Psych 323: Child Development (Midterm and Final Exam)

sequential research design

(developmental) 6 year old and 8 year old test at same time, then again 2 years later at ages 8 and 10 (mix of longitudinal and cross-sectional)

cross-sectional research design

(developmental) 6 year old and 8 year old tested at the same time

longitudinal research design

(developmental) 6 year olds tested again at age 8

microgenetic research design

(developmental) intensive observations of a small group of 1 year olds as they learn to say their first words

the role of the environment

(morality) -behaviorism=reinforcement for moral behavior -social cognitive= imitation of moral/immoral behaviors

methods of testing theory of core knowledge

-object permanence test -shows infants possible events vs. impossible events (sees which event the infant looks at linger since babies look longer at something they don't expect to see)

private speech

-talking to oneself, often out loud, to guide one's own actions -talking through a problem (ex. singing a song to tie shoes) -scaffolding is what the adult/older child does, ----- is what the child does

Bilingualism Myths

-the child will be delayed -the child is confused -less intelligent -reducing to one languages improves the probability of the child's success

the role of innate processes

-theory of core knowledge proposes that certain types of knowledge/understanding of the world are built prenatally (ex. morality) -helpers vs hinderers

conventional morality (adolescents and adults)

-Kohlberg -desiring to be seen as "good" by others by meeting their expectations, including being caring, loyal, and grateful -considering the good of society as a whole, maintaining societal order for the good of all

preconventional morality (under 9)

-Kohlberg -obeying the word of authorities and fear of punishment -fairness-believing everyone's self-interest must be taken into account

postconventional morality (some adults older than 20-25)

-Kohlberg -understanding that the rules of society may differ for different groups by that some values, such as life and liberty, are universal -following self-chosen principles involving equal rights even when they conflict with society's rules

Critiques of Piaget

-ages and stages are not necessarily accurate (they are rough estimates) -stages aren't necessarily distinct from one another (child may be teetering between 2 stages) -his ideas don't stand up across cultures using western methods, but sometimes do with non-western methods

natural/ quasi-experimental research design

-comparing groups that receive different treatments, but treatments weren't set by the experimenter (ex. comparing males to females)

experimental research design

-control as many aspects as possible to draw conclusions about causes of outcome -random assignment into experimental or control groups

modern applications of ecological theory

-development of social competence in preschoolers (ex. age, sex, level of stress, family, teacher behavior, classroom climate) -theory to social policy (ex. educational programs, help for families, links between classroom and the home

Interpreting results

-don't generalize to populations outside of sample representation -most results are "averages" and won't apply to everyone -statistical significance does not equal practical significance

bilingual education

-immersion programs (all English) -ESL pull-out (part learn English) -transitional bilingual education (both native and English, goal is English only) -developmental bilingual programs (native and lean English, goal is English only, but remain longer) -two-way immersion program (both English and native language used in the classroom)

Ethics in research

-minimal risk, informed consent of parent and child, right to withdraw from research, privacy and confidentiality of information

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions.

formal operational

12 + years (Piaget) -develop abstract thought (ability to think about hypothetical situations and understand abstract concepts like justice) -hypothetico-deductive reasoning

modern applications of psychoanalytic theory

Freud= development of mental and emotional disorders treated through therapy Erikson= childcare practices and development are interrelated (treatment for kids with emotional disturbances and framework for parenting advice)

Dependent Variable (DV)

The measured outcome of a study; the responses of the subjects in a study.

Brofenbrenner's ecological theory

microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem

moral thought

moral knowledge and moral judgement

sensorimotor

birth-2 years (Piaget) -reflexes to goal directed activity -from body to outside world -development of object permanence -from action to mental representation

Mesosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

brings together two settings containing the child (ex parent-teacher conferences)

ego

negotiates between the basic drives and the real-world, focused on the reality principle

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

emphasis placed on the importance of earning taking place in a social world -zone of proximal development (ZPD) -scaffolding -private speech

id

operates on the pleasure principle and basic instinct

Freud's Psychosexual Stages

oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, genital stage

classification

organize object into hierarchal conceptual categories (ex. cats and dogs are both in the category of animals) (concrete operational)

sensory memory

capacity for info that comes in through sense to be contained for brief period of time in raw form

long-term memory

capacity for nearly permanent retention of memories

working (short-term) memory

capacity limited to brief time, mind processes info to move into long-term through the encoding process

imaginary audience

center of other people's attention most of the time (resurgence of egocentrism in adolescence)

Microsystem (Bronfenbrenner)

child's immediate setting: family, daycare center, school

modern applications of learning theories

classical conditioning= used to treat phobias operant conditioning= applied behavior analysis and functional behavioral assessment social cognitive= research on self-efficacy

moral identity

environment, cognitive development, emotional development, innate processes

modern applications of evolutionary theory

evolutionary developmental psychology looks at how and why children develop and why behaviors help adapt to the environment

Sociobilogy

examines the role that principles of evolution play in the development of social behavior and culture (ex. impact of kinship or relationships)

intuitive thought

asking why questions and thinking intuitively, but the conclusions are based on unrelated facts (preoperational)

benefits of bilingualism

attention, empathy, reading (English), school performance/engagement, diversity/integration, protection against cognitive decline and dementia

4 parts of imitation

attention, memory/retention, reproduction/motoric ability, and motivation to imitate

superego

part of the personality that acts as a moral center (moral principles develop at around ages 5-7 and so does the development of guilt)

Chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

consists of events that take place at different time sin a child's life and time/ history that the child lives (ex. divorce is more common now)

executive function

coordinates attention and memory and controls behavioral responses for the purpose of attaining a certain goal -inhibition -cognitive flexibility -planning

Operationalizing

defining a variable that allows it to be measured

concordance rate

degree to which a trait or an ability of one individual is similar to that or another (calculate with biological parents and adoptive parents)

Ecological Theory

interaction between the developing organism and the enduring environments or contexts in which it lives out its life (interactions with different facets of the enviornment)

Bilingualism

learning two languages is more cognitively complex

Exosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role/ external to the child by affect development (ex. parents job=tired=less playing)

evolutionary theory

living things that adapt to their environment are more likely to pass on their genes to the next generation

sustained attention

maintaining focus over time

Freud view on personality

personality= Id, Ego, Superego

Oral Stage (0-18 months)

pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing (Fixation= smoking or overeating)

Phallic stage (3-6 years)

pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Piaget's stages of moral development

premorality, heteronomous morality, autonomous morality

information processing theory

processes that allow us to take in info, manipulate it in our minds, and thinking about how we are doing so -attention -memory -executive function -metacognition

social cognitive theory

referring to the use of cognitive processes in relation to understanding the social world (learning through imitation and watching other people

criticisms of object permanence test

requires 3 things: 1. remembering where the object was 2. plan from retrieval of the object 3.motor skills to grasp the object -more than just knowing where the object is -maybe the infant knows where the object is, but just isn't old enough to do these things yet -use eye tracking and object permanence test -babies look longer at when ehe screen falls flat since it expect that the object was there -use of pupil dilation to measure surprise, but this could just be from movement of the screen

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Latency stage (6-12 years)

sexual impulses are submerged into the unconscious, learn to be grown up and interest in peers and learning

Genital Stage (puberty on)

stage focuses on maturation of sexual interests between peers on an adult level (formation of intimate relationships)

Ethology

study of adaptive value of animal/human behaviors in the environment -Konrad Lorenz (imprinting with the ducks)

reversibility

the ability to reverse mental operations (concrete operational)

Metacognition

the ability to think about and monitor own's own thoughts and cognitive activities -younger kids are not aware they are taking part in mental processing -theory of mind is the first step

egocentrism

the difficulty to see the world from another's point-of-view (preoperational)

Independent Variable (IV)

the factor the researcher manipulates in a controlled experiment (the cause)

theory of core knowledge

the theory that basic areas of knowledge are innate and built into the human brain (contrasts with Piaget that cognitive development arises through experiences

moral judgement

the way people reason about moral issues. Changes along with cognitive development as children grow.

Planning

thinking through a task ahead of time and then evaluating the outcomes as you proceed, changing action as necessary (executive function) -ex. Tower of Hanoi task

selective attention

tuning into certain things while tuning out others

moral knowledge

understanding of principles endorsed by our culture

lack of conservation

volume, mass, number (preoperational)

zone of proximal development

what a child cannot do on her own but can with hep from someone more skilled/knowledgeable (test the child twice, once alone and once with help)

scaffolding

what an adult does to move the child through the ZPD; more knowledgeable adults/kids support a child's learning by providing help to move child beyond current level of capability

moral action

what we actually do to act on morals

personal fable

you are unique and different from other people (resurgence of egocentrism in adolescence)

correlational research design

the measurement of two or more factors to determine or estimate the extent to which the values for the factors are related or change in an identifiable pattern

hypothetico-deductive reasoning

ability to form hypotheses about how the world works and reason logically (formal operational)

inhibition

ability to stay on task and ignore distractions (executive function)

cognitive flexibility

ability to switch focus as you need in order to compete the task (executive function) -ex. the color game: matching red rabbit and red boat, then switching to the shape game and matching the red rabbit to the blue rabbit

theory of mind

ability to understand that people, including themselves, experience and act on mental states (first step to developing metacognition)/ the ability to understand ourselves and others as agents who act on the basis of mental states (ie. desires, beliefs, emotions, and intentions)

prosocial behavior

actions that help and support other people (empathy, sympathy, and guilt)

antisocial behavior

actions that hurt other people, physically or emotionally (anger)

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (birth-1 year) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3 years) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-11 years) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood: 19-mid 20s) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle age: late 20s-50s) 8. Ego Integrity vs. Dispair (old age: 60s and beyond)

preoperational

2-7 years (Piaget) -represent actions mentally -no logical thought -intuitive thought -egocentrism -lack of conservation

concrete operational

7-12 years (Piaget) -reversibility -classification -develop logical thinking, but not abstract though (ex. literal translations to abstract phrases)

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

autonomous morality (by age 7/8)

-Piaget -awareness of riles and realization that they must adhere to them to maintain their interaction with others

heteronomous morality (4-7)

-Piaget -subject to external controls and impositions -responding to consequences -obedience is the only value -don't understand why moral rules should be followed

premorality (before age 4)

-Piaget -unable to consider moral issues

core areas of theory of core knowledge

1. Knowledge that an object moves as a cohesive unit, it doesn't contact another object unless it's close, and moves on a continuous path 2. Knowledge that agents (people) act purposefully towards a goal 3. Knowledge (within limits) of number 4. Knowledge of spatial relationships

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years)

The anus becomes the source of pleasure, through toilet training/ having control over one's body

Macrosystem (Bronfenbrenner)

The cultural values, economic conditions, and other forms that shape a society. Ex: Religion

measures for studying child development

observations, survey/questionnaire, interviews (structured (set of ?) vs. clinical (allows for deviation), standardized tests, physiological, archival records, case studies, ethnography (living with a group of people)