Psych CD module 5
(Watson) saw emotions as products of ________________
learning experiences. (behaviorism)
Using the "_________________" trick with toddlers & have them look at themselves in the mirror...if they try to wipe it off themselves, know they realize the image is of them
lipstick on the nose
cognitive theorists emphasize on ____________ in thinking in attachment
maturation
The classic experiment establishing whether a toddler has physical self-awareness is the ___________________
mirror self-recognition task.
4 ways sense of self is expressed:
mirror self-recognition, use of pronouns "I' & "you", visual perspective-taking, possessiveness (which develop simultaneously near the 2nd birthday)
four ways in which this new sense of self is expressed:
mirror self-recognition, use of the pronouns I and you , visual perspective taking, and possessiveness.
after separation, Children seemed to become less compliant with _____________responding with more restrictiveness & punitiveness
mothers
Time spent with infants by fathers seems less important than the________________________
nature of the interactions together
Izzard (2007) has found that specific__________________in the brain have been shown to be at least partially involved in expression of each of these emotions
neural mechanisms
McKim et al. (1999) found that for infants with difficult temperaments, they were more likely to have a secure attachment with their mothers if they spent more time in _____
non-parental care
There is even a benefit for daughters of employed mothers, as they show higher self-esteem, greater independence & greater achievement than daughters of______________
nonworking mothers
Research on children whose mothers work outside of the home as compared to those who don't has _____ shown any difference in terms of cognitive achievement & socioemotional development
not
distress at separation by itself was __________ a reliable indicator of type of attachment.
not
Mother's Role in attachment:
not all attachment/relationship issues due to insensitivity on the part of the mother, infants & parents resilient so doesn't have to be a perfect relationship for a secure attachment
Girls who have a clearer sense of self will try to create a sense of when interacting with an unfamiliar peer by playing with the same type of toy
similarity
Infants have little self-awareness, but within the first 2 years of life, they develop the ability to recognize themselves in a mirror, to use the pronouns I and you correctly, and to understand that other people see the world differently than they do, called _________________
visual perspective taking
Permissive parenting
(low on control, high on nurturance): made few demands on children, permitted to make own decisions about daily routine & few limits imposed on behavior, could be moderately nurturant or cool & uninvolved
Both new mothers and new fathers experience _______________changes following childbirth that may increase their responsiveness to their baby's distress, such as more rapid heartbeats and other physiological responses that promote caregiving to their new babies
hormonal
Ekman & Izzard (1972) found a high degree of agreement across cultures in how photographs displaying 6 of the basic emotions were labeled, concluding that despite different languages, these are universals. He also concluded that because very young infants display these distinct emotional expressions, they are_________________
innate & have adaptive value.
NICHD (1991) did a longitudinal study of the impact of early "non-maternal care" on children's development They found that insecure attachment to the mother was not related to non-maternal care, but rather to_____________
insensitive mothering
These are often called basic (or primary) emotions because they appear so early in infancy
interest, distress, disgust, joy, sadness, surprise, & anger is added to that list by 4 months & fear by 7 months
different_______________ as earlier relationships have provided securely attached infants with more internal resources to cope with difficulties, parents have been able to soothe & help them so that they can soothe & help themselves later
internal working models
Secure attachment
is a strong emotional bond with a caregiver (who provides comfort & security), turn to when distressed, happy to see & unhappy at separation from
Secure attachment
is a strong, positive emotional bond with a particular person who provided comfort and a sense of security.
stepfamilies
Families in which there are two adults and at least one child from a previous relationship of one of the adults; there also may be biological children of the couple.
Attachment
is based on the relationship between two people, each of whom has an impact on the nature of the relationship. The interaction of a particular child and a particular parent creates a unique relationship different from that between any other two people.
Temperament
is the general way in which we respond to experiences in the world, whether seeing horror films, doing a class presentation, or being cut off in traffic.
Socialization
is the process of how children learn social knowledge, behaviors & attitudes valued by the larger society
Within the first year, their attraction to eyes helps them engage in a process called _____________
joint attention
In helping deal with adoption, professionals suggest developing a "_________________" (the story of their adoption), even before they can truly understand it. Details are filled in more as the child grows & understands more.
family story
Watson (1930) explained that the 3 emotional reactions of ___________________are originally unlearned & shown to only a limited range of stimuli
fear, rage & love
Psychodynamic & Learning Theorists focus on the importance of the _____________ in attachment
feeding situation
Nearly______ of first marriages end in separa-tion or divorce within the first 5 years
20%
Self-control:
"Can lower his/her voice when asked to do so"; "When picking up toys or other jobs, usually keeps at the task until it's done."
Negative emotion:
"Has temper tantrums when s(he) doesn't get what s(he) wants"; "Has a hard time settling down for a nap."
Extraversion:
"Usually rushes into an activity without thinking about it"; "Gets so worked up before an exciting event that s(he) has trouble sitting still."
Stranger anxiety
( Attachment in the making stage) Fearfulness that infants develop at about 6 months of age toward people they do not know.
Internal working model
( Goal-corrected partnership stage) A mental representation of particular attachment relationships a child has experienced that shapes expectations for future relationships.
Joint attention
( Preattachment stage) A process in which an individual looks at the same object that someone else is looking at, but also looks at the person to make sure that they are both involved with the same thing.
Mary Rothbart and her colleagues developed some different ideas about the dimensions of temperament than those of Chess and Thomas. In their research, they found three basic dimensions:
(1) extraversion, (2) negative emotion, and (3) self-control
Mary Rothbart and her colleagues have added to the work by Chess and Thomas with rigorous analyses of parent ques-tionnaires about children's temperament (Rothbart, Ahadi, Hershey, & Fisher, 2001). They have examined two basic aspects of temperament:
(1) involuntary reactivity to external events, including emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity; and (2) ability to self-regulate reactions.
Attachment in the making
(Bowlby) The stage from 6 weeks to 6-8 months in which infants develop stranger anxiety, differentiating those they know from those they don't.
Clear-cut attachment
(Bowlby) The stage from 6-8 months to 18 months-2 years, when an infant develops separation anxiety when a person he is attached to leaves him.
Goal-corrected partnership
(Bowlby) The stage of development of attachment from 18 months on, when toddlers create reciprocal relationships with their mothers.
Preattachment
(Bowlby) The stage of development of attachment from birth to 6 weeks, in which infant sensory preferences bring infants into close connection with parents.
Separation anxiety
(clear-cut attachment stage) Distress felt when separated from a parent.
Authoritarian parenting
(high on control, low on nurturance): very restrictive & controlling, value respect for authority & strict obedience to their commands, use coercive techniques like threats or physical punishment to regulate child behavior without reasoning or explanation, less nurturant than other parents towards their children
One method to measure emotion is to measure changes in physiological functions ______________________
(like heart rate or EEG)
Secondary reinforcers
(like the mother during feeding) become associated with the primary reinforcers so that the presence of mother (or parent) becomes rewarding even apart from feeding (also associated with touch, visual stimulation & vocalization)
Uninvolved parenting
(low on control, low on nurturance): seem uncommitted to parenting role & emotionally detached from children, give greater priority to own needs & preferences than the child's, uninterested in school, unfamiliar with playmates, only infrequent conversations with child
Ainsworth
(who worked with Bowlby) was interested in individual difference in types of attachments formed between babies & their mothers, based on the security of the attachment. Essentially, it looks at the quality of the emotional ties to the mother.
_________________ in this sense is defined as a realization of being independent, unique, stable & self-reflective with own beliefs, knowledge, feelings & characteristics
Self
when infants in the first 6 months of life had a high level of intense and frequent crying, mothers were less likely to be highly sensitive to their infants by the time they were 6 months old. This combination of factors, in turn, led the infant to have an insecure attachment at ____ year of age
1
In fact, ______________ American children will live in a stepfamily at some point during their childhood or adolescence
1 out of every 3
concept of self develops in two (2) stages
1) able to make things happen (intention) 2) leads to concept of "me" (Rochat, 2001) when can begin to think about self ("self-awareness"), develops after age 1, in 2nd year of life
How Parents Socialize Their Children
1) through direct training which provides information & reinforcing (encouraging) behaviors that are desirable or acceptable 2) serve as role-models for behaviors, attitudes & beliefs 3) manage children's social lives to influence their social development (such as choosing the neighborhood to live in, enrolling children in sports programs, arranging birthday parties, inviting friends for sleep-overs, etc., which influence & encourage peer networks)
As John Bowlby (1969) brought new ideas from Harlow's research and from ethological theory into his research on attachment, he described the following four stages in the early development of attachment:
1. Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks) 2. Attachment in the making (6 weeks to 6-8 months) 3. Clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 18 months-2 years) 4. Goal-corrected partnership (also referred to as the formation of reciprocal rela-tionships; 18 months on)
Infants begin to use personal pronouns like my and mine between the ages of ______months
15 and 18
New & more complex emotions are expressed (like guilt, shame, pride) & can begin to communicate them verbally (starting around _____ months or so).
18
Research in attachment suggests the classification at 12 months tends to be the same at ____months
18
Sometime between__________ months, children in Western societies understand that the mirror image is a reflection of themselves, and they begin touching their own nose
18 and 24
Knowing that people have different points of view is evident when showing a picture they have drawn & showing you with it turned towards you. Develops between ______________ months & related to ability to use pronouns "I"/"you" properly
18-24
Her findings suggest that the worst period for most children was the ____________year post-divorce
1st
during the _____ year of life, the frequency of these emotions change, with positive emotions like happiness occurring more, fear decreasing in frequency & frustration (anger) increasing in frequency
1st
However, there is some evidence that even before age ____, infants can form relationships with other children.
2
almost____ of marriages end in separation/divorce within 1st 5 years (if children involved, would be very young)
20 perent
a large-scale study in Minneapolis that assessed infants at 12 & 18 months of age. Most of mothers single parents, had shift in residence or addition/loss of an adult in the family group during that time. Results showed_____________ of infants who had been securely attached at 12 months were insecurely attached at 18 months. These shifts were associated with mother's reports of a greater # of stressful events in their lives (loss of job, illness, financial problems)
20%
Use of pronouns ("you", "me") begins around _____ birthday (few months before or after). Before that, refer to selves in third person.
2nd
Rothbart et al. (2001) suggest that there are ____ basic dimensions of temperament that seem to stay the same for most people but can change if required to by experience
3
To make matters worse, early childhood educators & childcare teachers are not well paid for their work & level of education, so staff turnover is a problem in child care centers (average annual turnover is around _____
30%
In their early studies of children's temperament, Thomas and Chess (1977) found that easy infants made up about____ of their sample, difficult infants made up 10%, and slow-to-warm infants made up about 15%.
40%
in a study done in a town in Germany (Grossmann et al., 1985) found that _____ of the infants were not securely attached but were avoidantly attached.
49%
We know that over ______________ of marriages end in divorce
50%
Hay (2006) found that for those who were more aggressive initially & using possessives, they were more likely than others ___ months later to share with a peer
6
Infants under 2 account for only_____of adoptions; another 9% are toddlers and preschoolers
6%
Some estimate that ________________ of abused children can be classified as insecurely attached
70-100%
Main & Cassidy (1988) even found that classifications made at 12 months were able to predict ___________ of the sample reassessed at 6 years of age
84%
Social referencing first develops between ________ months of age
9 and 12
When does Social referencing begin?
9-12 months
Difficult temperament
A child's general responsiveness marked by a more negative mood, intense responses, slow adaptation to change, and irregular patterns of eating, sleeping, and elimination.
Easy temperament
A child's general responsiveness marked by positive mood, easy adaptation to change, and regularity and predictability in patterns of eating, sleeping, and elimination.
Nuclear family
A family consisting of a husband, a wife, and their biological and/ or adopted children.
Slow-to-warm temperament
A general responsiveness marked by a slow adaptation to new experiences and moderate irregularity in eating, sleeping, and elimination.
attachment
A strong, positive emotional bond with a person who provides comfort and a sense of security.
Grandparents raising grandchildren
According to the 2010 U.S. Census, almost 7.8 million children under the age of 18 are raised by their grandparents or other relatives and those under the age of 6 are more likely to live with a grandparent than older children. About 20% of these grandparents raising grandchildren live below the poverty line
Open adoptions
Adoptions in which the children and their biological and adoptive families have access to each other.
emotion schemas
All the associations and interpretations that an individual connects to a certain emotion.
Disorganized/disoriented attachment
An attachment classification in which behavior is unpredictable and odd and shows no coherent way of dealing with attachment issues; often linked with parental abuse or neglect.
Anxious avoidant attachment
An attachment classification in which the infant is not distressed when his mother leaves, is as comfortable with the stranger as with his mother, and does not rush to greet his mother when she returns.
Anxious ambivalent/ resistant attachment
An attachment classification in which the infant is reluctant to move away from his mother to explore and is very distressed when she leaves, but when she returns, he approaches her but also angrily resists her attempt to pick him up.
Disinhibited social engagement disorder
An attachment disorder in which children approach strangers indiscriminately, not differentiating between attachment figures and other people. adaptive behavior for children who have been mistreated or abandoned.
Theoretical Perspectives: The Ethological View
Attachment as a result of an innate tendency to the caregiver & the caregiver's predisposition to react to these signals Because of this, the baby & caregiver are brought together & the attachment (bond) is formed to ensure the infant's survival Basically, they view attachment as biologically programmed & adaptive, a response system that is activated early in development (kind of like imprinting) John Bowlby (1958, 1969) was a major proponent of this in his search to understand the detrimental effects of institutionalization on early & later development (researchers had found that those who had spent extended time in hospitals & orphanages showed serious developmental problems like withdrawal from social interactions, intellectual delays, & sometimes physical delays
____________ set forth his new theory of attachment based on ethology. He argued that attachment is a biologically based, active behavior related to the infant's need for protection in order to survive. Hev believed infant behaviors such as crying, smiling, sucking, clinging, and fol-lowing are adaptive behaviors that promote the survival of the child by helping develop attachment between mother and child.
Bowlby
Crying: in newborns, cry for multiple reasons (physiological)
By the time 1 or 2 months old, not purely for physiological reasons (caregiver leaves the room, toy taken away) About 8 months of age, will pause to see if others hearing/receiving the message Relates to maturation & more voluntary control over vocalizations
Smiling: in newborns
Changes around 2 weeks of age, occurs during waking, sometimes in response to voices & sounds that are familiar, sweet tastes, food odors that are pleasant Around 3 months of age, smile more & now due to visual stimuli (like at sight of caregiver)...called the "social smile" 4 months, begin to laugh (at auditory & tactile stimuli like tickling & verbalizations that are interesting, then to visual stimuli like "peek-a-boo") Related to cognitive maturation, as respond to more complex stimuli over time (also relying on memory)
________________________, which results in indiscriminate approach of strangers with no differentiation between them & caregivers, no special relationships (seen as possibly adaptive when abandoned/mistreated as will approach others for help)
Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder
Darwin's conclusion?
Emotions & their expression are innate, biologically determined
goodness of fit
Goodness of fit How well a child's temperamental characteristics match the demands of the child's environment.
_________________ published an article titled "The Nature of Love," in which he reported the results of his research with macaque monkeys. (psychoanalytic)
Harry Harlow
secure
I can trust and rely on others. • I am lovable, capable, significant, and worthwhile. • My world is safe.
Strange Situation
Mary Ainsworth's experimental procedure designed to assess security of attachment in infants. each episode lasts 3 minutes unless the baby is crying,
lipstick on the nose
Not evident at 1 year but 18-24 months, seem to in Western cultures
Methods to measure emotions
One method is to measure changes in physiological functions (like heart rate or EEG) Another method is to do analyses of facial expressions or vocalizations Yet another is self-report (not possible in infants at the preverbal stage)
________________________ is shown in an inability to form attachments to caregivers, withdrawn from them & disturbance in social/emotional functioning
Reactive Attachment Disorder
______________________ is how we understand how to label our emotions by how others react when we are uncertain about how to react
Social referencing
Visual perspective-taking
The understanding that other people can see an object from a point of view that is different from one's own. This ability develops in toddlers between 18 and 24 months of age . Ricard, Girouard, and Gouin Décairie (1999) found it was linked with the ability to use I and you correctly as described above.
Secure base for exploration
The use of a parent to provide the security that an infant can rely on as she explores the environment.
________often result from toddlers' frustrations with being able to express a myriad of emotions
Tantrums
Emotion
The body's physiological reaction to a situation, the cognitive interpretation of the situation, communication to another person, and actions.
reactive attachment disorder (RAD)
The child does not seem able to form any attachment. The child is withdrawn with caregivers and shows disturbance in both social and emotional functioning
Psychoanalyst Margaret Mahler argued that infants are not born with a sense that they have a self that is separate from those who take care of them (Mahler, Pine, & Bergman, 1975). Babies must develop this sense, and they appear to do it in two stages.
The first understanding of self is based on the infant's growing ability to make things happen recognizing self awareness
Ainsworth found two behaviors in her observations that best identified the type of attachment relationship infants had with their mother.
The first was the child's ability to be comfortable and explore a new setting while the mother was in the room, with the mother acting as a secure base for exploration. The second was the child's response to the mother's return to the room, known as reunion behavior —that is, the child's ability, when stressed by the mother's departure, to use the mother on her return to calm down and return to playing.
Drive reduction
The idea that human behavior is determined by the motivation to satisfy or reduce the discomfort caused by biological needs or drives such as hunger
Mothers must have immediate contact with their babies after they are born if a secure attachment is to be formed.
false
Lewis & Michalson
They argue that cognitive processes are mediators between experiences (stimuli) & the response of emotional expression...also allows to account for individual differences. They explain that socialization shapes the time & way that emotions are displayed, as well as managed (emotional inhibition), also how emotions are labeled & interpreted (by parents describing & interpreting children's expressed emotions)
example of emotional self regulation in infants/ toddlers
Use methods of self-soothing like thumb-sucking & the "blankie" or favorite toy & of showing over-stimulation by yawning & turning away
Social referencing
Using the reaction of others to determine how to react in ambiguous situations.
example of secure attachement
You are usually happy to see that per-son and may be unhappy about separations. This is a person with whom you can feel free to be yourself in the fullest sense.
Thomas and Chess identified nine characteristics that contribute to the infant's temperament. These are ;
activity level, adaptability, approach or withdrawal, attention span and persistence, distractibility, intensity of reaction, quality of mood, rhythmicity (or regularity), and threshold of responsiveness.
Chess (1977, 1999) has shown 9 characteristics that contribute to infant temperament, based on interviews with parents. These are:
activity level, adaptability, approach/withdrawal, attention span & persistence, distractibility, intensity of reaction, quality of mood, regularity (rhythmicity), & threshold of responsiveness
Other research has shown that post-divorce, many children exhibit more __________________
aggression, poorer academic achievement, disrupted peer relationships & depression
Harlow
also challenged the view that the infant monkeys were passive recipients, as they actively sought out the cloth "mothers"
Attachment Complicated in Japan by different concept of ____________, or interdependence emotionally between child & caregiver (not exactly the same as attachment
amae
Thomas and Chess identified nine characteristics that contribute to the infant's temperament. These are activity level, adaptability, approach or withdrawal, attention span and persistence, distractibility, intensity of reaction, quality of mood, rhythmicity (or regularity), and threshold of responsiveness. Any individual infant can score high, low, or average on each of these characteristics, and combining this information produces three temperament profiles:
an easy temperament, a difficult temperament, and a slow-to-warm temperament.
A boy in the United States who is hit by a baseball may automatically begin to cry, but if his schema for crying includes "big boys don't cry," he decides "I cannot let myself cry," and his facial expression may then reflect _____________________at him-self for experiencing this forbidden emotion. Sadness is then often expressed as anger, which is more acceptable for boys in the American culture.
anger
Infants and toddlers do not understand what is happening when parents separate. Instead they resonate to their parents' distressed feelings and to disruptions in their normal routines and this can result in a number of behavioral problems. These can include;
anger and aggression, separation anxiety, eating or sleep problems, or loss of recent developmental achievements such as toilet training or language development
Darwin (as already described) did intensive observation of his own children & identified 7 basic emotions with specific facial expressions:
anger, fear, affection, pleasure, amusement, discomfort & jealousy
The most commom insecure category in Israel, Korea, and Japan it is _________________
anxious/ambivalent attachment
children of authoritarian parents
appeared to be unhappy, the boys tended to be aggressive & the girls were more likely to be dependent
The love in this relationship consists of an emotional bond, known as ____________ , which is central to the well-being of infants and children as they grow.
attachment
They found that soon after separating from their husbands, mothers tended to adopt a more _____________style of parenting, giving out a lot of commands & prohibitions, displaying little affection or responsiveness to their children
authoritarian
The argument has been made that basic emotions are __________ and unlearned because all infants demonstrate these basic emotions, and particular neural systems in the brain are at least partially dedicated to the expression of each of these emotions
automatic
In American and Northern European cultures, the most common insecure category is _______
avoidant attachment
at 3 months of age, infants who had lower levels of sociability were more likely to have an _______________ at 6 months of age, and infant irritability predicted anxious ambivalent/resistant attachment.
avoidant attachment
Infants and toddlers do not understand what is happening when parents separate. Instead they resonate to their parents' distressed feelings and to disruptions in their normal routines and this can result in a number of _______________
behavioral problems.
the idea that "_________" is a powerful control on the expression of sadness for many boys and may make it difficult for them to get help or even to understand their own sad feelings.
big boys don't cry
When studied 3 years after adoption, they had different _______________to social interaction than other children who had been raised by their parent since birth
biochemical responses
ethologists stress_______________ in attachment
biological predispositions
Ample evidence shows that new life circumstances can _____________ a secure attachment to an insecure one and vice versa
change
In the stage of ______________, infants begin to move about on their own and become able to actively maintain contact with their caregiver. Infants now clearly discriminate between their attachment figures and strangers. During this stage, babies seek out their parents when they are stressed or afraid, but separation from parents, in and of itself, becomes frightening, and infants begin to protest when their parents leave. This distress is referred to as separation anxiety
clear-cut attachment
family nurtures__________________________ among others
cognition, moral awareness, gender identity, emotional growth, social development, physical growth, health
Watson created in him a _____________________ to a white rat after its presentation had been paired with a loud noise. Albert even generalized his fear to things that were similar to the white rat like a rabbit & a fluffy piece of cotton
conditioned emotional response
Harlow concluded that "_______" had a greater role in attachment than feeding
contact comfort
Although basic emotional expression appears to be universal, the way they are expressed & interpreted/understood seems to be impacted by ________________
culture, gender, temperament
Although some aspects of emotional expression appear to be universal, there is also considerable evidence that the way we display our own emotions and understand those shown by others is mediated in part by our ______________________
culture, language, gender, temperament, and personality
Moss (1974) found that both mothers & fathers spent more time trying to get their baby________________ to smile than they did their baby boys
daughters
children of permissive parents
displayed low self-control & self-reliance
Children of uninvolved parents
displayed lower self-esteem, higher aggression & lower impulse control behavior
When normal attachment processes are disrupted because of the medical care required by premature infants, taking infants out of the incubator to allow mothers to have skin-to-skin contact with their baby _______________ help promote attachment and also improves the baby's development through age 10
does
An infant crying at the departure of someone who helps the infant feel secure ____________________indicate an excessive attachment to that person. It is quite a normal reaction.
does not
cross-cultural research has found that the proportion of infants classified by the Strange Situation as having a secure attachment_________________ differ very much from one country to another
does not
Combination of these 9 lead to 3 temperament profiles: ____________
easy, difficult, & slow-to-warm
The suggestion is that basic emotions seem to have a biological basis, ___________ schemas are developed past that & these impact on how we experience & show emotions
emotion
our basic emotions appear to be biologically determined, we quickly develop ways of thinking about emotions, called _________________ , that affect the way we experience and show emotions
emotion schemas
_______________ are complex behaviors that involve physiological, expressive & experiential components that are produced in response to either an internal or external event
emotions
In addition to checking with other people for clues about their emotional expression, infants and toddlers have a natural tendency to share other people's feelings, which is the essence of ____________________________.
empathy
Authoritative parenting (high on control, also high on nurturance):
expected children to behave maturely but more use of reward than punishment, communicate expectations clearly & provide guidance/direction, listened to children & encouraged communication, also warm & supportive in interactions
Family experiences_____________, constantly changing between & among family members
fluid
According to Chess and Thomas (1999), what is most important in shaping the consequences of having one type of temperament versus another is the _______ between the child's characteristics and the demands of the environment.
goodness of fit
They suggest that what shapes one temperament versus another is the_________________ between the child's characteristics & the demands of the environment
goodness of fit
If quality of non-maternal care was poor, the infant spent more than 10 hours a week in care or the infant had been in more than 1 child care setting in 1st 15 months, the negative effect of maternal insensitivity was even __________
greater
Over____ of married mothers with children under age 6 are employed outside the home, most working out of necessity to help support the family
half
there is remarkable similarity around the world in the display and understanding of facial expressions that indicate basic emotions:
happiness, sadness, fear, anger, interest, and disgust
The caregiver-to-child ratio care)
has been recommended by the National Association for the Education of Young Children to be 1 for every 4 infants between 6 to 18 months; regulations for this differ by state as well, with the range for infants from 6 to 9 months at anywhere from a 1:3 ratio to 1:6 & for 18-month-olds ranging from 1:3 to 1:9 (obviously the higher ratios are nowhere near able to provide responsive, quality
Malatesta et al. (1989)
observed mothers' facial expressions as they played with their 2-year-olds, were more expressive with their daughters than with their sons. The little girls were exposed to a wider range of emotions & received more social smiles
Adoption Statistics for 2008,
only 6% were of children under 2 years of age, with another 9% toddlers & preschoolers. 14% of adoptions are from outside the U.S. & your text notes the importance of respecting a child's cultural heritage
Typically, most adoptions are___________ adoptions where the birth and adoptive families are connected to each other (although the amount of contact & sharing of information differs from family to family)
open
neglected children did not demonstrate a similar rise in ______ following interaction with their adoptive parents. Many also produced very low levels of ______, a neurochemical linked with the ability to recognize individuals as familiar.
oxytocin,vasopressin
Puerto Rican mothers more likely than mothers in Boston more likely to be______________ of their infants, which is positively valued in their culture
physically controlling
Certain basic drives of organisms like hunger are satisfied by _____________ (like food), which are rewards that satisfy biological needs
primary reinforcers
Community Renewal Team
provides help to 24 families in which grandparents are raising their grandchildren
By their second year, infants bring _____________ into their peer interactions as they imitate what other children are doing.
reciprocity
Only when he understands that I is different from you does he become able to use the pronouns correctly and say "Pick me up!" Toddlers develop this ability several months before or after their ______ birthday.
second
Infants with_______________________ rely on their parent to respond to their needs and turn to their parent when they are stressed. The baby's reliance on a trustworthy parent allows her to explore the environment, knowing mother is there to help if needed.
secure attachment
Based on her observations of infants' reactions during the Strange Situation, Ainsworth described four types of attachment:
secure attachment, anxious avoidant attachment, anxious ambivalent/resistant attachment, and disorganized/disoriented attachment
children of authoritative parents
seemed to fare best as they were friendly with peers, cooperative with adults, independent, energetic, achievement-oriented, high degree of self-control
Toddlers who have a clearer sense of _____ are better able to play successfully with peers
self
Three out of 4 people who divorce will remarry (Coleman, Ganong, & Warzinik, 2007), and when there are children are involved, ________________ form.
stepfamilies
Darwin (back in the 19th century) stressed the importance of a biological basis for emotion in that their expression serves a ______________ function to prepare for action & signal to others the action that will be taken
survival
Attachment to fathers is as likely to be secure as it is to the mother
t
If a child has developed an insecure attachment to a parent, that child can still become securely attached later in her life.
t
In general, father's spend less time caring for & interacting with their children than mothers (but this seems to be changing)
t
the general emotional style an individual displays in responding to experiences in the world
tempermant
U.S. is one of only a few Western countries that does not have _____________, publicly-funded child care
universal
, they found that fathers tended to ______________ after divorce or separation, not participating much in children's behavioral management
withdraw
Mothers are more likely to respond positively to their babies when they have the following:
• A positive relationship with their partner • Adequate economic resources • Good psychological health (for example, maternal depression has been linked to insecure attachment) • A history of good care in their own childhood • An infant who is easy to care for
disorganized/disoriented
• My caregiver, at times, seems overwhelmed by me and, at other times, seems very angry with me. • Others are abusive—neglectfully, physically, emotionally, and/or sexually. • I am unable to get my needs met. I don't know how to protect myself.
anxious avoidant
• Other people are unavailable and rejecting. • I have to protect myself. • If I deny my needs, I will not be rejected. • If I do what is expected of me, I will not be rejected. • If I take care of others and deny my own needs, I will be loved.
anxious ambivalent/ resistant
• Others are unpredictable, sometimes loving and protective, sometimes hostile and rejecting. • I don't know what to expect—I am anxious and angry . • I cannot explore—I may miss an opportunity for love and affection. • If I can read others and get them to respond, I will get my needs met.
