Psych 319 Final Exam
CS and CR
though originally neutral, it developed (by association with the UCS) the ability to elicit a response that Pavlov called the conditioned response (CR). - learning was involved in eliciting the CR by the CS.
examples of how to eliminate certain behaviors using classical conditioning. - In class discussion & Pg. 153-54
through extinction or counterconditioning
Skinner was and his importance to Operant Conditioning. - Pg. 160, 61 and lecture.
- "father" of Operant Conditioning/Behaviorism - conceptualizing of the concept of reinforcement in behavior and motivation (strengthen the response itself, making its occurrence more probable.) - more interested in behavior probability than the motivation he could not measure. - "pure behaviorist" - He worked mostly with animals in different versions of "Skinner Boxes" - wasn't really interested in motives, he could not scientifically measure that - what he did believe, was that anything could be trained to do just about anything with enough consistent reward
Pavlovian Classical Conditioning - Pg. 150
- A formally neutral stimulus gains the ability to elicit a response from an organism because it has been associated with some other stimulus that reliably elicited that response in the past. (his dogs) -UCS paired with CS --> to produce UCR and CR - results from the association of stimuli
goal objects as they relate to incentives - pg. 181
- An incentive usually describes some goal object that motivates us (eg: a big steak was an incentive for Bob). - Incentives, then, are generally important for us to either reach or avoid a goal. - positive versus negative incentive - Incentives differ in value for us from moment to moment and from one time to another.
Modeling Process and retention
- Bandura argued that modeled behavior is stored in both verbal code and an imaginal code. i.e., words and images, smells, music, etc.
Observational Learning (Modeling) and what theoretical orientation it is associated with. - Pg. 172 & Lecture.
- Based in Social Learning Theory - observational learning, or the motivation that drives behavior - social conditions important determiners of behavior Certain individuals may act in certain ways based solely on the influence of others in a group.
ethology. - Pgs. 39&40
- Behavior patterns in humans or animals that appear to have innate, or instinctive components. - the study of the evolution, development, and function of behavior. - Eg: Kid suckling (not all babies will suckle) a lot have to be taught
According to the cognitive-physiological theory what two states are necessary to feel emotion? - Lecture & pg. 361
- Both physiological arousal and cognitive attributions
incentive cues and their relevance to behavior predictability. - pg. 191 & lecture.
- Cues become incentive motivators to the extent that they predict the arrival or withdrawal of some goal object. - cues of a picture or setting → outcomes will be different/how things will go
three dimensions of covariation assessment. - Pgs. 309/310
- Distinctiveness: Refers to the degree to which a behavior is unique. Did this happen before, what was the outcome, do I recreate or try something different? - Consensus: We examine other people's behavior in the same situation. What are others doing, should I be doing it too - Consistency: Refers to the frequency with which the individual engages in the specific behavior in question. Does something more than once (frequency of what he does)
Who is Carl Rogers and what is his guiding principle? - Pg. 332
- Father of humanistic approach/20 century humanistic - Positive Regard : Stem from our interactions with our caregivers in an unconditional positive regard. Unconditional love, regardless of behavior, was key to the fully functional person. - The fully functioning individual: the power to control their own life free from the denial that produce rigid behavior. They have the power of flexibility and ability to cope with all situations.
What was Rogers one motive and what were its three primary objectives? - Pg.332
- GROWTH 1. Maintain (trying to maintain) 2. Enhance (trying to do better) 3. Reproduce (offspring)
Evolution of the mind notes given in class.
- Great rift valley is the craddle of human civilization - Paleolithic means stone-tool- making ppl - Stone Hand axe appeared 1.5 million years ago - 6 million years ago human evolution begins - 2 ½ million years ago stone tools emerge = Proteo humans = meat eater = larger brains (there are vegetarian ones that didn't make it) - 60 thousand years modern humans leave Africa and they are biologically completely modern - made lots of artifacts and art and behave like modern humans - Over 40 thousand years ago ornamental shell Beads and jewelry making discovered, it was an artistic expression, and a social identifier in social groups - Modern humans improve older tech and pass info down from older to younger generations - Modern humans engage in trade practices with other humanoid groups - Cave art demonstrates first evidence of imagination - Small mutations over tens of thousands of years lead to current biology of the modern human brain - human social complexity can be traced back to the birth of language, without it we lack culture and imagination - kids under 3 cannot see something from someone else's perspective, kids over 5 can - Modern human outthink to over-compete their competitors both human and animals and exercise the ability to deceive - Language window in human is open at birth until age of 7 after which it closes slowly till puberty - Lang requires the needs to be share info with others, it is not dependent on size of the social circle - Syntax is the constraints on lang. that allow us to communicate to form context - ⅔ of all conversations can be gossip or social interaction which helps hold social groups together - Lang is the force that creates human culture - Memes shape minds and cultures - Memes are the forces that drive mental evolution - Memes are ideas that are passed between individuals - Memes are any tool that transcend between humans (can be anything)
Humanistic motivational approaches. - Pgs. 331/332
- Humanists study the persistent motive within individuals to become competent in dealing with their environment. - the struggle to reach our potential - Big picture approach
Nominal Fallacy. - Pg. 36
- In case of instinct theory, simply naming something an instinct does not explain the behavior (we are just labeling behavior). - instincts genetically encoded but not an instinctual behavior (can be taught) - Reflex behavior but does not always work thus not the same as instinct
Social Analysis
- Individuals and groups behavior will differ based on social settings and scripts and schemas based around those settings. i.e., classroom to bar room. - influenced situational and by the presence of others. - scripts: predetermined behavior by seeing other people do it, specific to a given situation, norms of what you're supposed to do - Schemas: expectation for a given setting/scene
Individual Analysis
- Individuals are given a set of instructions for a given task and achievement is measured. i.e., coaching, or training. - Research conducted on groups to check for behavioral changes due to social cues. i.e., Bandura, Bobo the clown (aggression) experiment. - Observational learning experiment --> Bobo (aggressive group versus nonaggressive group) children either observed adult aggression versus none to the clown - Modeling behavior: children exposed to aggression are more likely to be aggressive (imitate what we see)
Tokens - Pg. 164 & lecture.
- Objects other than money which are used as behavioral reinforcers in any culture to be exchanged for items, or services within that culture - Eg: gambling chips, Food stamps, tickets at Dave and busters, trade economy, panther bucks, cigarettes in prison
Kelly's Covariation theory. - pgs. 308/309
- Our attributions are attempts to specify how events are causally related to each other. - believed that we make attributions by generating a series of hypothesis then through logic and observation come to the most reasonable conclusion. - believed a large part of the attribution process was covariation (correlation). Across time, it's an important way we are able to make judgements about causality. - believed we make attributions based on past behavior.
sign, intensity and duration and how they relate to hedonism. - pg. 207/208
- P.T Young's contribution to the continuum (sign , intensity and duration) - Positive affect is associated with approach behavior, while negative affect is associated with avoidance. - sign: the organism approaches (+) or avoids (−) the situation. - observe affective intensity diff. of substances, thus employ preference tests. The chosen substance is considered to be hedonically more intense than the nonchosen one. - duration: Some hedonic processes may last only as long as sensory stimulation lasts, while others presumably outlast the stimulation.
Using the information learned in class and the O&L incentive formula, be able to analyze & identify a vignette for the stimulus, mediator and appropriate response(es) along with the behavioral cues that lead them to those responses.
- Predictive cues are thought to motivate ongoing behavior and reinforce completed responses (i.e., act as 2º reinforcers).
According to the lecture, define emotion.
- Refers to the idea that a person is changed from one state to an other
Overmier & Lawry formula of incentive and the variation presented in the lecture. - Pg. 182 & lecture.
- S → M → R ~Stimulus = Goal Objects (S) ~Incentive = Mediator (M) -> determines how important the goal object is to someone and when you will use it (hunger, boredom, conformity, etc.) ~Response = Directed Toward That Object (R) ~Incentives motivate behavior and it's used as a predictor for behaviors but it doesn't always work on humans bc/ we behave diff. ~2 separate links, S → M and M→ R, Each link may be separately influenced by the conditions in situations where incentives are present, so the possible outcomes of manipulating incentive motivation can be complex. - S → M ~~(perspective)~~ → R
Counterconditioning, how it breaks the process of association and creates a new one. - Pg. 154
- The process of extinction by which the negative CS is paired with a positive UCS. The negative CS gradually loses its aversiveness by being paired with the positive UCS and no longer being paired with the negative UCS. A new positive CS-UCS motivational relationship has been established. - long process but reintroduces good stimulus - Eg: Child trauma, anxiety patients
Modeling Process and reproduction
- The stringing together of a correct pattern of responses meant to imitate the desired behavior
Attribution theory. - pg. 304
- The study of how we make decisions concerning the events we experience. - factors assumed by the general public to cause people's behavior. People thus attribute behavior to particular factors—usually either to consistent personality characteristics (termed dispositions) or to aspects of the social situation of the persons involved. - examines the explanations at which we arrive both when we observe someone else's behavior and also when we observe our own behavior and relates these explanations to observable characteristics of the individual and the situation.
Philosophical Analysis
- The understanding of a philosophical state as it relates to motivation may be difficult to test empirically but can be important to seeking a degree of explanation to motivational behaviors. - The philosophical assumption that humans are inherently evil (Freud) driving their motivations, versus inherently good (Maslow) can color our analysis of any motivation and behavior. - Eg: Religion, history, mythology - Different points of view - Maslow = reach Self actualization
Modeling Process and attention
- We observe and imitate models with whom we are in frequent contact. i.e., caregivers, friends, family, role models, and less so those we see less frequently. - The characteristics of the model also influence our attention process. i.e., celebreties.
Law of Effect, who its author was and why it is important to Operant Conditioning. - Pg. 160 & lecture.
- argued that the consequences of a response strengthen the connection between that response and some stimulus in the environment. - forerunner of our present concept of reinforcement. --> lead to the thinking of operant conditioning - author is Thorndike
contact comfort and its importance on developing social animals. - pg. 216
- body contact - needed for social animals if not we get bad aniexty
Extinction. - Pg. 150
- classical conditioning is NOT A PERMANENT CONDITION thus if a UCS is taken away for too long, the CR will no longer happen
Remain familiar with the Crespi experiment and how it relates to incentive. - pg. 182 & lecture.
- concept of internal drives was once the 1º device used to account for the motivation of behavior. Shows that external objects (goals) also motivate behavior, thus forcing a modification of this system. - BIG REWARD = QUICKEST TIMES - MODERATE REWARD = AVERAGE TIMES - SMALL REWARD = SLOWEST TIMES - with - and + contrast mice - different incentive objects influence how hard the organism is willing to perform but not what is learned.
Conditioned (2º) Reinforcement. - Pg. 163
- control responding because they have been associated with primary reinforcers in the past. - Eg: the hot pan on the stove, money no longer becomes important aka to be a monk, nun, you're rich, Edmond in prison, Working, Babies, Sleep with good health
modern Hedonistic motivational theory. - pg. 206
- defined as the seeking of pleasure and avoidance of pain. - Hedonic theories emphasize the idea that cues or stimuli have motivational properties because they have become associated with + or - experiences. - Hobbes believed all actions are motivated by the desire to obtain pleasure and avoid pain - Spencer proposed that pleasurable behaviors have survival value for an organism; those behaviors perceived as pleasurable were adaptive over the history of the species. He believed that random responses that led to pain were reduced in probability. Thus, for Spencer, pleasure and pain became important modifiers of behavior. - Eg: Sex (+) or sex/rape (-)
Learned Helplessness. - Pgs. 169 - 172 & Lecture.
- disturbance in motivation, cognitive processes and emotionality as a result of previously experienced uncontrollability on the part of the organism. - Eg: Edmond in prison-gave up hope, Saudi Ariba girls, victims of bullying (can go either way), learned helplessness academia (can go either way), abuse victims Symptoms: - Passivity, or motivational deficit (inability to react to an otherwise - situation - Retardation of Learning (Taking longer to learn equivalent task, or skill, or inability to learn at all) - Somatic Effects (Lack of aggressiveness in competitive situations, regardless of importance of the outcome) - decreases over time
Learned aversions are. - Pg. 156
- emphasizes the motivational nature of the learned behaviors. -Are a food related behavior motive driven by a strong negative reaction to a paired food.
Concept of motivation can best be viewed as: - Pg. 4
- forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior. - More intense behaviors = higher level of motivations - A highly motivated behavior will often be persistent even though the intensity may be low. -Driving motivational force is reproduction motivation everything else is cultural motivation
1º reinforcement. - Pg. 163
- increase a response because of their very nature (unlearned reinforcers such as food, water, sex, avoidance of pain, and so on) - innate, natural, or unlearned - baseline needs
UCS and UCR
- indicate that its effect on behavior was unlearned or automatic. - unlearned nature of this response to the UCS.
potential behavioral changes associated with early sensory restriction or depravation in humans and animals. - pg. 214/215 & lecture.
- isolated dogs: continued to explore their new enviro. long after, explored more in maze tests, exhibited higher activity levels, uncertain what to do about this strange/painful object, Most seemed unaware that the pain they experienced was induced by an external object in their enviro, deficient problem-solving ability, more submissive, hyperexcitable & unable to direct their behavior in an efficient/adaptive manner. - isolated cats: violent emotionality, hyperexcitability, increased incidences of convulsive disorders, & localized motor impairment, perceptual deficits, visual nystagamus, fearful of norm light. - both did not cope well with new and strange stimulus situations and doesn't really go away. - in humans: ADD, ADHD, hyperactive, not enough comfort contact, can go away if therapy and meds involved.
The role of evolution as a motivator. - Pgs. 25&26
- need for procreation within a species (primary operating principle). - natural selection through viability, fertility, and fecundity. - mating rituals
three examples of what can cause learned aversions other than food. - Power point lecture.
- overindulgence - alcohol or drugs (changes in brain chemistry) - biochemical like allergies (gluten) - pregnancy (it changes what you like to eat) - chemotherapy (changes/kills taste buds)
importance of stimulation in more "cognitive, social" animals. - pg. 214/215 & lecture.
- sensory deprivation - Results indicate a disruption of normal behavior - Eg: Thompson and Melzack (1956) Scottish terriers experiment
exploratory, novelty and curiosity behavior and how they relate to hedonism. - pg. 212/213
- studies performed in the 1950s indicated that external stimuli can serve to motivate behavior directly. - maintain an "optimal" level of arousal at all times. Small novel (surprising) stimuli changes are pleasant and help increase, or reduce internal stimuli levels. - Humans learn through curiosity regardless of the reward associated with the activity. The sensory stimulation provided in the activity serves as the reward. - 1st was evidence against the need reduction or drive reduction theories of motivation, but it indicates that changes in the sensory qualities of the environment lead to changes in motivated behavior.
anthropomorphism. - Pg. 38
- the attribution of human characteristics to objects or animals - EG: Disney animation - Europeans and eastern people are proto-humans (interbreeding, we carry some if their genes) thus they would NOT go under anthropomorphism
Physiological Analysis
- the biological functions of the individual during various behavior states. - Brain and nervous system manipulation and inspection began in 1950's using electricity. - Later, less invasive techniques were used. i.e., MRI, CAT, PET & EEG to observe biology in real time. - Analyzing behaviors and motivations - Started as Dr. Frankenstein way of looking at the brain - Now look at the living brain during action - What's happening in the grey matter of our brain
Token Economy. - Pg. 164 & lecture.
- the economy part - controlling unruly and inappropriate behavior
Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning. - Pg. 160
- the process of motivation through the reinforcement of appropriate responses. - occurs as a consequence of a response. - Not permeant on humans or other cognitive animals - EG: Chimps. --> The consistent process of reinforcing/rewarding the behavior strengthens the motivations to continue, or improve the behavior.
"Quantity, Quality and Contrasts of Reinforcement. - Pgs. 161-163 & lecture.
- types of reinforcement: money, cars, food, partying, luxury house, graduating - This is where skinner comes short (because cognitive beings are different from one another) - Motivations are social and situational - More important for humans than animals - More enforcements = more motivation - Crepsi's Experiment: In contrasting reinforcement, animals previously given the highest level of reinforcement, switched to a medium level of reinforcement, performed the worst of all (negative contrast) as opposed to the group that had received the least reinforcement switching to a medium level, whose performance increased (positive contrast).
Vigor
- vigorous responses do not always mean high motivation. - vigorous responding would not index motivation alone; factors such as learned behaviors would also be involved.
three basic needs of Self-Determination theory? - pgs. 345/346
1. Competence- Our need as humans to have some sort of control over our environment. - Level of comfort/confidence/control in the environment in which you act --> Able to do the thing being asked or manipulate it 2. Relatedness- Comes from a need to feel a sense of belongingness with others. - Need to feel socially accepted in the environment we are in --> Deals with cognitive dissonance 3. Autonomy- Is our need to freely integrate our experiences with our sense of self.
two major factors of Attribution theory. - pg. 304
1. Consistent personality characteristics - DISPOSITIONS (internal) 2. The aspects of the social situation of the persons involved. (external) -
rogers 5 basic characteristics of the fully functioning individual. - Pg. 333
1. Openness to experience: don't have to defend actions, and more open to any and all experiences, no preconceptions, just see how it goes, 2. Existential living: you live life to the fullest without thinking about the past or the future bc/ it distorts the present/full experience of the now 3. Trust in one's own organism: you trust gut feelings dealing with decisions, care less about potential outcomes, and focus more on experience 4. Sense of freedom: freedom to choose how you live your life, w/o concern for the future and regardless of consequence 5. Creativity: personal and emotional creativity that allows them to cope with life changes
sensation seeking. - pg. 223
A trait describing the tendency to seek novel, varied, complex and intense sensation and experiences and the willingness to take risks for the sake of such experiences.
Heider's Naïve Psychology. - Pgs. 305/306
How does the average, or naïve person decide what are the causes of human behavior. - Dispositions (internal) which include attributions and Motivations: intentions, exertions - Situational (external) which includes task difficulty and luck
Understand the role of one's perspective and how it affects the mediator in O&L's incentive formula. - Lecture only.
S → M ~~(perspective)~~ → R ~The human perspective is fluid and inconsistent, therefore the outcome of a given situation is never calculable ~does NOT predict human behavior bc/ our ideas are different
instinct theory and understand it gave rise to what is now known as evolutionary psychology. - Pg. 36
an instinct: genetically programmed bit of behavior that occurs when circumstances are appropriate and requires no learning of behavior, REFLEX. - Eg: spiders making a web - gave rise to evolutionary psychology --> Evolution taught them, ones that survived = passed down the better webs, ones that don't = death
"Object Motivation". - Pg. 172 & Lecture
an object that motivates you because it represents a bigger idea that you want to achieve
Acquired motivators
are learned and commonly known as "incentive motivators". - EG: money → learned we have more money we can get more things (loose concept), power, killing people to get their stuff (GOT), recognition , awards, trophies, jealousy, love (concept we describe for a feeling we've learned, nature doesn't feel love)
Generalized Conditioned Reinforcers. - Pg. 163, 64
gains its reinforcing properties from the several primary reinforcements with which it has been paired. - somewhat indep of any individual 1º reinforcer and strengthen or maintain behavior for longer period of time - Eg: Money, knowledge
Directionality
index of motivational state - The direction that a particular behavior takes is usually obvious --> if not then go thro preference test.
Define and example latent learning. - Pg. 163
learning in the absence of any reinforcement. - Eg: one group of rats was reinforced with food for learning to traverse a maze, while a second group received nothing. The nonreinforced group appeared to learn little. When food was later provided at the end of the maze, however, the performance of the nonreinforced group quickly matched that of the group that had been rewarded throughout CONCLUSION: the nonreinforced rats had learned the maze but were not inclined to demonstrate this learning until there was some motivation. - EG: brushing teeth, things that are habitual, lucky charms, SUPERSITION, believing in high being (religion) - Skinner wouldn't be able to prove this (wouldn't agree with this theory)
Intervening Variable
link stimulus to response (hunger and love for cheese) and helps relate the two - We can only infer the existence of motivation by observing changes in the relationships bet/ stimulus conditions and responses.
Idiographic approach
looks at groups and determines how they are different, or unique (geography, race)
Nomothetic approach
looks at groups and determines how they are similar. i.e., physically, biologically, genetically, culturally, etc. - (within groups there are subgroups) - EG: college students, at chapman, sorority, frats, age, athletes, (within groups there are subgroups) -general laws
Internal motivation
postulates that diff. motive states can be conceptualized as "needs". These needs when active, promote behaviors to reduce needs. i.e., physical, emotional, or psychological. - Cognitively in nature, a choice - fear of failure, need to not let someone down (emotional good feeling that you did this), want to be like someone --> envy, need to belong (social network)
Performance Variable
variable for specific tasks that are considered temporary (hunger for rat) -When enough motivation is present, behavior is performed; when motivation is too low, behavior is absent.
Mechanistic approach
states behaviors are controlled automatically as a reaction to changes in internal, or external states. i.e., hunger, thirst, or sex. - Neuro-reactionary. - a reaction (hand on the hot stove)
External motivation
states that motivational sources provided by goal objects in the environment drive differing behaviors. - EG: degrees, careers/job status (doctors), marriage (satisfy being loved and starting a family)
Cognitive approach
suggests the manner in which information is interpreted influences our motive states. i.e., fear of failure to task completion. - anything we think about that drives our behavior - we HAVE to think about it
Activation
the production of a behavior. - though motivation is considered to be behaviorally activating, the behavior activated may not always be overt.
Innate motivators
were originally known as instincts. These are NOT "internal motivators". These motivators tend to be biologically in nature - genetically based. - NATURE - Hunger, thirst, tiredness, reproduction (evolutionists think the only motivator that drives everything we do is reproduction)
