PSYCH: Chapter 7

infants also categorize items on the basis of prototypes, which are

averages, extracted from the structural regularities of items

theory of mind

awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others

learning about a topsy turvy imaginary world likely helped young children

become more flexible in their thinking

imagery

creating a mental image to improve memory; using imagery to remember verbal info works better for older children

strategy construction

creation of new procedures for processing information

two other high level thinking processes in adolescence

decision making critical thinking

fuzzy trace theory dual-process model

decision making is influenced by two cognitive systems verbatim analytical gist based intuitional (very important) operate in parallel

shrinking with prefrontal cortex with aging -->

decrease in working memory and other cognitive activities in older adults

habituation

decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentation of the stimulus

children with autism show a number of behaviors different from other children their age including

deficits in theory of mind, social interaction, and communication as well as repetitive behaviors or interests

speed with which cognitive tasks are completed improves

dramatically across the childhood years and continues to improve in early adolescence

during which years does vigilance increase the most

during preschool years older children and adolescents do show increases in vigilance tho

what influences the cognitive functioning of older adults?

education, work, health MOST IMP factors involved in understanding why cohort effects should be taken into account when studying cog functioning of older adults

working memory is an important process and resource for

effective memory

metacognition helps people perform many cognitive tasks more

effectively

processing speed is an important indicator of the ability of older adults to continue

effectively driving a vehicle

basic processes required for memory

encoding storage retrieval

changes in children's cognitive skills depend on increased skill at

encoding relevant info and ignoring irrelevant info

elaboration

engaging in more extensive processing of information includes thinking of examples, especially those related to yourself

autobiographical memories are stored as

episodic memories

cortical thickness in frontoparietal network predicts

executie function in older adults

kung children make advances in

executive and sustained attention

cognitive control

exercising effective control in a number of areas including focusing attention, reducing interfering thoughts, and being cognitively flexible increases in adolescence and emerging adulthood

expertise

extensive, highly organized knowledge and understanding of a particular domain takes a long time to obtain - in middle and older adults

developmental robotics

field using robots in examining various developmental topics and issues like motor and perceptual development, info processing, and language development

selective attention

focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring the others that are irrelevant

older adults show greater activity in the ___ and ___ lobes of the brain on simple tasks

frontal and parietal BUT as attentional demands increase, older adults display less effective functioning in frontal and parietal lobes that involve cog control

encode

getting info into memory

physical brain is the computer's

hardware

self-efficacy

having confidence in one's ability to adapt their thinking to a particular situation; important for cognitive flexibility

some of the decline in intellectual performance found in older adults is likely due to

health related factors rather than to age per se

executive function is involved not only in cognitive performance, but also in

health, emotion regulation, adaptation to life's challenges, motivation, and social functioning

more complex job =

higher cognitive functioning later in life

scaffolding for older brain

involves the use of complementary neural circuits to protect cognitive functioning in an aging brain; engagement and exercise can strengthen brain scaffolding

joint attention

involves two or more individuals focusing on the same object or events

concept

key to infants cognitive development cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas allow you to make generalizations

declines in working memory during

late adulthood can be improved through training (some plasticity) but older adults showed less improvement than younger adults

salient versus relevant dimensions

preschool child is more likely to pay attention to stimuli that stand out even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem ends at 6/7 - less impulsive, more reflection

playfulness

preschool children tend to use haphazard strategies and do not examine all the details before making a judgment while elementary aged children are more likely to systematically plan

child's ability to pay attention improves significantly during

preschool years

when do a child's memories take on more autobiographical characteristics?

preschool years volume of autobiographical memories is linked to volume of self knowledge

hot executive function

psych processes driven by emotion with emotion regulation as an especially imp process

cool executive function

psych processes involving conscious control driven by logical thinking and critical analysis

we _____ the past, rather than take an exact photograph of it

reconstruct

dishabituation

recovery of responsiveness after a change in stimulation

adolescents are more likely than children to engage in

recursive thinking - thinking about what other people are thinking about helps adolescents be better at understanding and predicting other's behavior, feelings, motives

why does memory span change with age?

rehearsal of info is important and older children rehearse the digits more than younger children speed of processing/repetition

long term memory

relatively permanent and unlimited

in many contexts, older adults may not be able to focus on

relevant info as effectively as younger adults

experts do what

rely on accumulated experience process info automatically and analzye it more efficiently better strategies and shortcuts for problem solving more creative in solving problems

working memory develops

slowly; linked to many aspects of children's development

what context plays a role in adolescent decision making

social context

cognition is the computer's

software

retrieval

taking info out of storage

automaticity

the ability to process information with little or no effort increases with practice

source memory

the ability to remember where one learned something contexts can include physical setting, emotional context, identity of speaker

Attention

the focusing of mental resources. improves cognitive processing for many tasks people can only pay attention to a limited amount of info at one time

encoding

the process by which information gets into memory

memory

the retention of information over time helps you connect what happened and what is going on

babies do not show explicit memory until

the second half of the first year improves substantially during the second year of life

limitation on processing information is

the speed at which it takes place

strategies

the use of mental activities to improve the processing of information includes rehearsing information and organizing and repetition

metacognition

thinking about thinking or knowing about knowing ie knowing you can remember something better if you relate it to your own life

what does joint attention require

1 the ability to track another's behavior 2 one person directing another's attention 3 reciprocal interaction

working memory aspects that especially decline in older adults involve

1 updating memory representations that are relevant for the task at hand 2 replacing old, no longer relevant information

hot executive function peaks at

14/15 then declines

the realization that people can have false beliefs develops in most children by which age

5

changes of the brain linked to infant's memory development

6-12 months maturation of hippocampus and surrounding cerebral cortex and especially the frontal lobes makes the emergence of explicit memory possible

when do infants form conceptual categories?

7-9 months of age birds as animals and airplanes as vehicles even though they're conceptually similar

connection between cognition and the brain is like

a computer

age related losses in processing speed were explained by

a decline in neural connectivity and/or changing levels of dopamine breakdown in myelin

working memory

a kind of mental "workbench" where individuals manipulate and assemble info when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend written and spoken language more active and powerful in modifying info than short term memory interacts with longterm memory limited capacity system

semantic memory

a person's knowledge of the world; includes field of expertise, general academic knowledge, and everyday knowledge

artificial intelligence

a scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people

sustained attention

ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time

processing of irrelevant info decreases in

adolescence

who is more likely to use elaboration spontaneously?

adolescents

intense emotional arousal is a common state for

adolescents and it affects decision making

cool executive function increases with

age

not until middle and late childhood do children see the mind as what?

an active constructor of knowledge or a processing center and move to understand that there isn't just true and false but their are multiple interpretations

information processing theory

analyzes how individuals encode information, manipulate it, monitor it, and creat strategies for handling it

how well do older adults function on tasks that involve vigilance?

as well as younger adults drops for complex vigilance tests

older adults have more difficulty in attention that involves

aspects of driving, distraction, selective attention, complex vigilance tasks

effective information processing involves

attention, memory, and thinking

mindfulness

being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going thru life's everyday activities and tasks important aspect of thinking critically

cognitive flexibility

being aware of available options and then adapting to one's situation

sustained attention includes

being on high alert for opportunity or danger

increased in ability to delay gratification =

better academic success, cope with stress more successfully, happier, lower BMI

joint attention is linked to

better sustained attention, memory, self regulation, executive function

as children go through middle and late childhood and thru adolescence, their autobiographical narratives

broaden and become more elaborated

fish oil

can help brain functioning but most dietary supplements do not facilitate major cog improvements in aging adults over a number of years

short term memory has a very limited

capacity

terminal decline

changes in cognitive functioning may be linked more to distance from death or cognition-related pathology than to distance from birth

culture influences

children's autobiographical memories american girls give more detailed, specific, and longer narratives than children in china and korea

changes in the brain with age can influence

cognitive functioning, and changes in cognitive functioning can influence the brain

in early childhood, executive function especially involves developmental advances in:

cognitive inhibition (inhibiting a strong tendency that is incorrect) cognitive flexibility goal setting delay of gratification

explicit memory

conscious recollection of facts and experiences

by middle age, adults have accumulated a great deal of what

metacognitive knowledge which helps them combat a decline in memory skills

important aspect of cognitive functioning and learning is determining

how much attention will be allocated to an available resource and STRATEGIES

what causes infantile amnesia?

immaturity of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex

most important cognitive change in adolescence is

improvement in executive/cognitive control

significant strides in memory as children grow older?

improvements in short term and long term memory and the use of strategies

short term memory increases

in childhood

contemplative science

include yoga, mindfulness, meditation, tai chi cross-disciplinary term that involves the study of how various types of mental and physical training might enhance children's development

cognitive and fitness training

includes computer games/ simluations some improvements in cognitive vitality of older adults can be accomplished

failures of source memory ____ with age in the adult years

increase

has delayed gratification increased in the 21st century or decreased?

increased

factors that influence theory of mind milestones

increased executive function advances in prefrontal cortex functioning engagement in pretend play social interaction - parents who engage children in mental state talk

improvement in critical thinking during adolescence includes

increased speed, automaticity, capacity for Info processing increased content knowledge in a variety of domains increased ability to construct new combos of knowledge greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies and procedures for obtaining and applying knowledge

metacognition's capacity _____ in adolescence and early adulthood

increases

metamemory

individual's knowledge about memory knowing that recognition tests are easier than recall tests that short lists are easier to remember than long ones

joint attention considerably increases

infants ability to learn from other people

preschool children have an ______ opinion of their memory abilities

inflated

sensory and perceptual systems are a ___ channel

input

divided attention

involves concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

critical thinking

involves grasping the deeper meaning of ideas, keeping an open mind about different approaches and perspectives, and deciding for oneself what to believe or do

thinking

involves manipulating and transforming information into memory. we think in order to reason, reflect, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions

executive attention

involves planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring process on tasks, dealing with new/difficult circumstances

putting things into the correct categories is an important aspect of

learning

functioning of the hippocampus declines more or less than functioning of the frontal lobes

less

implicit memory is ___ likely than explicit memory to be adversely affected by aging

less

explanations of the decline in working memory in older adults

less efficient inhibition in preventing irrelevant info from entering working memory and increased distractibility declines in processing speed and attention could play a role

higher executive function =

linked with academic achievement, less ADHD, less depression

when infants habituate to one object they will tend to

look at an unfamiliar object, which shows they can tell the objects apart

during later years of childhood and adolescence, individuals approach cognitive levels that

may or not be achieved there will be considerable variation in cognitive functioning by adolescence

knowledge influences

memory influences what you notice, how you organize, represent, and interpret knowledge

fuzzy trace theory

memory is best understood by considering two types of memory representations 1 verbatim memory trace (tendency of young children) 2 gist

autobiographical memory

memory of significant events and experiences in one's life

implicit memory

memory without conscious recollection - memories of skills and routine procedures that are performed automatically

schemas

mental frameworks that organize concepts and information; influence the way people encode, make inferences about, and retrieve info

processing speed begins to decline in

middle adulthood

episodic memory declines ____ than semantic memory in older adults

more widens in middle and late adulthood

fuzzy traces are

more enduring and less likely to be forgotten than verbatim traces contributes to improved memory and reasoning of older children

infants advances in processing information through attention, memory, and concept formation is

much richer, more gradual, and less stage like and occurs earlier than envisioned by earlier theorists like piaget

what in the brain's prefrontal cortex declines and what is it linked to

neural circuits; poorer performance by older adults on complex reasoning tasks, working memory, espisodic memory tasks

infants attention is linked to

novelty and habituation familiar object = shorter attention

cognitive training

older adults can regain skills to some extent

as competing tasks become more difficult,

older adults divide attention less effectively than younger adults do

theory of mind abilities decline in

oler adults related to declines in other cog skills (executive function) and changes in brain's prefrontal cortex

attention in the first year of life is dominated by

orienting/investigative process involves directing attention to potentially important locations and recognizing objects and their features

older adults tend to over or underestimate the memory problems they experience on a daily basis

overestimate

who plays important role in development of executive function?

parents and teachers father's autonomy support parents middle, support, and scaffold skills

episodic memory

part of explicit memory retention of information about the when and where of life's happenings young adults are better at this

use it or lose it

participating in intellectually engaging activities buffers against cognitive decline

schema theory

people mold memories to fit info that already exist in their minds

from 18 months to 3 years of age, children begin to understand three mental states

perceptions: by 2 children recognize that another person will see what is in front of their eyes not what's in front of the child's eyes emotions: can distinguish between positive and negative emotions desires: refer to desires earlier and more frequently than when they refer to cognitive states like thinking and knowing

early categorizations are

perceptual categorizations based on similar perceptual features like size, color, movement, parts

infants can remember

perceptual motor information

conceptualization of metacognition includes several dimensions of executive function including

planning, evaluation (monitoring progress toward task completion), and self regulation

heavy media multitasking in adolescence is linked to

poorer memory increased impulsivity reduced volume in the brain's cerebral cortex less likely to delay gratification more likely to endorse intuitive but wrong answers

prospective memory

remembering to do something in the future declines with age - complex causes including nature of task and what is being assessed

two strategies adults can use to guide children's retention of memory

repeat with variation on instructional info and link early and often embed memory-relevant language when instructing children

once a task is automatic, it does not

require conscious effort

older children and adolescents are better than younger children at tasks that

require shifting attention

short term memory

retaining information for up to thirty seconds without rehearsal of the information using rehearsal, individuals can keep info in short term memory longer

storage

retaining information over time

patterns of neural decline with aging are more evident for

retrieval than encoding

marshmallow experiment

ring bell and get marshmallow or wait and get two from the instructor young children who waited used a number of strategies to distract themselves from the marshmallow (cool thoughts_

2 wats that the preschool child's control of attention is deficient

salient vs relevant dimensions playfulness

a preschool child's ability to control and sustain their attention is related to

school readiness and achievement

educational experiences are positively correlated with

scores on intelligence tests and info processing tasks better cognitive functioning

micro genetic method

seeks to discover not just what children know, but the cognitive processes involved in how they acquire the knowledge

dimensions of executive function that are the most important for 4 to 11 year old children's cognitive development and school success

self control working memory flexibility

children's information processing is characterized by

self modification children learn to apply what they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to a new situation

what escapes memory decline

semantic and implicit

age related deficits in prospective memory occur more often in

time based tasks, not event based tasks

joint attention skills are frequently observed

toward the end of the first year

executive function

umbrella-like concept that encompasses a number of higher level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brain's prefrontal cortex involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal directed behavior and self control

3 - 5 year olds _____ when mental activity is likely to take place and their understanding of their own thinking is _____

underestimate linking

reminiscence bump

when adults remember more events from the second and third decades of their lives than other decades; found more for positive than negative life events mostly occurs for personal events but can occur with high impact public events

tip of the tongue phenomenon

when individuals can't quite retrieve familiar information

infantile amnesia

when you cannot remember stuff from your first three years of life; starts around 9 years old

factors that influence the accuracy of a young child's memory

younger children are more susceptible to suggestion there are individual differences to susceptibility too (increased susceptibility is linked to low self concept, low support from parents, mother's insecure attachment in romantic relationships) interviewing techniques can produce substantial distortions in children's reports about highly salient events