PSYCH exam 1

How is social psychology distinct form other sub disciplines in psychology

- focuses on social influence: ways in which social influence shapes individual behavior, attitudes, and beliefs. does not focus on internal mental processes or individual development - group dynamics - interdisciplinary nature: draws on insights from other disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and neuroscience to understand social behavior

What is the social desirability response bias?

-a type of response bias that occurs when people respond to survey or interview questions in a way that is socially desirable rather than truthful. - creates bias and inaccurate results MINIMISE: indirect mesures such as physiological measures and behavioral observations

Inference/Attribution Theory -What is a causal attribution? -Internal/dispositional vs. External/situational attributions (Heider)

Causal attribution: refers to the process of inferring the causes of an event of behavior. It involves making judgements about why something happened or why someone acted in a certain way - Dispositional/internal: their personal characteristics caused this; emphazseixes the role of persons traits, abilities, personality, and other internal factors in causing their behavior - Situational/external: outside sources/situations caused this - People make causal attributions by considering three types of information: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Consensus: the extent to which other people behave similarly in a give situation. Distinctiveness: the extent to which a persons behavior is unique to a particular situation consistency: the extent to which a persons behavior is consistent across different situations EX: Consensus: Have other people broken off engagements with MGK (yes high consensus) Distinctiveness: has Megan fox broken off engagements with other people (yes mid distinctness) consistency: have they gotten back together and then broken up again (TBD)

Central Traits - Kelley (1950)

Central traits refer to those characteristics or qualities of a person that are believed to exert a powerful influence on the overall impression that others form of that person - suggests that these traits are highly influential in shaping social judgments and interpersonal interactions

What are dependent vs predictor variables? Be sure you can identify each in any study design presented.

Dependent variable: the outcome variable. the thing you are trying to predict using something else of the thing that is being changed. Predictor Variable: A variable you use to predict the out come variable (types: independent, participant, environmental) Independent variable: a variable under the control of the researcher that you change Participant variable: variables that differ across participants, and its something you cant change ie participant comes to the lab Environmental variable: the researcher has no control over the environment, it is the way it is

-What is a trait?

Enduring or stable personality characteristic

Why are first impressions hard to change?

Even when we are shown information that should change our initial idea, the original belief will take priority

What is open science?

Investigators are encouraged or required to share their methods and data with any interested party in the broader scientific community in an effort to increase the integrity and replicability of scientific research.

What is Kelley's Causal Calculus/Covariation Model (incl. consensus, distinctiveness, consistency)? What is the covariation principle? -locus of cause vs. stability of cause (based on which types of information? Be sure you can come up with the appropriate questions for each of the types of information.) -How do we deal with information suggesting multiple potential causes? (augmenting, discounting)

Kelley's Causal Calculus/Covariation Model: A framework that outlines how people make attributions about the causes of behavior According to this model, people make casual attributions by considering three types of covariatoiin info: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency Specifically, high consensus, high distinctiveness, and low consistency would lead to an external attribution low consensus, low distinctivness, and high consistency would lead to an internal attribution Locus of cause refers to whether the cause is internal or external the stability of cause refers to wreathe is is likely to persist over time When dealing with information suggesting multiple potential causes, people use the processes of augmenting and discounting. Augmenting involves increasing the weight of a particular cause when other potential causes are present. Discounting involves decreasing the weight of a particular cause when other potential causes are present.

What is the principle of cognitive conservatism (cognitive miser)?

Taking in as little info as possible but taking in enough that you are able to gain a pretty close approximation of reality

Cross-cultural definitions of the self

Western: independent self Asian countries: Interdependent self

What is the effect of first impressions? Are they durable or fleeting? -Asch vs Anderson's conceptualizations of impression formation (inc. how Gestalt thinking fits into this)

initial evaluations that people make about someone based on their physical appearance, behavior, and other observable characteristics. - influence judgements and interactions with person being evaluated - first impressions are not only durable but also have a lasting impact on our perceptions and evaluations of others; perceive as likable, competent, and trustworthy: good for dating and job interviews Asch's theory emphasizes the importance of Gestalt thinking in impression formation, suggesting that people form impressions based on the overall configuration of traits or characteristics they observe in others (you cant just look at the individual pieces, you have to look at the whole of the sum). He also believed that impressions could be modified based on new info Anderson's theory, on the other hand, emphasizes the role of personal schemas or mental frameworks in impression formation. According to Anderson, people use their pre-existing beliefs and expectations about others to interpret and evaluate new information, which can shape their initial impressions. Anderson believed that initial impressions are durable and can be resistant to change, particularly when they are based on strongly held schemas or beliefs. (ALL THE INFOR WE TAKE IN IS WEIGHTED DIFFERENTLY)

What is the college sophomore problem? Is it really a problem? Why or why not?

refers to a potential bias in research studies that use undergraduate students as participants, particularly second-year college students. The college sophomore problem arises because college students, and particularly second-year students, are often overrepresented in research studies compared to the general population. This overrepresentation may lead to biased or unrepresentative samples that limit the generalizability of the findings. - can lead to inaccurate or incomplete conclusions about the population of interest. Studies that rely on college students as participants may be limited in their generalizability to other age groups, cultures, and socio-economic backgrounds. - the extent to which it is a problem depends on the specific research question and the sampling methods used.

What is the working self-concept (Markus & Wurf)

refers to the idea that only a subset of a persons of self-relevant knowledge that is currently active and accessible in a person's mind at a given moment. We tend to highlight what makes us unique - there are core aspects of the self knwodlege that are likely to be what a person things about first when thinking of the self - self concepts are not fixed and stable, but flexible and dynamic

Does self-esteem vary cross-culturally?

some cultures may have different norms and values around expressing self-esteem. For instance, in some Asian cultures, it may be considered impolite or arrogant to openly boast about one's accomplishments, leading to more modest expressions of self-esteem. In contrast, in some Latin American cultures, it may be more acceptable to openly express confidence and pride in one's achievements, leading to more overt expressions of self-esteem.

Does birth order impact one's sense of self?

yes: birth order shapes experiences, relationships, and interactions with others which can influence personality, values, and beliefs

What is hindsight bias ? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

"I knew it all along" phenomenon: cognitive bias that involves the tendency to believe after an event has occurred, that one would have predicted or expected the outcome. - helps people make sense of past events and create a sense of predictability and control in their lives - -universal

What is impression management? Self-monitoring? -Who are likely to be high self-monitors? Low self-monitors? Why?

- How we attempt to control the particular impressions other people form about us - the tendency to monitor ones behavior to fit the demand of the current situation: low self monitors more likely behave according to their own traits and preferences regardless of the social event - High self-monitors are more likely to be people who are motivated by social approval and acceptance. - Low self-monitors are more likely to be people who are motivated by their own internal values and beliefs, rather than by social approval or acceptance.Low self-monitors may be more comfortable in situations that allow them to express themselves freely and may be less likely to conform to the expectations of others.

-What is replication? Are all failures to replicate bad? Why or why not?

- In some cases, a failure to replicate may indicate that the original findings were due to chance or some other confounding variable, rather than a true effect.

What are the goals, benefits, and weaknesses/disadvantages of correlational method

- Looks at the relationships of two or more variables - Disadvantage: correlation does not equal causation. Could be a third variable that is cousin both. - Casual direction is unclear - Benefit: Can be used to predict one variable based on the knowledge of another variable - can be used to test theories and generate hypothesis about casual relationships

Social Comparison Theory (Festinger, 1954) -why do we compare ourselves to others to determine our selves? - what are the functions of upward, downward, and horizontal social comparisons?

- People compare themselves to others in order to evaluate their own abilities and opinions, and to develop a send of self. - our sense of self is detemerined by social factors and the social environment - helps us gain into on ourselves so we can access out own abilities, strengths, and weaknesses - Upward comparisons involve comparing oneself to someone who is perceived to be better in some way. (motivates but can lead to low self esteem) - Downward comparisons involve comparing oneself to someone who is perceived to be worse off. (better self esteem, but can lead to complacency and lack of motivation) - Horizontal comparisons involve comparing oneself to someone who is perceived to be similar. (can provide a sense of belonging and social identity; he's indidivals validate three own beliefs)

How is social psychology distinct form other academic principles

- Social psychology focuses on the individual in social contexts rather than studying individuals in isolation

What is self-discrepancy theory (actual vs. ideal vs ought self)? How do self-discrepancies motivate our actions?

- a theory that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting ideal and ought selves.. Falling short of the these statnards produces specific emotions : dejection related emotions.people hold beliefs about not only what they are actually life, but also what they would ideally like to be and what they think they ought to be - Self-discrepancies occur when there is a mismatch or incongruence between an individual's actual self, ideal self, and/or ought self. discrepancy between the actual self and the ideal self, individuals may be motivated to pursue self-improvement or personal growth in order to close the gap and achieve their ideal self. discrepancy between the actual self and the ought self, individuals feel a sense of obligation or duty to conform to external expectations and norms, and may be motivated to change their behavior to match the ought self.

Lassiter & Irvine (1986) confession study

- aimed to investigate how people's beliefs about the validity of confessions are influenced by the focus of attention during the confession process DesignL between-subjects design suspect vs interrogator IV: the condition to which participants were assigned ( either suspect focused or interrogator focused) DV: participants' ratings of the validity of the confession Results: Participants in the suspect-focused condition rated the confession more valid than part. in the interrogator focused condition. suggesting that people who have a high need for closure may be more susceptible to the influence of the focus of attention during the confession process. participants in the suspect-focused condition were more likely to attribute the confession to internal factors (such as the suspect's guilt or sense of responsibility) than participants in the interrogator-focused condition, who were more likely to attribute the confession to external factors (such as the pressure exerted by the interrogator).

Bargh & Pietromonaco (1982) hostile Donald study

- aimed to investigate impact of situational cues on how people perceive others. Study examined whether people would form more negative impressions of a person named Donald when they were primed with hostile cues . - part. were primed: half read aggressive words, half read non hostile words, then were asked to read a description of Donald and rate his personality Design: between subjects IV: hostile vs non hostile condition DV: participants' rating of Donald on personality traits such as friendliness, likeablitliy, and trust Results: hostile rated Donald more negatively. - This suggests that people who are more dispositionally hostile are more sensitive to situational cues related to hostility. conclusion: - demonstrated that situational cues can have a powerful impact on how people perceive others. Specifically, the study showed that people who are primed with hostile cues tend to form more negative impressions of others, even if they have no prior knowledge or experience of that person

What is ego eccentric bias? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

- bias that occurs when people overestimate the extent to which their own perspectives, beliefs, and preferences are shared by others. Assumes others think and behave in the same way we do. - can help maintain a sense of consistency and coherence in our beliefs and attitudes - facilitates communication and cooperation: if we think someone hols our views we will be more likely to engage in social interactions with them - more present in western cultures than in East Asian cultures

main questions, the way it was done/process/variables, and results of Bem (1972)'s Self-Perception theory

- developed to explain how individuals infer their attitudes and emotions based on their own behavior - how do people know what they think and feel about something, especially when they are uncertain? -test: read aloud and then listen to tape of self reading aloud: part. supported the position read aloud: behavior influenced attitude

Berglas & Jones (1978) It's not my fault! Study

- examines ways in which people attribute success and failure to themselves or external factors -hypothesis: pole are more likely to attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors -results: - supported the hypothesis that people are more likely to attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors. Participants who were given easy anagrams and performed well were more likely to attribute their success to internal factors, such as their own ability, while participants who were given difficult anagrams and performed poorly were more likely to attribute their failure to external factors, such as the difficulty of the anagrams or bad luck. DV: participants ratings of their performance, their attribution of success and failure SELF SERVING BIAS - helps people maintain their self esteem by taking credit for successes and blaming failures on external factors IV: the level of difficulty of anagrams

How might the way a question is worded or the order of questions influence a participant's response to the question?

- framing effect:could lead people to focus on negative aspects of the statement "do you disagree with this?" - leading questions: create bias "Dont you think blah blah blah?" - order effects - response bias: answering a more socially desirable response when given the option

What do you gain/lose as you move from descriptive to correlational research? Correlational to experimental? And back?

- from descriptive to correlational research you may lose some information about the nature of the relationship between variables, as correlational research cannot establish causality. - gain info about the relationships between the two variability ------ - correlational to experimental research, you gain the ability to establish causality between variables allowing for a clear determination of cause and effect. - from correlational to experimental research, you may lose some of the external validity and generalizability of the research findings -------- - from experimental to correlational research, you gain the ability to examine relationships between variables in a more naturalistic setting - from experimental to correlational research, you lose the ability to establish causality between variables --------

Langer (1975) Lottery study

- investigated the role of perceived control in peoples behavior - tested the hypothesis that people who feel that they have some more control over the outcome are more likely to engage in risky behavior - participants who selected the own numbers were given the illusion of control over outcome Results - people who chose numbers were more likely to hold on to their ticket and more likely to ask for a higher prick when selling IV: level of control given to participants: chose lottery numbers vs were given DV: ticket retentionL: how many people kept their lottery ticket, asking price, confidence in wining Conclusion: - peoples behaviors are influenced by their perceived level of control over a situation.

How do we know we have a sense of self? How has this been empirically tested (Gallup)? -Have any other species been shown to pass the red dot/rouge test? -When do we begin to develop our own sense of self?

- key indicator of sense of self: self recognition -MIRROR TEST: designed to determine if the chimpanzee was capable of self-recognition, which is considered a key indicator of a sense of self. - yes orcas and certain birds, but that doesn't mean that we have a sense of self. -The development of a sense of self begins in infancy. Infants initially have a very limited sense of self and are largely unaware of themselves as distinct individuals. However, as they begin to explore and interact with the world around them, they gradually develop a more sophisticated understanding of themselves and their place in the world. - usually can recognize themselves in a mirror around 18-24 months

What is a heuristic? Why do we use heuristics? -What are the availability and representativeness heuristics? How do they affect our social judgments?

- mental shortcuts that people use to make decisions or judgements quickly and efficiently. We use them becsue they are easy ways of making decisions, but there can be errors and biases - Availability Heuristic: people judge the likelihood of an event or the freuwuncy of a phenomenon based on how easily examples or instances come to mind. -Representativeness heuristic: people judge the likelihood or category membership on an object or event based on how well it fits the prototype. - can lead to biases in perception. he representativeness heuristic can lead to stereotypes and prejudice, as people may make judgments about individuals based on superficial characteristics such as race, gender, or appearance, without considering other relevant information.

main questions, the way it was done/process/variables, and results of Schacter & Singer (1962)

- question: investigate the role of cog appraisal in emotional experiences- want to test two factor theory of emotion: emotions are composed of both physiological arousal component and a cognitive interpretation component - double blind procedure Independent Variable: injection (adrenaline or placebo), the confederates behavior (euphoric or angry), and context of situation (informed or uniformed) DV: reactions Results: support theory. Part who were injected with adrenaline and were informed about effects experienced emotions that were consistent with the confederates behavior. Part who were injected with adrenaline but not informed of effects did not experience emotions consistent with confederates behavior. Suggests cog interpretation of arousal was necessary for the emotional expereince to occur. - Participants who received the adrenaline injection reported experiencing more intense emotions compared to those who received the placebo injection. In the informed condition, participants who received the adrenaline injection and were exposed to the euphoric confederate reported feeling happy, while those who were exposed to the angry confederate reported feeling angry. In contrast, in the uninformed condition, participants who received the adrenaline injection reported feeling confused or amused, while those who received the placebo injection reported feeling calm. These findings suggest that people's emotional experience depends on both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal of the situation. The physiological arousal alone is not sufficient to determine the emotion experienced, but the cognitive appraisal of the situation helps to determine which emotion is experienced. - participants who received the saline injection but were told they had received adrenaline reported feeling emotions similar to those who actually received adrenaline. This finding suggests that people's interpretation of the situation can override their actual physiological arousal and influence their emotional experience.

What is social identity? -what are the benefits of having a (or multiple) social identity(ies)? How is our self- esteem by our group memberships (BIRG, CORF) -When do our social identities affect us?

- refers to the part of an individuals self concept that is derived from their membership n a particular social group or category. - can influence how people perceive themselves, how they relate to others, and how they behave in social situations Benefits: - provides a sense of belonging and connection to a larger group which can help with feelings of support and validation - groups can provide resources - can contribute to a sense of purpose and meaning in life BIRG (Basking In Reflected Glory) and CORF (Cutting Off Reflected Failure) - meant to enhance or protect an invdivuals self esteem through group membership CORF: distancing yourself from low status or unsuccessful groups or individuals in order to avoid being associated with their failures and negative outcomes Social identity can also influence how individuals perceive and respond to different social roles and expectations, such as those related to gender, race, or occupation

Name the self serving cognitions/self enhancing biases

- self-reference effect - ego eccentric bias - self serving memory - lake Wobegon effect -unrealistic optimism - illusion of control - self handicapping - selective processing of information - confirmation bias - hindsight bias - self enhancing attributions for good vs bad events - spotlight effect

main questions, the way it was done/process/variables, and results of Bem (1972)'s Strack, et al. (1988) (PEN IN TEETH VS LIPS)

- test facial feedback hypothesis: does changing facial expression influence emotional experiences - prediction: part who were forced to smile with pen in teeth would expereince mor positive emotions when shown cartoons compared to pen in lips -IV: the type of pen grip: either in lips or teeth - DV: participants ratings of the cartoon's humor level -results : participants who held pen in teeth thought it was funnier. suggests that manipulating facial expression can influence emotional experiences and support the facial feedback hypothesis. -overall: shows how changing behavior can influence ones emotional experiences.

What is counterfactual thinking? What is the result of doing such thinking? -What is emotional amplification? How does this relate to the medalists at the Olympics? How might this phenomenon relate to social comparison theory?

- the process of imagining alternative outcomes or scenarios that could have happened but did not. Emotional amplification is a phenomenon where emotions are intensified by imagining alternative outcomes or scenarios.

When can you use convenience samples? Representative samples? Why?

- used when there are limited resources, time, or access to population of interest. used in situations where the research question is exploratory or narrow in scope - used when researchers aim to make accurate generalizations about a larger population based on a sample. minimize bias and increase generalizability , valid, reliable, and applicable to general pop.

main questions, the way it was done/process/variables, and results of Dutton & Aron (1974)-scary/safe bridge study;

- wanted to investigate relationship between physiological arousal and attraction - is physiological arousal induced by crossing a scary or safe bridge would affect participants' attraction to a female confederate - prediction: part who crossed scary bridge would expereince higher physiological arousal, which owed be misattributed as attraction towards the girl IV; Type of bridge: scary or safe DV: # of participants who called the girl results: part who crossed scary bridge were more likely to call girl than safe bridge crossers suggests: physiological arousal induced by crossing the scary bridge was misattributed as attraction to the female researcher, supporting the misattribution of arousal theory proposed by Dutton and Aron design: field experiment in a natural setting ; the study design allowed for the manipulation of the independent variable and the measurement of the dependent variable in a natural setting

Looking Glass Self (Cooley, 1902), reflected self-appraisals

-The theory suggests that our sense of self develops through our interactions with others and our perceptions of how they see us - Looking Glass Self can be understood through the process of reflected self-appraisals. Reflected self-appraisals are the evaluations of ourselves that we perceive from others. When we interact with others, we interpret their behavior and feedback to form an opinion of how they see us. We then internalize this opinion and use it to shape our self-concept.

-What is belief perseverance (Ross, et al, 1975 - suicide notes) & what leads to this phenomenon? Real life implications? (e.g., admonishment to ignore inadmissible evidence)

-What is belief perseverance (Ross, et al, 1975 - suicide notes) & what leads to this phenomenon? Real life implications? (e.g., admonishment to ignore inadmissible evidence) - The real-life implications of belief perseverance are significant, particularly in areas where people hold strongly held beliefs, such as politics, religion, and other social issues.

What are the 3 general steps of social perception/impression formation?

1. Attention: individuals select and attend to certain aspects of a person 2. Interpretation (how do you explain and interpret the information you take in) 3. Correction: take the info, interpret, and then of and see if the initial reception was correct

What is a correlation? (know the different types of correlations & be sure you can identify the types of correlation from a graph or description of a correlational result) -What does "correlation does not equal or imply causation?" mean and why is this statement true?

A correlation is a statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of the relationships between two or more variables. Types: Positive correlation: as one variable increases, the other variable also increases: / Negative correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases: \ Zero correlation: no relationship Correlation does not equal causation means that just becasue two variables are correlated does not mean one causes the other. Only indicates that there is a presence of a relationships between the variables, but cannot establish a casual link. there could be confounding variables.

What is a schema? How do we use self-schemas and expectations to learn about ourselves? How do our self-schemas affect our information processing? -How is distinctiveness related to our self-schemas?

A schema is a generalized knowledge about the physical and social world, such as what kind of behavior to expect when dealing with certain people or how to behave in places. Self schema is a cognitive structure, derived from past experience, that represents a persons beliefs and feelings about the self: both in general and specific situations - play a role in learning about ourselves by guiding our attention to information that is consistent with our existing self-concept and filtering out information that is inconsistent with it. - affect our information processing by influencing what we attend to, how we interpret information, and how we remember it. Individuals with positive self-schemas are more likely to attend to and remember positive information about themselves, while individuals with negative self-schemas are more likely to attend to and remember negative information about themselves. - Distinctiveness is related to our self-schemas in that it can help to shape them. When individuals perceive themselves as unique or different from others, it can lead to the development of a distinct self-schema that influences how they perceive and interpret information about themselves. This can affect their self-esteem and self-concept in positive or negative ways, depending on the nature of their distinctiveness.

What is the Scientific Method? What are the steps of the cycle of science?

A series of steps of procedures that we follow in the aim of systematically testing questions or hypothesis of interest while trying to reduce bias as much as possible. STEPS OF THE CYCLE OF SCIENCE: *1. Form a question - sources - theory *2. Generate a research hypothesis (will be clear and testable) 3. Prediction: based on hypothesis, make a prediction about what will happen *4. Design a study - operationalize variables (create operational definition) (how are you measuring something)* will be on exam 5. Results: analyst data collected and determine if prediction is supported 6. Conclusion: draws conclusions and interprets findings 7. Communication: communicates finding to the broader community

What is a theory? what is a research hypothesis? What is the relationships between a hypothesis and a theory?

A theory is a set of related propositions intended to describe the phenomenon or aspect of the world- well established. Theories have support in the form of empirical data and has been tested and confirmed through a lot of research A research hypothesis is a prediction about what will happen under particular circumstances, especially in a research study. This is tested in studies which examine predictions about what will happen in particular concrete contexts. Relationship: A hypothesis is proposed to test specific aspects of a theory, while theories are broader explanations that provide a framework for generating and testing hypotheses.

Predictor Variable

A variable you use to predict the out come variable

What is the difference between applied and basic research? In what ways are their goals similar?

Applied research is focused on addressing specific practical problems, while basic research is focused on developing a fundamental understanding of a phenomenon or concept Both types of research also use scientific methods and rigor in their approach, although the research questions and designs may differ.

What are the implications or consequences of making a particular type of attribution? -When do we make attributions? -What is explanatory style? What impact do explanatory styles have on academic success, health, long-term outcomes?

Attribution: the process by which individuals explain the causes of events behaviors or outcomes. -behavioral consequences, legal consequences, perceptions, emotions - we form attributions to an extent all the time, when it is relevant to us and impacts us, when it is unexpected or unusual and or negative; when we are trying to understand why someone behaved in a particular way, why an event occurred, or why we experience a particular outcome - explanatory style is a psychological attribute that indicates how people explain to themselves why they experience a particular event, either positive or negative.

How is social psychology similar and distinct from common sense?

Common sense is not always accurate and varies based on context. Common sense is also aways contradictory; it varies based on social context, social situations, environmental factors

Paradoxical Self Esteem

Competence doesn't match your level of self esteem. I have higher self esteem than what my competence level suggests I do; self-esteem refers to a situation where a person appears to have high self-esteem but, in reality, has deep feelings of inadequacy or low self-worth.

What are contingencies of self worth? How do they influence self-esteem? -What is the sociometer hypothesis? How might this relate to the looking glass self? -Are positive illusions adaptive? -Are self-affirmations effective?

Contingencies of self worth: sources of self esteem that a person relies on to feel good about themselves (achievements, looks). Could lower their self esteem significantly if their contingency is insulted. Could boost if receives positive feedback - Sociometer hypothesis: proposes that self esteem functions as a gauge of social acceptance and rejection. Relates to looking glass (our self is shaped by perceptions of how others see us) cuz it suggests that our self esteem is influenced by social factors and our perceived self worth - Positive illusions refer to the tendency for people to hold overly positive and unrealistic beliefs about themselves, their abilities. some research suggests that positive illusions may be adaptive in certain contexts, such as promoting resilience and motivation, other research suggests that they can also lead to unrealistic expectations and disappointment when reality falls short of these expectations. - self-affirmations can be effective in improving self-esteem and reducing negative thoughts and emotions. However, the effectiveness of self-affirmations may depend on a variety of factors, such as the specific content of the affirmation, the individual's level of self-esteem, and the context in which the affirmation is used.

What are convenience samples? Representative samples? Random samples?

Convenience samples are biased in some way. It could be contacting people as they enter the library or emailing a fraternity and sorority members (not random). Might include too many of the same kind of people and too few other. Representative sampling:A sample that will represent the population which is best achieved by selecting potential people randomly. Random sample: every member of the population has an equal chance of being in the study (not realistic)

What are the goals, benefits, and weaknesses/disadvantages of Descriptive research

Descriptive research aims to describe and explain the characteristics of a particular phenomenon or group of individuals. Aims to identify patterns, trends, and relationships between variables. Aims to generate hypothesis for research - can be good foundational experiment because you can build off of it in the future - allows researchers to identify patterns and relationships that can inform the development of interventions or treatments - sometimes can be easier to run as experiments - can be difficult to analyze and count - is limited in its ability to establish casual relationships between variables - can have biases and confounding variables - may lack experimental control ex: study that wants to describe eating patterns in college students

Biases in causal attributions

Fundamental Attribution Error/Correspondent Inference Bias/correspondence bias: the tendency to overemphasize dispositional or internal factors and ignore situational or external factors when making attributes about other peoples behavior - we have cognitive bias to rely on easily available dispositional information rather than considered the situational context (more prevalent in Western Cultures than in Eastern) Actor/Observer Difference: the tendency for actors to attribute their own behavior to situational factors and observers to attribute the same behavior to dispositional factors. Occurs because Actors have more access to situational information than observers, who rely primarily on the behavior itself. Self-Serving Attributions: Refers to the tendency for individuals to take credit for success and attribute failure to external factors. Protects self esteem Belief in a Just world: tendency for individuals to believe that people get what they deserve, and thus victims of misfortune must have done something to deserve their fate Cognitive Confirmation Bias: Refers to the tendency for individuals to seek out info that confirms pre existing beliefs and ignore info that contradicts them False Consensus effect: tendency for individuals to overestimate the extent to which others share beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors False uniqueness effect: Tendency for individuals to underestimate the extent to which others share their unique qualities and experiences Mere ownership effect: The tendency for people to value things more highly when they own them. Illusory correlation: the belief that two variables are related when they are not

What are the goals, benefits, and weaknesses/disadvantages of experimental method

GOAL: - one or more independent variables are manipulated to observe their effect on a dependent variable while controlling for other factors that could affect the outcome - establishes a cause and effect relationship between independent and dependent variables -- test theoretical models - establish an optimal condition for a particular outcome - allows for replication and generalizability WEAK: - may not accurately represent the real world setting - results might be affected by experimenter bias - time consuming

What are the goals, benefits, and weaknesses/disadvantages of Quasi-experiment

GOALS: -Enables investigators to make strong inferences about how a relationship exists and how different situations affect people's behavior - resembles an expereimtn but lacks some key characteristics like random assignment - establishes a case and effect relationship between independent and dependent variables - tests effects of an intervention or treatment - study natural occurring events that cant be manipulated BENEFITS: - more practical, feasible, ethical than experimental designs - can test effectiveness of policies, programs, or treatments in real world - provide generalization because experimental designs typically involve highly controlled laboratory settings and highly selected samples that may not be representative of the larger population; take place in more naturalistic settings WEAK: - lack control and randomization of experimental designs - can suffer from selection bias - confounding variables can affect results - validity can be questions due to lack f control and confounding variables

Kelly (1950) : Warm/cold study

Goal: explore how people form impressions of others based on their behavior in an initial interaction. Investigate whether people form different impressions o others based on whether their behavior is warm or cold, and whether thees impressions are stable over time Design: between subjects IV: the condition to which participants were assigned (actors would be either warm or cold to them) DV: the participants ratings of the actors personal qualities based on the video recording Results: participants formed slightly different impressions of the actor, based on whether they were in the warm or in cold condition. -Warm condition: actor was friendly, kind, sincere -Cold: unfriendly, hostile, sarcastic he study showed that people tend to form more positive impressions of others who behave in a warm, friendly manner, and more negative impressions of others who behave in a cold, unfriendly manner.

What are the hallmarks (key characteristics) of the experiment in the experimental method? -What is random assignment? Why do we use random assignment in experiments? -Why do scientists prefer experiments as their method of choice?

Hallmarks: - manipulation of the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable - control over extraneous variables - random assignment - measurement of the dependent variable to observe the effects of the independent variable Random assignment is the process of assigning participants to different groups or conditions in an expereimen randomly without bias. It is to control confounding variables and ensure differences observed between groups due to manipulation of IV and no other variables

-What is self-esteem? (trait vs. state self-esteem)

How you feel about yourself. Trait: enduring or stable personality characteristic. Overall level of self esteem State: more temporary, particular to a moment can fluctuate depending on situational factors such as success or failure, social acceptance or rejection, or feedback from others.

What is internal validity? External validity/generalization? -Why are issues of validity important to consider?

Internal validity in experimental research refers to the confidence that only the manipulated variable could have produced the results External validity is how well the results of a study generalize to contexts outside the conditions of the laboratory. (high external validity when its findings are applicable to a broader range of people and contexts beyond the specific study example). Issues of validity are important to consider in research because they affect the quality and reliability of the findings. If a study lacks internal validity, it may not be possible to draw reliable conclusions about the causal relationship between variables. If a study lacks external validity, its findings may not be generalizable to other populations or settings, which limits its practical relevance.

What does α = .05 mean? Why did we set alpha at this value?

It is the p value! Alpha is the level of significan used to determine whether to reject or fail the null hypothesis. 5% chance of making a type I error or rejective the null hypothesis when it is actually true -The reason why alpha is often set at .05 is a matter of convention and practicality - (e.g., .01) reduces the risk of making a Type I error, but it also makes it harder to detect significant effects, which may be important to identify in some contexts.

Who is Kurt Lewin? What was his contribution to Social Psychology (incl. channel factors)

Kurt Lewin: modern founder of social psychology - believed the behavior of people, like the behavior of objects, is always a function of the field of forces in which they find themselves - a persons attributes are a determinant of behavior, but these attributes always interact with the situation to produce resulting behavior - contributed to Gestalt psychology by expanding on Gestalt theories and applying them to human behavior (the whole is not just the sum of its part, it is greater than the sum of its part. You cannot just look at the individual pieces, you have to look the whole) Channel factors: explains why certain circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface can have great consequences for behavior, either facilitating it or blocking it. Reflects that such circumstances can sometimes guide behaviors in a particular direction by making it easier to follow one path rather than another

What is the difference between a longitudinal study vs a cross-sectional study?

Longitudinal study: involves collecting measures at different points in time from the same group of individuals. examine changes over time and establish causal relationships between variables. Cross sectional study: involves a collection of data from a group different of individuals at a single point in time. useful for determining the prevalence of a particular outcome or set of outcomes at a single point in time, but they cannot provide information on changes over time or causality.

Ross, Amabile, & Steinmetz (1977) - Quizmaster Study, Taylor (1989) - Breast Cancer study

Main question: How do people's beliefs about a person's role (a quizmaster) affect their judgements of that persons intelligence? Do people make the fundamental attribution error (overemphasizing dispositional factors) when evaluating quizmasters intelligence? IV: level of knowledge dispelled by quizmaster when asking questions in the video DV: Participants ratings of the quizmasters intelligence Results: Participants rated the knwolegebale quizmaster as significantly more intelligent than the not knowledgeable quizmaster. participants did not make the fundamental attribution error when evaluating the quizmaster's intelligence, but rather took into account the situational factor of the quizmaster's role. Fundamental attribution error (FAE)/Correspondent Inference Bias: Our tendency when making attribution of other people to assume internal attributions rather than external design: Lab experiment research design ------------- QuestionL How do peoples beliefs about their ability to control stressful situations affect their psychological and physical health outcomes when faced with a diagnosis of breast cancer? - Women with cancer were followed around and questioned on beliefs of self control. IV: womens beliefs about personal control DV: womens psychological and physical health outcomes Results: Women who believe they had more control had better health outcomes. research design: correlational research design

What is multiple causation? Why is this construct important in social psychology or more generally?

Multiple causation refers to the phenomenon in which there are mulitple causes for a situation instead of only one clue. There are often many answers to things, not only one answer. It is important in social psychology because it provides a framework for understanding the various factors that contribute to behaviors that are studies. Ex; aggression can be caused by biological things or social factores or situational factors.

-What is phrenology and how does it relate to how we relate to social perception?

Phrenology claimed that personality traits, behaviors, and intelligence could be determined by the shape and size of different parts of the brain. In terms of social perception, phrenology highlights the ways in which people have attempted to make judgments about others based on their physical appearance or external characteristics, rather than on more objective measures of personality or behavior.

-What is self-efficacy? Are general self-efficacy and domain self-efficacy always consistent?

Self efficacy is an individuals belief in their ability to successfully perform a specific task or accomplish a particular goal. - influences the choices people make, the effort they put forth, and how long they persist in the face of difficulties or obstacles General Self-efficacy: an individuals overall belief that their ability to perform tasks and achieve goals in a variety of different contexts(not a specific domain) Domain-specific self efficacy: An individual's belief in their ability to perform a specific task or achieve a particular goal in a particular domain. -not always consistent

Bem (1972)'s Self-Perception theory (inc. Schacter's 2 factor theory of emotion); Strack, et al. (1988) Pen in teeth vs. lips study; Dutton & Aron (1974)-scary/safe bridge study; Schacter & Singer (1962)

Self perception theory: suggests that individuals infer their own attitudes and emotions by observing their own behavior and context in which it occurs: Faking it till you make it, doing soothing to feel something and bring it into your life. Schacter builds on Bem by adding a cognitive appraisal process: theory: emotions are the result of both physiciological aarousal and congnitnve interpretation of the situation. Individuals first expereince physiological arrousal and then use the cortext of the situation to label the emotion they are experiencing Pen in teeth is example of the self perception theory in action. Part. with pen in teeth reported feeling happier than those who held pen in their lips, suggesting that their facial expression influenced their emotional state Dutton: part were asked to cross a shaky suspension bridge (high arousal condition) or a sturdy bridge (low arousal condition) and were approached by an attractive researcher who gave them her phone number. Participants who crossed the shaky bridge were more likely to call the researcher later, suggesting that their physiological arousal led them to misattribute their feelings of fear to attraction.

What is self-complexity? What is the relationship between self-complexity and self-esteem (Linville)?

Self-complexity refers to the number of distinct self-aspects that a person has and how these aspects are organized within their self-concept. According to her theory, individuals with higher levels of self-complexity tend to have more stable and resilient self-esteem than those with lower levels of self-complexity. If there is a threat to one aspect of the self, having other elements of the self that are important to you will decrease the drop in self esteem

What is reliability?

The degree to which a measure gives consistent results on repeated occasions or the degree to which two measuring instruments (could be human observers) yield the same or very similar results

What is the self-concept?

The individuals beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions about themselves. It is the collection of beliefs that a person holds about themselves, including their personality traits, abilities, preferences, and values. It is a multifaceted and complex construct that is shaped by a range of factors, including experiences, culture, socialization, and interactions with others.

What is Social Psychology? - potential topics or research questions that a social psychologist might be interested in

The scientific study of the feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of individuals in social situations; how peoples thoughts, actions and behaviors are influenced by situations they find themselves in/ are affected by the real of imagined presence of others - social psychologists are interested in reducing bias to the extent possible - interested in social context, social situations, environmental factors - interested in individuals and how people respond in larger contexts

What is self-fulfilling prophecy (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968 - Pygmalion in the classroom; Snyder, Tanke, & Berscheid, 1977-intercom study)? -How have the results from the Rosenthal & Jacobson study been received in the field? -How can we avoid or stop self-fulfilling prophecy? -How do Dweck's incremental theory of intelligence and entity theory of intelligence fit into ideas of the self-fulfilling prophecy?

The tendency for people to act in ways that bring about the very thing they expect to happen. If we think someone is unfriendly, we're likely to offer something of a cold shoulder ourselves, which is likely to elicit the very coldness we anticipated. - To avoid or stop self-fulfilling prophecy, it is important to be aware of our biases and expectations, and to consciously challenge them when necessary. It is important to treat all individuals fairly and objectively, and to avoid making assumptions based on superficial characteristics such as race, gender, or appearance. Leaders should strive to create an environment that fosters growth and development for all individuals, regardless of their perceived abilities or limitations.

Why is it becoming harder and harder to distinguish between the subdisciplines of psychology?

Topics that relate to social psychology also can relate to personality psychology, developmental psychology, or cognitive psychology. Psychologists are able to view different topics of psychology through the lends of the different sub disciplines (overlapping of research topics). Therefore the boundaries between sub-disciplines are becoming more blurred.

Introspection: Csikszentmihalyi & Figurski (1982)-Beeper study

Turning your attention to yourself and thinking about yourself. -beeper study: beeped at different times and had to fill out questions. - the amount of average time spend thinking about a person is like 8%; majority of the time is spent thinking of things you have to do next, or emotional states ---------- Theory of flow suggests that people are happiest when doing challenging activities that require their skills and abilities. Theory of Self awareness: Highlighted the importance of context in shaping self awareness. Individuals tended to experience different aspects of themselves in different situations, with their thoughts and emotions influenced by the environment and social context. individuals who were more mindful were less likely to engage in introspection In terms of real-world applications, the beeper study has been used to inform interventions aimed at promoting mindfulness, reducing rumination, and improving mental health. also applied to real world areas like workplace productivity

What is the distinctiveness hypothesis & how does it affect our self-concept?

What makes you distinctive will be the thing that makes you your "self" - The distinctiveness hypothesis affects our self-concept by shaping the way we think about ourselves and our place in the world. By emphasizing our unique qualities and characteristics, we may develop a strong sense of individuality and feel a sense of pride in our uniqueness.

Why are unrepresentative samples problematic?

Will create bias, and will limit the generalizability of the research findings to a larger population. will not accurately reflect the characteristics of the pop of interest

How quickly can we form impressions (Ambady - thin slices; Willis & Todorov, 2006) -In general, how accurate are snap judgments?

Willis and Todorov claim 100 ms Nalini Ambady and her colleagues (Ambady & Rosenthal, 1992) found that participants were able to accurately predict the outcomes of teacher evaluations after watching only 6-10 seconds of silent video clips of the teachers in action. Similarly, in a study by Willis and Todorov (2006), participants were able to make accurate judgments about political candidates' competence and likability based on photos of their faces shown for only a fraction of a second. These findings suggest that people are able to form impressions of others based on very brief exposures, sometimes known as "thin slices". These initial impressions can have a powerful impact on subsequent judgments and behaviors, such as who we choose to hire, befriend, or date. Snap judgements are not always accurate. They rely on physical appearance or dominance. Traits like personality and intelligence are more difficult to accurately judge based on brief exposures. San judgments are also influenced by biases and stereotypes

What is unrealistic optimism? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

a cog bias that involves overestimating the likelihood of positive outcomes and underestimating the likelihood of negative outcomes - helps maintain a positive outlook and sense of control over ones life. Help us be more hopeful and confident. - universal. individualistic cultures may be more likely to exhibit unrealistic optimism in the context of personal achievement, while people from collectivistic cultures may be more likely to exhibit unrealistic optimism in the context of social relationships

What is self serving memory? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

a cog bias that involves the selective recall of info that is favorable to oneself, while minimizing and forgetting info that is unfavorable. remember more wins than losses. - helps maintain a positive self image and protect self esteem. - can serve as a motivational function by enhancing confidence and motivation - a universal phenomenon. people from collectivistic cultures will remember information that reflects well on their social group, while people from individualistic cultures may be more likely to remember information that reflects their personal success

What is lake Wobegon effect? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

a cog bias where people will tend to overestimate their own abilities, skills, and performance relative to others. - helps maintain self esteem and confidence by assuming that one is better than average - serves as a motivational function by encouraging people to set high goals and work hard to achieve them - universal, with little variation. ollectivistic cultures may be more likely to overestimate their abilities in the context of social relationships, while people from individualistic cultures may be more likely to overestimate their abilities in the context of personal achievement

What is self-reference effect? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

a cognition phenomenon where people remember information better when it related to themselves compared to info that is not related to them. occurs cuz info that is personally relevant is processed more deeply and connected to pre existing knowledge and beliefs about oneself. - Helps us process info more deeply and remember it - allows up to form a more coherent and integrated self concept by connecting new info to our existing knowledge of ourselves - enhances out self esteem and sense of control -not universal. Stronger in western cultures, less strong in east asian cultures - westerners are more likely to remember positive info about themselves and attribute success to their own abilities. East Asians will remember negative info about themselves and attribute success to external things

What is the distinction between automatic/unconscious and controlled/conscious processes? Why do we engage in these two types of processing?

automatic/unconscious is based on emotional factors; conscious and systematic is controlled by deliberative thought. In non conscious processing for example, we subconsciously imitate other peoples body language (ideomotor mimicry). Conscious processes are generally slow and can run only one step at a time. Automatic processes are much faster and can operate in parallel. Automatic processes are triggered by environmental cues or past experiences. - We engage in both because they have different purposes. Automatic processes uses information we already know (a schema) and allows us to process information we have already encountered before. Both processes help us understand how we process info and learn new skills.

What is spotlight effect ? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

cog bias that involves a tendency for individuals to overestimate the extent to which others are paying attention to and evaluatating them. - helps individuals accurately monitor and regulate their behavior in social situations. - more likely to engage in behaviors that are socially desirable and avoid behaviors that are socially undesirable. -universal

What is selective processing of information? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

cog bias that involves paying attention to and selectively interpreting information in a way that confirms one's pre existing beliefs or expectation -maintain a consistent and stable sense of self and worldview. - can reduce cog dissoance and maintain a sense of coherence in their beliefs and self concept - universal. people from collectivistic cultures may be more likely to selectively process information in the context of group harmony and social norms

What is illusion of control? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

cog bias that involves the belief that one has more control over events or outcomes than is actually the case. could be in form of a coin toss or such - helps people feel more confident and in control of their environment -can lead to increased motivation to pursue goals, as people feel they have more influence over their own success - universal but varies within cultures (same ex from others)

What is self handicapping? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

cog bias that involves the intentional creation of obstacles or excuses to explain poor performance or failure. - protect ones self esteem and maintain a positive self image so that people can attribute their failure to external factors rather than their own abilites. - these actions provide an explanation for possible failure, thereby protecting the desired public self if failure does occur - western cultures will engage in this beahvoior more than most.

What is confirmation bias ? What purpose does this self bias serve? What does the cross cultural work on self enhancing biases tell us about this cognition/bias?

cog bias where we seek out, interpret, and remember information in a away that confirms ones pre existing beliefs or hypotheses while ignoring or discounting information that contradicts them - maintain a consistent and coherent sense of self and world view -universal

Perception: What influences what we see? How is our perception filtered?

influences what we see: - Accessibility of our schema is what was most recently brought to mind. - Recency effect (most things that have occurred) - trait: things that you are already thinking about that you weren't primed to think about - Salience (distinctiveness/focus of affection) - physical appearance (halo effect: what is beautiful is good) - distinctiveness: we notice things that are more distinctive or unusual which can influence our perception Perception can be filtered through bias: - negativity bias : tend to notice the bad/negative first, even if there are good/positive things happening - schemas/experience: notice why we expect to happen first -confirmation bias - 1st impressions (primacy effect): look for things that confirm that ones first impression of another is correct - Chronic vs situational/state: Our perception can be influenced by both chronic factors, such as personality traits, and situational or state factors, such as our current mood or level of fatigue. - Goals and motivations: our goals and motivations can influence what information we attend to and how we interpret it, which can in turn infleuence perception -Mood: Out mood can influence our perception: positive moods lead to positive perception.

Why is the topic of research ethics discussed so much in social psychology? What two goals must be balanced whether considering the ethics of a research study?

involves human behavior or attitudes which can raise ethical concerns related to privacy, confidentiality, informed consent, potential harm or distress, the power dynamic between R and P. must be done in ethical manner. minimize potential harm. - the goal of obtaining valid data - the goal of protecting the welfare of research participants

Can we ever say that we have proved our hypothesis? Why or why not?

no, science is always changing/coming to light (revisions!). We say that we can support or reject it based on available evidence

-How accurate is our self-knowledge?

not always accurate, and it can be influenced by a variety of factors, including our biases, cognitive limitations, and social context.

Self-knowledge & (Social) construction of the self

refers to an individual's understanding and awareness of themselves, including their beliefs, attitudes, values, emotions, and behaviors. comes from experiences, social interactions, cultural norms and values - According to social constructionist theories, the self is not a fixed or innate entity, but rather a product of ongoing social interactions and relationships.

Why is social construal important to social psychologists?

social construal refers to the way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the world around them. This is important because the way this process works can lead to differences in behavior and attitudes in social groups. Ex: people from different cultures may interpret the same social situation in different ways based on cultural beliefs and values. By studying social construal, social psychologists can gain insights into the complex dynamics of social interactions and develop strategies to promote positive social change.

Why are social psychology called scientists? How is this approach different from the layperson's approach?

social psychology uses the scientific method to test theories an shy-thesis about social behavior. They conduct experiments, gather data, and analyze results using statistical techniques; different becasue they try to reduce bias to the best extent, they rely on empirical evidence to test theories and hypothesis which involves using systematic observation, measurement, and expereimrnation to gather data and draw conclusions

-What is the bad-news bias? What are its effects?

the tendency for people to pay more attention to and be more affective by negative news than positive news. : preference for negative news stories over positive ones - Consequences: can lead to a skewed perception of the world, can impact decision making (overestimating risks associated with activities). can also lead to a tendency to prioritize negative information over positive information

-What is the basic premise of self-verification theory?

the theory that people strive for stable, subjectively accurate beliefs about ourselves rather than invariably favorable ones people selectively attend to and recall information that is consistent with and verifies their views of themselves

What is self-awareness theory (including Beaman, et al, 1979 study - Halloween Candy/Mirror Study)? How are our behaviors affected by self-awareness?

when we turn our attention to ourselves, we are more likely to behave in line with your ones personal morals and values Could be as simple as calling your name, you're very aware of who you are Seeing yourself also calls attention to yourself - When there was a mirror present, children only took one candy. When there was not, they took more. Summarized that when you are self aware you are more likely to engage in a moral behavior, personal moral .