Psych 484 Exam 2

Goal Setting Strengths (4)

1. The most popular theory of motivation in I/O 2. Elegant and simple 3. Well-supported by research Goals are powerful in shaping behavior 4. Generalizable

What Theory? Organizational Applications: Avoid underpayment, avoid pay secrecy

Equity

What Theory? Research: Greenberg (2006)/ MLB

Equity

What Theory? Source of motivation: Tension to reduce perceived inequity

Equity

What Theory? Research Support: Mixed. Stronger support for ________ than _______.

Equity Stronger support for underpayment inequity than overpayment inequity

What Theory? Major Proponent: Adams

Equity Theory

Equity leads to.....? Both underpayment and overpayment are....?

- Feelings of satisfaction - Detrimental to motivation

Greenburg (2006): Methodology - What kind of experiment involving who and where? - IVs (2) ______ manipulation -DVs (2)

- Field experiment involving 467 nurses in 4 private hospitals IVs 1. Pay - no change or underpaid) 2. Interactional Justice (interpersonal and informational) - trained or untrained DVs 1. Insomnia as a form of stress 2. 4 data collection points

Positive Inequity: AKA? Ratios (2)? Consequence?

- Overpayment - My outcomes/ My inputs > (greater than) Others outcomes/ Others inputs -Consequence: Induces guilt

Self-Efficacy Strengths (2)

- Strong research support; a vast meta-analysis of several studies - Easily and inexpensively applied in organizations

Negative Inequity: AKA? Ratios (2)? Consequence?

- Underpayment Ratios: - My outcomes/ My inputs < (less than) Others outcomes/ Others inputs Consequence: Induces anger

Before goals can improve performance... (2)? What model?

1. Person must have the ability to attain the goal 2. Situational constraints must not prevent performance Global Model of Performance

4 Important goal conditions

1. Acceptance/ commitment 2. Specificity 3. Difficulty 4. Feedback

Characteristics of good feecback (3)

1. Be specific 2. Give behavioral suggestions for change 3. Direct attention to performance, not person (dont be harsh, hurts performance/moral)

Behavioral ways to reduce inequity (5).. whats involved?

1. Change own inputs (increase or decrease) 2. Change own outcomes (try to ask for a raise/ possibility of theft) 3. Persuade the comparison other to change his/her outputs 4. Change the outcomes of comparison other 5. Withdrawal RISK INVOLVED!

Why do goals motivate behavior? (4)

1. Direction - goals direct attention and focus 2. Intensity - goals affect the intensity of effort 3. Persistence 4. Strategy - goals may facilitate the development of strategies (working harder vs working smarter)

Components of Motivation for A Self-Efficacious Individual (3)

1. Direction: - Select tasks in which feel high efficacy - Avoid tasks in which you do not feel high efficacy 2. Intensity: Exert more effort 3. Persistence: Persist longer in the face of failure

Cognitive ways to reduce inequity (3) Less _____ than behavioral options, but may be less _____

1. Distort view of one's own inputs/outputs 2. Distort view of othersinputs/outputs 3. Change the comparison other Less risky than behavioral options, but may be less effective

Types of Organizational Justice (4: 2 grouped together as?

1. Distributive 2. Procedural Interactional: 3. Interpersonal 4. Informational

Problems with MBO (5)

1. Easy goals 2. Increased stress 3. Short-term thinking 4. Ignoring non-goal areas 5. Dishonesty and cheating

Strengths of equity theory (4)

1. Emphasizes the social component of motivation 2. Intuitively appealing 3. Some research support (especially w/ underpayment) 4. Emphasizes importance of fair compensation

Greenburg (2006): Purpose (2)

1. Examine insomnia as a reaction to underpayment inequity 2. Assess if exposure to interactionally fair supervision improves insomnia (if boss shows interactional justice towards nurses, does it affect insomnia?)

Schweitzer et al. (2004): Conclusions

1. Goal setting can be constructive, but it also can lead to unethical behavior 2. Managers should be on the lookout for unethical behavior with goal setting, particularly when employees are close to a goal

Weaknesses of Goal Setting (3)

1. Goal setting works best when tasks are simple rather than complex - For easy tasks, effort is a key determinant of performance - For complex tasks, ability and task strategies are more influential 2. Theory does not address the dynamics behind goal setting - Why does it work? - Where do goals come from? Goal setting has a dark side and MBO has pitfalls

Organizational Issues (3) explain

1. Implementation of equity theory is difficult -equity is in the eye of the beholder 2. Pay Secrecy - People tend to overestimate co-workers compensation - People tend to underestimate superior's compensation 3. CEO versus Employee Pay - CEOs having high pay and employees having low pay can create inequity. Especially when employees are doing grunt work.

Interactional Justice includes what 2 types of justice? 2 example questions for each.

1. Interpersonal - Is the way I am treated fair? - Degree to which employees are treated with politeness/dignity 2. Informational - Is the explanation that I recieved fair? - Complete and timely explanations provided to employees about the course of action

Solutions to MBO Problems (7)

1. Motivated by goals, but reward by performance 2. Ensure ability and opportunity 3. Adjust goal difficulty 4. Increase time span of goals 5. Make sure goals are comprehensive 6. Set goals for ethics 7. Be open to negative information

Weakness of equity theory (4)? What has it evolved into?

1. Theory does a better job of explaining past behavior than future behavior - Who is the comparison other? - How will people specifically react to inequity? 2. Research support for overpayment inequity is not as strong as underpayment inequity 3. Focuses on distributive justice, but ignores other types of justice 4. Declining interest among I/O psychologists - Equity Theory has evolved into Organizational justice

When employees perceive unfairness they are... (4)?

1. They are more likely to steal 2. They are more aggressive 3. They have stronger turnover intentions 4. They are more likely to engage in counterproductive work behaviors

When employees perceive fairness they are... (2)?

1. They are more productive 2. They are more likely to go beyond duty (spills over to customers- more profitable)

Greenburg (2006): Hypotheses (2)

1. Underpayment inequity will lead to higher levels of insomnia 2. Underpaid workers whose supervisors are trained in interactional justice will have less insomnia

A goal is defined by (2)

1. What a person is trying to attain 2. Targets for action

Specificity Goals include (3), Produce a higher _______ than ________? Does not in and of itself produce _________?

1. What needs to be done 2. How much needs to be done 3. Performance period, when does it need to be done? Specific goals produce a higher level of output than general "do your best" goals Goal specificity does not in and of itself result in high performance

4 sources of self-efficacy

1. performance outcomes 2. vicarious feedback 3. verbal persuasion 4. physiological and emotional reactions

Goal Setting for A Self-Efficacious Individual (2)

1.Set more challenging goals 2.Are more committed to difficult goals

Schweitzer, et al. (2004): Methodology - What was the task and who was it given to? - IV? - 3 conditions? - Cash given to? - DV? Observed as (3)?

154 students assigned to complete an anagram task IV: goal condition 1. Do your best 2. Mere goal (create 9 words for each round) 3. Reward goal (earn $2 for each round 9 word goal met) all were given cash - $ 10 (do your best and mere goal conditions) = $14 (paid themselves in reward condition) DV: unethical behavior Accurate/Underestimate/Overestimate

Eden & Zuk (1995): Methodology - Who/where? -IV? - Groups and (3) characteristics of each? - Measures (4)

25 cadets in Israel IV: Specific Self-efficacy Experimental Group: 1. Verbal Persuasion 2. Modeling of commander 3. Film (can overcome seasickness) Control Group: -feedback/question - routine procedures - Film (research on sickness Measures - GSE and SSE - Sickness and Performance

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A prediction that causes itself to come true due to the simple fact that the prediction was made

Galatea Effect

A type of self-fulfilling prophecy; a self expectation that is confirmed because of the behavior of the individual

Pygmalion Effect

A type of self-fulfilling prophecy; an expectation that is confirmed because of the behavior of an other who holds the expectation

Greenburg (2006): Ethics Distributive (2) Interactional (1) Procedural (1)

Distributive - manipulated underpayment - Researcher not involved in decision to cut pay Interactional - Manipulated training Procedural - Despite results of Greenberg (1990), hospital refused to announce pay in a procedurally fair way

Organizational Justice Interventions: Distributive (1), Procedural (3), Interactional (2)

Distributive justice: 1. Avoid underpayment as much as possible Procedural justice: 1. Give employees a voice in decision making 2.Grievance/Appeals process (tell them where they can go for complaints/help) 3. Apply rules consistently (no bias/favoritism) Interactional justice: 1. Treat employees with dignity and respect (interpersonal) 2. Provide adequate information to employees (informational)

What Theory? Elements/components: Comparison other, underpayment/ overpayment, equality

Equity

What Theory? General idea: How hard a person is willing to work is determined by perceptions of what is fair or just

Equity theory

2 comparisons of equity theory and organizational justice? Organizational Justice: Perceptions of _______ are caused by more than _______________

Equity: - Older - Narrower in scope Justice: - More current - Broader in scope Perceptions of injustice are caused by more than social comparison

Cognitive Theories (4)

Expectancy Equity Goal Setting Self-Efficacy

Procedural Justice - Fairness of ...? - Focus on..________? 3 example questions.

Fairness of procedures for distributing awards Focuses on system satisfaction - Procedures free from bias - Do individuals have a voice in the process? - Consistency across people and time?

Distributive Justice - Focus of ...? - Rules for .... (3)?

Focus of outcome satisfaction (equity theory) Rules for allocating resources? 1. Equity: Distribute resources based on contribution 2. Equality: Everyone gets the same 3. Need: Distribute resources based on who needs more

What Theory? Elements/components: Goal committment/acceptance, feedback

Goal Setting

What Theory? Organizational Applications: Management By Objectives (MBO)

Goal Setting

What Theory? Research: Schweitzer et al. (2004)

Goal Setting

What Theory? Research Support: Strong. Wide _____ of _______.

Goal Setting Wide generalizability of goal-setting effects

What Theory? Major Proponent: Locke

Goal Setting Theory

One of the most extensively studied topics in I/O, The most well-supported motivational theory in I/O

Goal Setting theory

What Theory? Source of motivation: Desire and intention to attain specific, difficult goals

Goal-Setting

SMART

Goals must be: Specific Measurable Agreed-Upon Realistic Time-based

Combinations of Injustice What study and what did it examine? Findings (2)

Goldman: Examined justice perceptions and legal filings for discrimination Individuals were most likely to pursue litigation when all 3 forms of justice were low If even one component was high, the likelihood of a legal claim dropped

Self-Efficacy Weakness

High self-efficacy can lead to overconfidence and therefore lower performance in some cases

Greenburg (2006): Results - Was the hypotheses supported? - Results to underpayment? Interactional justice (2 ways it showed)?

Hypotheses supported Response to underpayment: Nurses experienced higher levels of insomnia Response to Interactional Justice: Insomnia reduced when the supervisors were trained to treat subords in an interactionally fair way - Sleep improvements persisted 6 months after training - Higher rebound effects from insomnia for participants whose supervisors were trained

Injustice vs. Injustice

Injustice experiences are stronger than justice experiences Experiencing justice - you don't really notice it, you just expect it Experiencing injustice - more noticeable and tends to get more attention

Equity Theory: Inputs (3), Output, Ratios(2), Where does in(equity) come from/ who does it envolve?

Inputs: - Anything of value a person brings to the job -Experience -Education Output: What you receive from the job Ratios: - My Outcomes = Others Outcomes - My Inputs = Others Inputs It comes from Social Comparison (Self vs. Others) with Comparison Other

How does one determine the comparison other? Examples (3)?

It is up to the individual to decide who you compare to - Idealizes (engineers in general should get this) - Personal standards -Spouse

Research on Participation in Goals Setting Conclusions: - Key issue? - Average effect? - Organizational implications (3)?

Key issue: Whether goals are set, not how goals are set Average effect < 1% vs 16% for goal setting 1. Assign goals for new, inexperienced employees 2. Set goals jointly with employees with moderate experience 3. Let employees with a proven record set their own goals

Feedback - Define - Reveals ....? - Allows employees to ___ what (3) accordingly? - works better with ________ than on its own. - needs to be _____

Knowledge of the results of one's actions Reveals whether efforts are on target Allows employees to adjust effort, persistence, and task strategies accordingly works better with goal setting than on its own and vice versa needs to be specific

MBO Define Components (4)? Research (type, results?)

Management by Objectives 1. Goal specificity and timelines 2. Participation (supervisors and employees set goals) 3. Implementation (translate goals into action) 4. Performance Appraisal and Feedback (in light of goals) Meta-analysis found that 97% of 23 studies found positive results, with an average increase in productivity of 39%

Research on Participation in Goals Setting - _______ results - Participative vs assigned goals. - Why this (3)

Mixed results Assigned goals can be as motivating as participative-ly set goals if accepted Why? 1. Can communicate confidence in employee 2. When you "sell" the goal by sharing reasons behind it 3. Some employees prefer them (inexperienced, high power distance cultures)

Difficulty Good why? - People perform better for a ______ ______ goal than a __________ or _________. - Effect sizes in meta-analyses range from ____ to ____ (high ___?) - 2 conditions under which results would not be positive for difficult goals?

Most established finding on goal setting People perform better for a specific, difficult goal than a vague goal or no goal Effect sizes in meta-analyses range from 0.42to 0.80 (high correlation) Two conditions: 1. Unrealistic goals (challenging but must be attainable) 2. Lowered committment

Global Model of Performance and Self-efficacy

Need to perform! self efficacy is a motivational component No amount of self-efficacy will result in high performance when individuals lack : - The ability - The opportunity

Outcome vs. Process Feedback: - Which is most commonly used? - Provides information on..? - Informs employee of what? - Results in..? -Goal?

Outcome Feedback: - Most commonly used - Information about performance outcomes - Informs employee that change needs to be made - Results in better performance on simple tasks - Performance Goal: proving competence performance Process Feedback: - Information on how performed task - Informs employee of what/how to change - Results in better performance of complex tasks -Learning Goal: Improving competence

Most powerful predictor of self-efficacy. What source of self-efficacy?

Performace Outcomes

Personal experiences individuals have had in the past

Performance Outcomes

Sensations received from the body during performance. What source of self-efficacy?

Physiological and Emotional Reactions

Greenberg 1990 (theft): Results of Plant A and Plant B? Conclusion of results? Why?

Plant A: small increase in theft Plant B: 2 fold increase in theft and turnover Conclusion: Theft is a predictable response to underpayment inequity Why? Pay cuts that were explained in an honest and caring manner were not seen by employees as being unfair as pay cuts that were not explained carefully.

Greenberg 1990 (theft): Conditions of Plant A, Plant B and Plant C? Dependent variable? When were measurements taken?

Plant A: wages cut, adequate explanation Plant B: wages cut, inadequate explanation Plant C: control (wages not cut) DV: Theft and equity measures Measures taken before, during, and after pay cut

Schweitzer et al. (2004): Purpose, Hypothesis (3)

Purpose: Does goal setting motivate unethical behavior when people fall short of their goals? Hypothesis: 1. People with specific, unmet goals will be more likely to overstate their performance than people with "do your best" goals 2. People with unmet reward goals will be more likely to overstate their performance than people with unmet mere goals 3. People who fail to reach their goals by a small margin will be more likely to falsely claim that they have reached their goals than people who fail to reach their goals by a large margin

Eden & Zuk (1995): Purpose, 2 components, Hypothosis

Replicate the Galatea and self-efficacy findings in an organizational context (sea sickness among cadets) 1. General vs. 2. Specific self-efficacy - GSE- stable, trait-like characteristic - SSE- specific, focused on a particular task Hypothesis: Raising self-efficacy for coping with rough seas would reduce sea sickness and enhance performance

Eden & Zuk (1995): Result and Conclusion

Result: Raising specific self-efficacy reduced sea sickness and improved performance confirmed Galatea effect Conclusion: Self-fulfilling prophecy costs nothing to apply, but the payoff can be invaluable

What Theory? Elements/components: Performance outcomes, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion, physiological feedback

Self-Efficacy

What Theory? Organizational Applications: Provide positive performance outcomes, role models, and verbal encouragement

Self-Efficacy

What Theory? Research Support: Strong

Self-Efficacy

What Theory? Research: Eden and Zuk (1995)

Self-Efficacy

What Theory? Source of motivation: Belief that one can succeed

Self-Efficacy

What Theory? Major Proponent: Bandura

Self-Efficacy Theory

Expectancy (VIE Theory) is similiar to what theory? Definitional issue bc?

Self-efficacy VIE Narrower in scope

Social Cognitive Theory/Social Learning Theory focus on what theory? Definitional issue bc?

Self-efficacy they are broader in scope

Individual Differences in equity sensitivity (equity sensitives, benevolent, entitleds)

Sensitives - prefer an equal outcome/input ratio to comparison other Benevolents - (giver) prefer a lower outcome/input ratio to comparison other. Willing to accept unrewarded Entitleds - (taker) prefer a higher outcome/input ratio to comparison other

Goal Acceptance: Define, most likely when (3)?

The degree to which individuals accept goals and are determined to achieve them 1. Percieve goals as attainable 2. Goals made public (increases accountability) 3. Have an internal locus of control (outcomes are a result of your own actions/abilities)

Schweitzer et al. (2004): Results (4)

The majority of participants did not overstate their productivity Goal setting alone (even without rewards) increased the tendency to overstate productivity Reward goal participants did not take money they did not claim to have earned, even though they could have anonymously done so Participants were more likely to overstate their productivity when they were close to rather than far from reaching their goal

Performance of A Self-Efficacious Individual Generally? 2 factors that weaken relationship between self-efficacy and performance

They perform better! 28% Gain in work experience bc of self-efficacy 1. High task complexity 2. Field Settings

Purpose of Greenburg 1990 (theft) study? What kind of experiment? Happened where are why?

To examine theft as a reaction to inequity among employees Field experiment Happened in 2 plants with cut wages and one control plant Company was forced to reduce payroll by cutting wages temporarily

Latham & Baldes (1975) classic study & Empirical Support

Truck Logging, weight percentage baseline of 58% to 62% under do your best goal. 58 to 70-90 under specific difficult goal Lasting effect, saved money Conclusion: Goal setting is inexpensive and effective

Organizational Applications of Self-Efficacy Utilize the sources (4) AND ?

Utilize the sources of self-efficacy: 1. Structure assignments so that employees succeed at increasingly challenging tasks (Training may increase self-efficacy) 2. Provide role models/mentors 3. Offer praise and encouragement 4. Offer additional support for complex tasks Self-efficacy interventions!!

Encouragement/discouragement received from others Must be credible to be believable. What source of self-efficacy?

Verbal Persuasion

Observing others' performance. What source of self-efficacy?

Vicarious Outcomes

define GRIT Self efficacy vs GRIT Positively correlated with _____________ Grittier individual traits (3) Grit is important to _____________, but is more than _________

guts, resilience, initiative, tenacity GRIT: trait-level perserverence VS Self-efficacy: task-specific self-confidence Positively correlated with conscientiousness - Generally older - Higher levels of education - Made fewer changes than less gritty peers of the same age Grit is important to high achievement, but is more than high IQ