUR BIASES, WE MUST TRY TO ADOPT THE EMPIRICAL MINDSET OF THE RESEARCHER* a. *RECALL: empiricism involves basing beliefs on systematic information FROMMM THE SENSES!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!* =To be an empiricist, you must also strive to interpret the data you collect in an objective way; you must guard against common biases. b. *In short, while research- ers are not perfect reasoners themselves, they have trained themselves to guard against the many pitfalls of intuition—and they draw more accurate conclusions as a result.*

SCIENTISTS MAKE IT PUBLIC: THE PUBLICATION PROCESS

•*THE PUBLICATION PROCESS OF A SCIENTIST* 1. *SCIENTISTS SUBMIT!!! THEIR WORK!! TO A JOURNAL!!!!!!!!!!! WHENEVER THEY WANT TO TELL THE SCIENTIFIC WORLD ABOUT THE RESULTS!! OF THEIR RESEARCH* (THEY WRITE A PAPER AND THEN SUBMIT IT TO A JOURNAL) a. *DIFFERENCE OF POPULAR JOURNALS VS SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS = SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS ARE PEER REVIEWED!!!!!!!!!!!* -*HOW THINGS ARE PEER REVIEWED:* The journal editor sends the submission to three or four experts on the subject. The experts tell the editor about the work's virtues and flaws, and the editor, considering these reviews, decides whether the paper deserves to be published in the journal. 2. *THE PEER REVIEW PROCESS IN THE FIELD OF PSYCH IS RIGOROUS!!!!!!!!!!!* a. *PEER REVIEWERS ARE KEPT ANONYMOUS!!!!* -REASON: so even when the peer reviewer DOES know the author(s), they can give an honest assessment of reserach b. *GOAL/PURPOSE OF PEER REVIEWERS: TO ENSURE THAT THE ARTICLES PUBLISHED IN SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS CONTAIN INNOVATIVE!!!!!!! AND WELL DONE STUDIES!!!* -IE: THEY CAN SAY THINGS SUCH AS how interesting the work is, how novel it is, how well the research was done, and how clear the results ar c. *RESEARCHES WITH MAJOR FLAWS!!! DONTTT GET PUBLISHED (THANKS TO PEER REVIEW)* d. *PEER REVIEW PROCESS CONTINUES!!!! AFTERRR A STUDY IS PUBLISHED!!!* =Other scientists can cite an article and do further work on the same subject. 3. *ADDITIONALLY,Y SCIENTISTS WHO FIND FLAWS!! IN RESEARCH (perhaps overlooked by peer reviewers) CAN PUBLISH LETTERS!!!!!!!, COMMENTARIES, OR COMPETING STUDIES!!!!!* 4. *REASON TO PUBLISH WORK: scientists make the process of their research transparent, and the scientific community evaluates it.*

THE RESEARCH VS YOUR EXPERIENCE

•*THE RESEARCH VS YOUR EXPERIENCE* 1. *WHEN WE NEED TO DECIDE WHAT TO BELIEVE, OUR EXPERIENCES ARE POWERFUL!!! SOURCES OF INFO* -IE: "I've used tanning beds for 10 years. No skin cancer yet!" "My knee doesn't give out as much when I use kinesio-tape." "When I'm mad, I feel so much better after I vent my feelings online." 2. *TOO OFTEN, WE BASE!!!!! OUR OPINIONS!!!!!! ON OUR EXPERIENCES!!!!! OF FRIENDS AND FAMILY* -IE: U WANNA BUY A NEW CAR. YOU WANT THE MOST RELIABLE ONE SO U GOOGLE IT AND FIND CONSUMER REPORTS. BUUUUT THEN, YOU HEAR ABOUT YOUR COUSIN WHO SAYS THAT SAME CAR GOOGLE SAID IS GOOD, IS ALWAYS IN SHOP. =WHY SHOULDNT U TRUST UR OWN EXPERIENCE??

THE RESEARCH VS YOUR INTUITION

•*THE RESEARCH VS YOUR INTUITION* (ALL BACKGROUND INFO) 1. *TWO WAYS WE MIGHT REACH A CONCLUSION* a. *ONE: PERSONAL EXPERIENCE* b. *TWO: INTUITION* =AKA using our hunches about what seems "natural," or attempting to think about things "logically." While we may believe our intuition is a good source of information, it can lead us to make less effective decisions. •*WAYS INTUITION IS BIASED* 1. *HUMANS ARE NOT SCIENTIFIC THINKERS* a. *WE MIGHT BE AWARE THAT WE'RE BIASED BUT WE'RE OFTEN TOO BUSY TO NOTICE IT* b. *WE MAY NOT KNOW WE'RE BIASED*

FINDING RESEARCH IN LESS SCHOLARLY PLACES: THE RETAIL BOOKSHELF!!!

•*THE RETAIL BOOKSHELF!!!* AKA TRADE BOOKS 1. *BOOKS IN THE PSYCHOLOGY SECTION ARE USUALLY WRITTEN FOR A GENERAL AUDIENCE!!* a. *AKA ARE FOR PEOPLE WITHOUT A PSYCH DEGREE* b. *PURPOSE OF THEM: to help people, to inform, to entertain, and to make money for their authors.* 2. *ARE NOTTT SCIENTIFIC SOURCES* 3. *LANGUAGE IN THESE BOOKS ARE MUCH MORE READBALE!!!* 4. *HOW TO SEE IF THESE BOOKS ARE GOOD SOURCES: FLIP TO END OF BOOK TO FIND FOOTNOTES!!! OR REFERENCES!!!!* *=THESE BOOKS W REFERENCES R TYPICALLY WRITTEN BY PSYCOLOGISTS FOR A GENERAL AUDIENCE* a. *IF YOU CANT FIND FOOTNOTES/REFERENCES AT THE END, CONSIDER IT AS LIGHT ENTERTAINMENT!!!!!!!!!!!!*

THEORIES DON'T PROVE ANYTHING

•*THEORIES DON'T PROVE ANYTHING* 1. *THE WORD "PROVE" IS NEVERRRRRRRR USED IN SCIENCE* a. *AT MOST, RESEARCHERS WILL INSTEAD!!!!! SAY "SOME DATA SUPPORTS!!!!!!!!!!!!!! OR ARE CONSISTENT!!!!!!!! WITH!! A THEORY" ORRRR b. *RESEARCHERS WILL ALSO SAY "SOME DATA IS INCONSISTENT!!!!!!!!! OR COMPLICATES!!!! A THEORY* 2. *NNNOO SINGLE!! FINDING CAN PROVE A THEORY* =New information might require researchers, tomorrow or the next day, to change and improve current ideas. =Similarly, a single, disconfirming finding does not lead researchers to scrap a theory entirely. =The disconfirming study may itself have been designed poorly. Or perhaps the theory needs to be mod- ified, not discarded 3. *INSTEAD OF THINKING OF A THEORY AS PROVED OR DISPROVED, SCIENTISTS EVALUATE THEIR THEORY BASED ON THE WEIGHT OF THE EVIDENCE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! (FOR AND AGAINST)* -IE: Harlow's theory of attachment could not be "proved" by the single study involving wire and cloth mothers. His laboratory conducted dozens of individual studies to rule out alternative explanations and test the theory's limits.

TRUSTING AUTHORITIES ON THE SUBJECT

•*TRUSTING AUTHORITIES ON THE SUBJECT* 1. *JUST BC SOMEONE IS AN AUTHORITY, DOESNT MEAN THEY CAN BE TRUSTED* 2. *BEFORE TAKING THE ADVICE OF AUTHORITIES, MAKE SURE TO ASK URSELF THE SOURCE!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! OF THEIR IDEAS* a. *FOR EXAMPLE: Did the authority systematically and objectively compare different con- ditions, as a researcher would do? Or maybe they have read the research andare interpreting it for you; they might be practitioners who are basing their conclusions on empirical evidence* In this respect, an authority with a scientific degree may be better able to accurately understand and interpret scientific evi- dence -IE: A CELEBRITY!!! ACTRESS MAY SAY SHES HAD PERSONAL EXPERIENCE W VACCINES CAUSING AUTISM IN HER FAMILY. HOWEVERRR, A CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST W EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE SAYS THERES NNNOOOO LINK TO VACCINES AND AUTISM 3. *WHY NOT TO ALWAYS TRUST AUTHORITIES: THEYRE HUMAN. LIKE US, THEY CAN BASE THEIR CLAIM ON INTUITION AND EMOTION* a. *HOWEVER, IF THEYRE BASING THEIR RESEARCH OFF OF EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE, THEIR ADVICE MIGHT B WORTHY* 4. *ALSO, KEEP IN MIND THAT NOT ALL RESEARCH IS EQUALLY RELIABLE* a. *THE RESEARCH THEYYY CITE MAY NOT EVEN BE RELIABLE* ORR b. *THEIR RESEARCH SIMPLY COULDVE BEEN CONDUCTED POORLY*

FINDING SCIENTIFIC SOURCES: GOOGLE SCHOLAR

•*WHAT GOOGLE SCHOLAR IS* 1. *WORKS LIKE A REGULAR GOOGLE SEARCH ENGINE, BUT THE SEARCH RESULTS ARE ONLYYY IN THE FORM OF EMPIRICAL JOURNAL ARTICLES!!! AND SCHOLARLY BOOKS!!!* a. *USE ONLY IF U DONT HAVE ACCESS TO PSYCINFO!!!* 2. *VISIT THE "USER PROFILE" OF A PARTICULAR SCIENTIST TO SEE ALL OF THEIR PUBLICATIONS!!!* =THE USER PROFILE LIST IS UPDATED AUTOMATICALLY!!! =ALLOWS YOU TO SEE THEIR MOST RECENT WORK AND THEIR MOST CITED PUBLICATIONS!!! --------------------------------------------- •*DISADVANTAGES TO GOOGLE SCHOLAR* 1. *DOESNTTTTT LET YOU FILTER YOUR SEARCH TO SPECIFIC FIELDS* =SPECIFIC FIELDS AKA ABSTRAACT 2. *DOESNTTTTT CATEGORIZE THE ARTICLES!! IT FINDS* =AKA U CANT FILTER WHETHER ITS PEER REVIEWED OR NOT (WHILE PSYCINFO DOES) 3. *GOOGLE SCHOLAR CONTAINS ARTICLES FROM ALLLLLL DISCIPLINES* (IS NOT SPECIFIC TO PSYCHOLOGY) 4. *NOT ALL SOURCES CAN BE ACCESSED* a. *SOMETIMES YOU CAN DOWNLOAD A PDF FOR FREE* b. *IF NOT...* -U CAN SEE IF UR UNI OFFERS IT ORR -U CAN REQUEST THE ARTICLE THRU UR COLLEGES INTERLIBRARY LOAN OFFICE!!! ORR -U CAN VISIT AUTHORS UNIVERSITY HOME PAGE

FINDING SCIENTIFIC SOURCES: PSYCINFO

•*WHAT IT PSYCINFO IS* 1. *IS A SEARCH ENGINE!!! AND DATABASE!!!* a. *AKA A ONE COMPREHENSIVE!! TOOL!! FOR SORTING THROUGH A VAST NUMBER OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH ARTICLES!!!* b. *IS SIMILAR TO GOOGLE!!!* 2. *HOW OFTEN ITS UPDATED: MAINTAINED AND UPDATED WEEKLY!!!!!!!* =but instead of searching the Internet, it searches only sources in psychology, plus a few sources from related disciplines, including communication, marketing, and education. 3. *INCLUDES MORE THAN 2.5 MILLION RECORDS!!!* a. *MOST ARE PEER REVIEWED!!* --------------------------------------------- •*ADVANTAGES!! OF USING PSYCINFO* 1. *CAN SHOW YOU ALLLL!!! THE ARTICLES UNDER A SPECIFIC KEYWORD* a. *ALL THE ARTICLES!! WRITTEN BY A SINGLE AUTHOR!!!* -IE: BRAD BUSHMAN b. *UNDER A SINGLE KEYWORD!!!* -IE: AUTISM 2. *TELLS YOU WHETHER SOMETHING IS PEER REVIEWED!!!* 3. *SHOWS OTHER ARTICLES THAT HAVE CITED EACH TARGET ARTICLE!! (under cited by)! AND OTHER ARTICLES EACH TARGET ARTICLE HAS CITED (under references)* =If you've found a great article for your project in PsychINFO, the "cited by" and "references" lists can be helpful for finding more papers just like it. --------------------------------------------- •*DISADVANTAGES!!! OF PSYCINFO* 1. *YOU CANNOTTTTT USE IT UNLESS YOUR COLLEGE/UNIVERSITY SUBSCRIBES TO IT* 2. *YOU CAN ONLY FIND WHAT YOU NEED BY USING THE RIGHT KEY WORDS!!!* =SOMETIMES TOO MANY RESULTS WILL SHOW UP =SOMETIMES U CANT FIND WHAT UR LOOKING FOR BC WRONG SYNONYMS =*REFER TO PICTURE FOR GUIDE ON HOW!! TO DO IT RIGHT*

WHY THE CONSUMER ROLE IS IMPORTANT

•*WHY THE CONSUMER ROLE IS IMPORTANT* 1. *IT IS ESSENTIAL!!!!* a. *REASON #1: PRACTICING BEING A CONSUMER WILL DEVELOP YOUR ABILITY TO READ AND RESEARCH W CURIOSITY!!!!* =IN ORDER TO TRULY UNDERSTAND INFO, LEARN FROM IT, AND ASK APPROPRIATE!!!!!! QUESTIONS!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! ABOUT IT 2. *REASON #2: UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH (FROM REASON 1) ENABLES U TO ASK THE APPROPRIATE QUESTIONS!! IN ORDER TO PROPERLY EVALUATE THE INFORMATION CORRECTLY* a. *A LOT OF INFORMATION WE COME ACROSS DAILY IS PLAIN WRONG!!!!* =A LOT OF IT IS ALSO ACCURATE 3. *REASON #3: BEING A SMART CONSUMER OF RESEARCH CAN BE CRUCIAL!! TO UR FUTURE CAREER!!* a. *DOESNT ONLY APPLY TO BEING A RESEARCHER. OTHER CAREERS INCLUDE...* =a social worker, a teacher, a sales representative, a human resources professional, an entrepreneur, or a parenT =YOULL NEED TO KNOW HOW TO RESEARCH W A CRTIICAL EYE PERIOD! -IE: Clinical psychologists, social workers, and family therapists must read research to know which therapies are the most effective. b. *ADDITIONALLY, PROFESSIONALS W LICENSURE REQUIRES KNOWING THE RESEARCH BEHIND EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS!!!!!!!!!!!!* -*EVIDENCE-BASED TREATMENTS:* that is, therapies that are supported by research. -IE: W TEACHERS who also use research to find out which teaching methods work best. -IE: W BUSINESS PPL where the business world runs on quantitative information: Research is used to predict what sales will be like in the future , what consumers will buy, and whether investors will take risks or lie low. O