PSYCH 250: EXAM FOUR
Presbyopia
"Old eyes"
Presbycusis
"Old hearing"
Long-term partnerships in late adulthood
- 1 in 4 or marriages in the U.S. are expected to last 50+ years. - Marital satisfaction peaks in late adulthood. - Marital dissatisfaction is harder on women.
Individual differences in intellectual performance over time
- 45-60% stable well into their 70s. - 10-15% show increases until mid-70s. - ~30% show declines by their 60s.
Trends in parenthood
- 70% of couples chose to have children and 1 in 5 women (aged 40-44) remain childless. - Today, most parents are OLDER when they have their first child. - Family size has DECLINED dramatically in industrialized nations. *Average # of children in 1950 = 3.1 and in 2018 = 1.8.
What makes someone an adult (according to Arnett)?
- Accepting full responsibility for one's self. - Making independent decisions. - Becoming financially independent. - Parenthood? *Self-sufficiency is key!
Factors influencing the decision to retire
- Adequate retirement benefits - Compelling leisure interests - Low work commitment - Declining health - Spouse retiring - Routine, boring job
Hearing in midlife
- An estimated 14% of older adults suffer from age-related hearing loss. - Decline typically begins with a loss at high frequencies around 50. - Men's hearing declines earlier and at a faster rater than women's hearing.
Differences in death anxiety by age
- As young as age 2, children have some conception of death, but their perspective differs from adults. - Most children understand that biological functions end at death but believe that psychological functions (emotions) can continue past death. - A major shift in attitudes about death happens when adults become responsible for work and family. - Death anxiety DECREASES in late adulthood. A positive sign of mental health in older adults is acceptance of mortality.
Characteristics of a "good death"
- At the end of a long life - Peaceful - Quick - In familiar settings - With family and friends present - Without pain, confusion or discomfort
Advantages of MHT
- Believed to reduce risks of heart disease and osteoporosis (bone benefits). - Reduces hot flashes and vaginal dryness. - May help mood.
Generativity & employment in adulthood
- Besides parenthood and caregiving, the other avenue for generativity is employment. - With unemployment, generative needs are unmet, which increases the rate of domestic abuse, substance use disorder, depression and many other social & mental health problems.
Skeleton in midlife
- Bone loss begins in late 30s and accelerates in 50s, especially among women. - Loss of collagen leads to wrinkles. - Starting at 35, hair thins and begins to turn gray.
Changes in intelligences over time
- CRYSTALLIZED Intelligence INCREASES throughout middle adulthood. - FLUID Intelligence begins to DECLINE in the early 20s.
Menopause
- Cessation of menstruation and reproductive capability. - No period for 12 consecutive months. - Average age = 51 - Range of ages = 42-58
Changes that parenthood brings
- Changes in identity, roles, relationships and responsibilities. - Roles become MORE traditional after the birth of first child and LESS traditional with second child. - Parenthood can strain a troubled marriage.
Factors that affect parental adjustment following birth
- Combining work and family - Social support - Division of labor - Marital happiness during pregnancy - Child's temperament
Types of grief
- Complicated grief - Absent grief - Disenfranchised grief - Incomplete grief
How death has changed in the last 100 years
- Death occurs later - Dying takes longer - Death often occurs in hospitals - Causes of death have changed - Beliefs on after death
Reversible NCDs
- Depression - Malnutrition - Polypharmacy
Psychosocial needs of adult development that employment provides
- Develop and use personal skills - Express creative energy - Aid and advice coworkers, as mentor or friend - Support the education and health of their families - Contribute to the community by providing goods or services
Social theories of aging
- Disengagement Theory - Activity Theory - Continuity Theory - Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
Factors related to individual differences in cognitive development over time
- Education - Work & lifestyle - Health status (ex: chronic illness, exercise)
Vanderwater & Stewart (1997)
- Examined the impact of social clocks on college women. - 'Feminine' social clock = responsible, self-controlled & caring BUT lower self-esteem over time. - 'Masculine' social clock = dominant, sociable and independent over time. - Women NOT on a social clock (meaning they were neither married or had a stable career by age 30) were doing especially poorly.
Consequences of obesity & inactivity in midlife
- Excess body fat increases the risk of almost every chronic disease. - There are both psychological and physical consequences of obesity.
Predictors of marital satisfaction and marital success
- Family backgrounds - Age at marriage - Length of courtship - Cohabitation before marriage - Timing of first pregnancy - Relationship to extended family - Income and education level - Personality characteristics *Satisfaction of family life is the best indicator of well-being throughout the lifespan.
Why does marital satisfaction peak in late adulthood?
- Fewer stressful responsibilities and increased financial security. - Fairness in household tasks. - Joint leisure activities. - Emotional understanding and emotional regulation.
Factors that affect the decision to have children
- Financial circumstances - Personal and religious values - Biological and health conditions
Marital happiness over the years
- First 6 months: honeymoon period - happiest of all. - 6 months - 5 years: happiness dips, divorce is common, usual time for birth of first child. - 5 - 10 years: happiness holds steady. - 10 - 20 years: happiness dips as children reach puberty. - 20 - 30 years: happiness rises when children leave the nest. - 30 - 50 years: happiness is high and steady, barring serious health problems.
Factors that promote psychological well-being in midlife
- Good health and exercise - Sense of control - Personal life investment - Positive social relationships - A good marriage - Mastery of multiple roles
Individual differences in death anxiety
- Having faith in a higher power leads to less death anxiety overall. - Holding a certain belief but not wholeheartedly believing in it does NOT lead to less death anxiety.
Physical symptoms of menopause
- Hot flashes & night sweats - Weight gain, headaches, changes in sexual responsiveness, joint & muscle pain, fatigue
Relationships with grandchildren in late adulthood
- In the U.S., 85% of individuals are grandparents by age 70.
Disadvantages of MHT
- Increased likelihood of heart attack, stroke, blood clots and cancer. - Susceptibility of cognitive declines and Alzheimer's.
Characteristics of expert thought
- Intuitive - Automatic - Strategic - Flexible
Parental response to "launching" is affected by:
- Investment in non-parental roles and relationships - Child's characteristics - Parents' marital and economic circumstances - Cultural forces *This transition will be easier if: - Parent-child contact and affection is maintained - Parents did a good job of fostering independence in their children - Parents think they did a good parenting job
Does intellectual performance decline with age?
- It DEPENDS on which mental abilities you are talking about (fluid vs. crystallized intelligences). - It DEPENDS on how you measure it (cross-sectionally vs. longitudinally). - It DEPENDS on individual lifestyles (individual differences in education, health status, etc.).
MIDUS Study
- Large, multidisciplinary study of midlife in North America. - Found that agreeableness and conscientiousness INCREASE slightly overall whereas neuroticism tends to DECREASE over time.
Relationships with friends in late adulthood
- Life satisfaction in old age is tied more closely to friendships than to contact with younger relatives. - QUALITY (not quantity) is critical. - One close friend can act as a buffer in late life.
Factors influencing the decision to NOT retire
- Limited or no retirement benefits - Few leisure interests - High work commitment - Good health - Spouse working - Flexible work schedule - Pleasant, stimulating work
Long-term & selective memory in late adulthood
- Long-term memory for words remains intact over time. Vocabulary increases until age 80+. - Memory remains good for information relating to a person's area of expertise and emotional events. - More recent and remote autobiographical events are easier to recall than intermediate events.
Disadvantages of having children
- Loss of freedom - Financial drain - Role overload - Interferes with career - Worries (ex: health, well-being) - Less time with partner
Examples of IADLs
- Managing medical care - Food preparation - Maintaining household
U-shaped curve
- Marital satisfaction is high during the honeymoon period of marriage, then begins to decrease with childrearing - at its lowest point when kids are in adolescence. - Later in life, satisfaction begins to increase again (after kids leave the house).
Challenges associated with aging (READING #9)
- Memory loss - Serious illness - Loneliness - Financial troubles - No longer being able to drive - Being a burden to others *The proportion of younger and middle-aged adults who reported expecting to encounter such issues is much higher than the proportion of older adults who reported actually experiencing them.
Division of labor in marriage
- Men in dual-earner marriages do more childcare today - almost 85% as much as women. - Women do more housework (cooking, cleaning, etc.).
Factors associated with cognitive change in late adulthood
- Mentally active life - Health - Social engagement - Time until death
Current trends in marriage
- Moe than 90% will make a marriage-like commitment at some point. - Compared to in the past, men and women are waiting longer to get married. - Today more people stay single, cohabitate or do NOT remarry after divorce. - A satisfying marriage improves health, wealth and happiness.
Variations in aging in terms of SES
- Money and education are protective when it comes to health and aging. - SES is associated with health and longevity. - People in rich countries live longer than people in poor countries.
What is being enjoyed in terms of aging (READING #9)
- More time with family - More time for hobbies - More financial security - Not having to work - More respect - Less stress - More time to travel - More time to do volunteer work
Adjusting to retirement
- Most elderly retirement as a time of opportunity and describe themselves as active and socially involved. - Some adjustment difficulties. - Many retirees rejoin the workforce (part-time) within a year of retirement. - 30% report
Characteristics of successful aging
- Optimism & sense of self-efficacy - Selective optimization with compensation - A strengthening self-concept - Emotional understanding & self-regulation - Acceptance of change & personal control - Spirituality & faith - High quality relationships
General health status at midlife
- Over 80% rate health as good or excellent. - Leading causes of death: cancer and cardiovascular disease. - More chronic disease than in early childhood. - Rates of morbidity and mortality rising among middle-aged whites in America.
Perception of time & social goals late in life
- Perception of TIME plays a crucial role in our selection of social goals. - Social preferences in old age (or when death seems near) are an active adaptation to shrinking longevity. - When days are numbered, we choose social connectedness and emotional depth in relationships.
Generativity in stepparents
- Previous living arrangements affect the relationship between child and stepparent, and this change is always disruptive to children. - Eventually, adults may form a well-functioning, generative family, but it's not easy.
Risk and protective factors of Alzheimer's Disease
- Protective factors: Mediterranean diet, education and an active lifestyle - EXERCISE. - Gender, ethnicity and age play a role in the onset of Alzheimer's Disease.
Hormonal changes during menopause
- Reduction in estrogen and progesterone. - Leads to decreased elasticity of skin, increased risk of heart disease, bon loss and osteoporosis.
Relationships with children in late adulthood
- Relationships with younger generations are generally positive but may include conflict. - Conflict is more likely in emotionally close relationships, like mother + daughter. - Assistance arises from need and ability to provide. - Contact depends on geographical proximity. - Love is influenced by childhood memories. - Sons feel stronger obligation whereas daughters feel stronger affection.
Same-sex partnerships
- Research on same-sex unions is limited, but this is changing. - Factors that contribute to happiness in heterosexual marriages do so in same-sex partnerships. - Couples fight over the same issues, like money and kids.
Social Convoy throughout life
- Research reveals that the size of social networks and amount of social interaction DECLINE in late adulthood. - BUT the elderly report being MORE satisfied and LESS depressed compared to younger adults.
Lauer et al., 1995: asked couples married 40+ years 'what's their secret'?
- See spouse as best friend - View marriage as a long-term commitment - Like one's spouse as a person - Shared goals and dreams - Lots of laughter
Difficulties with adjustment to retirement
- Sense of personal control - Financial worries - Workplace factors - Spouse influence - Social support
Symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease
- Severe memory lapses - Personality changes - Anxiety - Aggressive outbursts - Social withdrawal - Depression
Changes in cognitive functioning in late adulthood
- Speed of processing declines with age, meaning slower reaction times and attention. - The amount of information retained in working memory declines from 20s - 60s. The nature of this decline depends on the TYPE of memory. - Control processes that help us think clearly (memory & retrieval strategies, selective attention, storage mechanisms, logical analysis) decline with age. - Elderly show more tip-of-the-tongue forgetfulness, less accuracy for names and poorer spelling than young adults.
What happens to the brain with Alzheimer's Disease?
- Structural changes - the brain gets smaller. - Presence of neurofibrillary tangles and beta-amyloid plaques.
Brain in midlife
- The brain slows down with age. Brain size decrease with fewer neurons in adulthood than in adolescence. - While myelination is reduced in some places (leading to slowed reaction times), new nodes develop in other parts of the brain.
Psychological impact of menopause
- The popular assumption is that menopause is a time of crisis is WRONG. - Women today have fewer children, meaning that menopause may not be as major of a change. - Most women report their symptoms to be 'minor'. - Individual experience is tied to beliefs & expectations, cultural attitudes & interpretation of event.
Childfree-by-Choice
- The voluntary choice to not have children. - The term 'childfree' is used instead of 'childless' which has negative connotations.
Criticisms of the use of cross-sectional designs to understand aging
- These studies do not allow for the study of intra-individual change. - Also susceptible to cohort effects resulting from changes in education, work/technology and health.
Generativity in adoptive parents
- This is the easiest form of nonbiological parenting. - Adoptive children are much wanted, so parents are ready to sacrifice their own needs to be generative to the child. - Strong parent-child attachments are often evident with adoption, especially when the child is adopted as an infant. - Adopted children who spend their early years in an institution make child rearing more problematic for adoptive parents.
Generativity in foster parents
- This is the most difficult form of parenting. - Individuals usually become foster parents out of an adult generativity impulse. - Generative attachment can develop between foster parent and child, especially in a stable family.
Life expectancy
- Today, the average life expectancy was more than 78 years in the U.S. - Women live 4-7 years longer than men. - SES, ethnicity and nationality all influence life expectancy.
Major findings from Pew Research Center on families (READING #8)
- Two-parent households are on the decline in the U.S. as divorce, remarriage and cohabitation are on the rise. - Families are smaller now, due to both the growth of single-parent households and a decrease in fertility rates. - There is no longer one dominant family form. - Black children and those with less educated parents are less likely to be living in two-parent households. - Parents today are far less likely to be married than they were in the past, but they are more likely to be older and have more education. - Family life has been majorly affected by the increase of mothers moving back into the workforce. - More than ever before, women are playing the role of breadwinner.
Advantages of having children
- Warmth and affection - It's fun - Community status - Gives meaning to life - Immortality - Creativity and sense of accomplishment - Personal growth
Compatibility and conflict in relationships
- We pick partners who are similar to us, in terms of age, education, SES, ethnicity, religion, attitudes, personality, intelligence, physical attractiveness, etc. - COMPATIBILITY: opposites do NOT attract. - CONFLICT: emotional sensitivity and communication are key when couples disagree.
Cultural variations of beliefs of death
- We think of and respond to death in a variety of ways. - Cultural customs and attitudes guide us.
Theories of aging
- Wear & Tear Theory - Genetic Adaptation - Cellular Aging
Weight/body dimensions in midlife
- Weight gain occurs as the metabolism slows. - Fat tends to accumulate on the torso. *MEN: upper abdomen and back & WOMEN: waist and upper arms.
Death of a spouse
- Widows make up 1/3 of the elderly population in the U.S. - A majority of these widows are women, since women tend to outlive men. - Few women remarry and most live alone. Men are much more likely to remarry. - Death of a spouse is MORE difficult for men. - Loneliness is the most profound change in the aftermath of loss.
Neurological disorders
- ~1 in 20 adults in their 70s experience an NCD with the rate rising sharply after age 80.
Gottman's Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
1. Criticism 2. Contempt 3. Defensiveness 4. Stonewalling
Kubler-Ross's 5 stages of dying
1. Denial - "I'm not really dying" 2. Anger - "I blame doctors [or family or God] for my death" 3. Bargaining - "I will be good from now on if I can live" 4. Depression - "I don't care about anything; nothing matters anymore" 5. Acceptance - "I accept death as part of life"
Two principles that characterize hospice care
1. Each patient's autonomy is respected. Decisions are made by the patient, not administrators. 2. Family members and friends are counseled before the death, taught to provide care and guided in mourning. Death is thought to happen to a family, not just an individual.
Peck's 3 tasks of ego integrity
1. Ego differentiation vs. Work-role preoccupation 2. Body transcendence vs. Body preoccupation 3. Ego transcendence vs. Ego preoccupation
3 main findings from Schaie's Seattle Longitudinal Study
1. Five factors (fluid & crystallized) showed gains in early & middle childhood. 2. Perceptual speed (a fluid skill) decreased from 20s - late 80s. 3. Late in life, fluid factors show greater decrements than crystallized factors.
3 main consequences to believing negative stereotypes of aging
1. If younger adults treat older people as if they are frail and confused, the treatment itself makes the elderly become more dependent. 2. If professionals believe that the norm for young people should apply to everyone, they may try to make older people behave as younger adults do. If they fail, they give up. 3. If older adults themselves focus on what they have lost instead of what they have gained, they lose the joy of old age.
Modern families
69% of children aged 6-11 are in two-parent families. - Nuclear - Stepfamilies - Adoptive - Grandparents alone - Same sex 28% live in single parent families - Single mom - Single dad - Grandparent alone 5% in family with more than two adults - Extended family - Polygamous family
Parkinson's Disease
A chronic, progressive disease that is characterized by muscle tremor and rigidity and sometimes major NCD, caused by reduced dopamine production in the brain.
Elderspeak
A condescending way of speaking to other adults that resembles baby talk. Characteristics: - Simple and short sentences - Exaggerated emphasis - Repetition - Slower rate and higher pitch
Lewy Body Disease
A form of major NCD characterized by an increase in Lewy body cells in the brain. Symptoms include visual hallucinations, momentary loss of attention, falling, and fainting.
Diversity of reactions to death
A longitudinal study of widows and widowers found that grief varies in both DURATION and DEPTH. Found four major trends: 1. 66% were resilient 2. 10% were happier after the death than before 3. 15% were chronically depressed even before the death 4. 9% were slow-to-recover *this suggests that these individuals experienced complicated grief.
Social Homogamy
A marriage between two individuals that match in terms of certain criterion. **opposite of heterogamy, which refers to marriages between individuals that differ based on criterion.
The Social Convoy
A model of changes in our social networks as we move through life. - Think of this as a person traveling through life in the middle of a 'convoy' of ships - including friends, family, acquaintances and even strangers.
Life Review
A person recalls, reflect upon and reconsiders meaning of past experiences. - This is a form of reminiscence. - Such reminiscences are associated with higher self-esteem, improved life satisfaction and lower levels of depression in the elderly.
Ageism
A prejudice whereby people are categorized and judged solely on the basis of their chronological age.
Disenfranchised Grief
A situation in which certain people, although they are bereaved, are prevented from mourning publicly by cultural customs or social restrictions.
Polypharmacy
A situation in which elderly people are prescribed several medications. The various side effects and interactions of those medications result in symptoms typical of major NCD.
Midlife Crisis
A supposed period of unusual anxiety, radical self-examination and sudden transformation associated with middle age.
Complicated Grief
A type of grief that impedes a person's future life, usually because the person clings to sorrow or is buffeted by contradictory emotions.
Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs)
Actions that are important to independent living and require some intellectual competence and forethought. - The ability to perform these tasks may be even more critical to self-sufficiency than ADL ability. - IADLs vary from place to place, cohort to cohort.
Social Clock
Age-graded expectations for major life events, such as first job and marriage.
Hospice
An institution or program in which terminally ill patients receive palliative care to reduce suffering. Family and friends of the dying are helped as well.
Neurocognitive Disorder (NCD)
Any of the number of brain diseases that affect a person's ability to remember, analyze, plan or interact with other people.
Vision in midlife
Between 40 and 60, lens's ability to adjust to objects at varying distances declines.
Biggest predictor of divorce (of the Horsemen of the Apocalypse)
CONTEMPT
Major themes in Young@Heart
COPING WITH LOSS - The individuals in the movie show strength in dealing with loss. - After Joe dies, the rest of the chorus members are able to continue preparing for their performance by cultivating positivity with the confidence that this is what Joe would've wanted. AGING WELL - Eileen is 92 and has a key to her nursing home because she usually gets home after the staff have gone to sleep. AGEISM & STEREOTYPES - They are able to defy ageism by being a lively group of individuals who are still able to take care of themselves and stay passionate about what they love.
Integrated Care
Care for frail elders that combines the caregiving strengths of everyone - family, medical professionals, social workers and the elders themselves. *This is the IDEAL type of care.
Vascular Disease
Characterized by sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated infarcts or temporary obstructions of blood vessels, which prevent sufficient blood from reaching the brain.
Labouvie-Vief's emotional expertise
Cognitive-affective complexity declines for many in late adulthood.
Generativity
Concern for the future, a need to nurture and guide younger people and contribute to the next generation. *Erikson believes that this develops in middle age.
Variations in aging in terms of GENDER
Despite outward appearances, women age more slowly than men. This is due to life expectancy, as women in the U.S. live longer than men by around 5 years.
Fronto-temporal NCDs
Deterioration of the amygdala and frontal lobes that may be the cause of 15% of all Major NCDs.
Arnett's theory of emerging adulthood (READING #7)
Discusses the importance of an additional stage of 'emerging adulthood' because young adults today have a much longer period of life before marriage, children and career.
Explicit vs. Implicit Memory in late adulthood
EXPLICIT: purposeful and requires more effort. IMPLICIT: unconscious and requires little effort. *Recall shows greater decline with age than recognition.
Aging & Exercise
Exercise has been found to help every condition related to aging.
Source Amnesia
Forgetting the origin of a fact or idea - becomes MORE difficult with age.
Erikson's Theory: Generativity vs. Stagnation
GENERATIVITY - Reaching out to others in ways that give to and guide the next generation. - Commitment extends beyond self. - Typically realized through childrearing BUT other family, work and mentoring relationships are also generative. STAGNATION - Place own comfort and security above challenges and sacrifice. - Self-centered, self-indulgent and self-absorbed. - Lack of involvement or concern for young people. - Little interest in work productivity or self-improvement.
Genetic Adaption
Humans have a "genetic clock" or mechanism in our DNA that regulates the aging process. *This is a widely accepted theory - it emphasizes that individuals are not responsible for the genetic effects of aging.
Major NCD
Irreversible losses of intellectual functioning caused by organic brain damage or disease.
Menopause as a biocultural event EX: Japanese, rural Mayan and Greek women
JAPANESE WOMEN: typically gain status with age and they rarely report a lot of distress at menopause. They are very unlikely to report hot flashes. RURAL MAYAN WOMEN: have a lot of children and when it comes to menopause, they are more likely to view it as freedom. GREEK WOMEN: limit their childbearing and when they discuss hot flashes, they are more likely to interpret them as not a big deal.
Main findings of Silverstein et al., 2010 study
Longitudinal study that determined four clusters of parent-child relationships in late adulthood: 1. Amicable (close relationship, high communication) 2. Detached (distant, low communication) 3. Disharmonious (high conflict) 4. Ambivalent (high communication, high conflict/criticism) MAIN FINDINGS - Majority of parent-child relationships are amicable. - 20% of U.S. relationships were disharmonious. - Marriage & being a woman increase closeness, meaning that there is most distance with divorced fathers and unmarried sons.
Menopausal Hormone Therapy (MHT)
Low daily doses of estrogen to reduce physical symptoms of menopause.
Palliative Care
Medical treatment designed primarily to provide physical and emotional comfort to the dying patient and guidance to his or her loved ones.
Climacteric
Mid-life transition when fertility declines - especially after age 35 for women and 40 for men.
Sandwich Generation
Middle-aged adults caught between competing demands of caring for parents and children.
Successful aging
Minimal losses and maximum gains *The ultimate expression of resilience!
How to remember 5 tasks of ADL
Mnemonic device: DEATH Dressing Eating Ambulating (moving) Toileting Hygiene (bathing)
Truth of the Sandwich Generation
Most adults are NOT 'squeezed' by this dual care-taking. - 1 in 10 U.S. adults take care of an elderly parent. - The car is usually provided by a daughter. - No sex difference in sense of obligation or affection towards aging parents. - Social support is key when caring for aging parents.
Muscle-fat makeup in midlife
Muscle mass declines gradually in the 40s & 50s.
Major findings from Pew Research Center on aging (READING #9)
Nearly half of adults aged 75+ said their life has turned out better than expected.
Frail Elderly
People over 65 and often over 85 who are physically inform, very ill or cognitively disabled.
Types of grandparent-grandchild relationships
REMOTE GRANDPARENTS: emotionally distant, viewed as esteemed elders who are respected and obeyed. *This is the least common in the U.S. COMPANIONATE GRANDPARENTS: fun, loving, want to spoil their grandchildren. *Most common in Western countries. INVOLVED GRANDPARENTS: very active in day-to-day life of grandkids. SURROGATE GRANDPARENTS: referred to as a 'skipped generation' because this is when grandparents are the parental figures to grandkids.
Characteristics of emerging adulthood (18-25) (Arnett, 2000)
RESIDENCE - With parents, at college (semi-independent), independent or with romantic partner. CAREER STAGE - Search for long-term career. - Post-secondary education and job training. RELATIONSHIPS - Search for long-term relationship. SELF-VIEWS - Feel partially adult. - Identity and worldview exploration. PRESENCE OF SOCIALIZERS - Diminished parental surveillance. - Frequent leisure time alone. - Peak in risk behaviors. START OF STAGE - According to Arnett, age 18 is the end of shared demographic traits of adolescence.
Perimenopause
Refers to the 10-year climacteric marked by a decline in estrogen, causing shorter, more irregular monthly cycles.
Life Expectancy Crossover
Refers to the crossover in life expectancy between social classes. High-SES individuals generally have a higher life expectancy compared to lower-SES individuals until a certain age (~85 years) when surviving members of low-SES ethnic minority groups will live longer than the while majority.
Prospective Memory
Remembering to do something in the future - also DECLINES with age.
Midlife Crisis - myth or reality?
Research does NOT support the notion that the 40s are a period of exceptional stress. - Crisis is NOT a universal experience in middle childhood. It is more like a transition than a crisis - radical change is very rare.
SOC Model
SELECT: choose personally valued activities and avoid others. OPTIMIZE: devote diminishing resources to valued activities. COMPENSATE: find creative ways to overcome limitations.
Course of Alzheimer's Disease
STAGE 1: forgetfulness; short-term memory lapses, such as with names of people and places. STAGE 2: generalized confusion and attention deficits, personality changes, depression. STAGE 3: memory loss becomes dangerous. STAGE 4: full time care, no longer able to recognize close family and friends. STAGE 5: unresponsive, death.
Family Life Cycle
Sequence of phases characterizing the development of most families around the world. - Early adulthood: leave home, marriage and children - Middle adulthood: launch children - Late adulthood: retirement and death of spouse *Wide variations exist in the timing and sequence of family life-cycle phases.
Kinkeeper
Someone who becomes the gatherer and communication hub for their family. *This is usually an adult female in the family (mom or grandma).
Expert
Someone with specialized skills and knowledge developed around a particular activity or area of specific interest.
Secondary Aging
Specific illnesses that are more common with age but are caused by health habits and genes that vary from person to person. *This is less about aging, more about lifestyle.
Becca Levy's Stereotype Embodiment Theory
States that old age stereotypes: - Become internalized across the lifespan - Operate below our awareness - Gain salience through self-relevance - Act through multiple pathways (psychological, behavioral and physical)
Affect Optimization
The ability to maximize positive emotion and minimize negative emotion. *This skill improves with age. *30-40% of older adults are high in affect optimization AND cognitive-affective complexity.
Mourning
The ceremonies and behaviors that a religion or culture prescribes for people to express their grief after a death.
Cellular Aging
The cumulative effect of toxins and stress, first causing cellular damage and eventually the death of cells.
Grief
The deep sorrow that people feel at the death of a loved one. It is personal and unpredictable.
The Big Five (OCEAN) in adulthood
The five basic clusters of personality traits that remain quite stable throughout adulthood. 1. Openness (imaginative, curious, artistic, creative, open to new experiences) 2. Conscientiousness (organized, deliberate, conforming, self-disciplined) 3. Extroversion (outgoing, assertive, active) 4. Agreeableness (kind, helpful, easygoing, generous) 5. Neuroticism (anxious, moody, self-punishing, critical)
Maximum Lifespan
The genetic upper limit of life under ideal conditions (~122 years).
Weathering
The gradual accumulation of stress over time. This matters because it has cognitive effects.
Wear & Tear Theory
The human body wears out because of the passage of time and exposure to environmental stressors.
Terror Management Theory
The idea that people adopt cultural values and moral principles in order to cope with their fear of death. This system of beliefs protects individuals from anxiety about their mortality and bolsters their self-esteem. *Explains why people do risky things due to a fear of death.
Alzheimer's Disease
The most common cause of major NCD, characterized by gradual deterioration of memory and personality and marked by the formation of plaques and beta-amyloid protein and tangles of tau in the brain.
Hayflick Limit
The number of times a human cell is capable of dividing into two new cells. The limit for most human cells is ~50 divisions, an indicator that the lifespan is limited by our genetic program.
Active Lifespan
The number of years of vigorous, healthy life a person can expect.
Intrinsic Rewards of Work
The personal gratifications, such as pleasure in a job well done or friendship with coworkers that accompany employment.
Senescence
The process of aging that begins in adolescence. Everyone ages but the rate of physical decline is highly variable.
Terminal Decline
The steady marked decrease in cognitive functioning in the weeks and months prior to death.
Extrinsic Rewards of Work
The tangible benefits, usually in salary, insurance, pension and status, that come with employment.
Positivity Effect
The tendency to perceive, prefer and remember positive images and experiences rather than negative ones.
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
The theory that older people prioritize the regulation of their own emotions and seek familiar social contacts who reinforce generativity, pride and joy. This theory emphasizes emotion-regulating functions of social contact.
Selective Optimization with Compensation
The theory, developed by Paul and Margaret Baltes, that people try to maintain a balance in their lives by looking for the best way to compensate for physical and cognitive losses and to become more proficient in activities they can already do well.
Primary Aging
The universal and irreversible physical changes that occur as we grow older.
Disengagement Theory
The view that aging makes a person's social sphere increasingly narrow, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawal and passivity.
Continuity Theory
The view that elderly people strive to promote life satisfaction via consistency between the past and the future.
Activity Theory
The view that elderly people want and need to remain active in a variety of social spheres - with relatives, friends and community groups - and come withdrawn only unwillingly, due to ageism.
Middle-Age Spread
The weight gain in midlife, caused by the slowing of the metabolism.
Empty Nest Syndrome - myth or reality?
This is a MYTH! - Many parents report greater happiness, marital satisfaction and sense of well-being after children leave the 'nest.' - Parent-child relationships tend to improve. - Parents must adjust to adult children and new roles.
"Launching" children in midlife
This is the "letting go" process with: - A decline in parental authority. - Continued contact and support to children.
Erikson's Ego Integrity vs. Despair
This is the final stage of Erikson's developmental sequence, in which older adults seek to integrate their unique experiences with their vision of community. EGO INTEGRITY - Feel whole, complete, satisfied with one's achievements. - Serenity and contentment. - Associated with psychosocial maturity. DESPAIR - Feel many decisions were wrong, but now time is too short. - Bitter & unable to accept coming death. - Expressed as anger & contempt for others.
Demand/Withdrawal Pattern of Conflict
This refers to patterns between partners. One pattern is defined by one partner being the demander, seeking change, discussion or resolution of the issue. The other partner is the withdrawer, seeking to end or avoid discussion of the issue.
Compression of Morbidity
This refers to the public and universal goal of having a very short period of morbidity.
Aging in Place
To remain in the same home and community in later life, adjusting but not leaving when health fades. *Older adults fare BEST when surrounded by long-term family and friends.
Fluid Intelligence
Types of basic intelligence that make learning of all sorts quick and thorough. This type of intelligence depends on basic information processing skills (analytical speed and working memory).
Crystallized Intelligence
Types of intellectual ability that reflect accumulated learning and is strongly influenced by culture. This type of intelligence has to do with skills that depend on: - Accumulated knowledge and experience - Good judgement - Mastery of social conventions
Activities of Daily Life (ADLs)
Typically identified as five tasks of self-care that are important to independent living: eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, and transferring from a bed to a chair. The inability to perform any of these tasks is a sign of frailty.
Source amnesia & prospective memory in late adulthood
We tend to remember emotions better than factual details.
What can we learn from centenarians?
What these individuals valued throughout their life and the factors that contributed to becoming centenarians: - Heredity - Environment/lifestyle (healthy diet, exercise, good immune system, optimism, faith, social support, happy marriage, community involvement)
Incomplete Grief
When circumstances (such as a police investigation or autopsy) interfere with the grief process.
Absent Grief
When mourners do not grieve, either because other people do not allow expressions of grief, or the mourners do not allow themselves to mourn.
Differences in death anxiety by gender
Women overall report higher levels of death anxiety throughout the lifespan.