PSYCH EXAM 5

An individual's unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

personality

was associated with a large region of the frontal cortex called the middle frontal gyrus, which is known to be involved in planning, working memory, and self-regulation.

Conscientiousness

a test that assesses a person's abilities, aptitudes, interests, or personality on the basis of a systematically obtained sample of behavior it achieves two basic goals: It accurately and consistently reflects a person's characteristics on some dimension. It predicts a person's future psychological functioning or behavior.

paychological test

A phenomenon in which the presence of other people makes it less likely that any individual will help someone in distress because the obligation to intervene is shared among all the onlookers

diffusion of responsibility

A sexual dysfunction characterized by genital pain before, during, or after intercourse experience by women

genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder

a pseudoscience that claims to assess personality, social, and occupational attributes based on a person's distinctive handwriting, doodles, and drawing style claims that your handwriting reveals your temperament, personality traits, intelligence, and reasoning ability. If that weren't enough, graphologists also claim that they can accurately evaluate a job applicant's honesty, reliability, leadership potential, ability to work with others, and so forth

graphology

emphasizes the importance of unconscious processes and the influence of early childhood experience.

psychoanalytic perspective

In Rogers's theory, the innate drive to maintain and enhance the human organism

actualizing tendency

Helping another person with no expectation of personal reward or benefit

altruism

Adjusting your opinions, judgments, or behavior so that it matches the opinions, judgments, or behavior of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation Conformity is generally higher in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures. Conformity to group norms is viewed less negatively in many collectivistic cultures than it is in individualistic cultures.

conformity

The reduction of self-awareness and inhibitions that can occur when a person is a part of a group whose members feel anonymous can occur when increased arousal due to the presence of others is combined with diffusion of responsibility and anonymity. Deindividuation can lead to antisocial behaviors, but it can be reduced if self-awareness is heightened

deindividuation

A sexually transmitted disease caused by the herpes simplex virus that can produce outbreaks of painful blisters in the genital and anal regions caused by the herpes simplex virus, is a common STD that causes flulike symptoms and painful blisters in the genital and anal regions. Like other STDs, the herpes virus can be contagious even when symptoms are absent. Although there is no cure for herpes, antiviral drugs can prevent or shorten outbreaks of symptoms

genital herpes

a form of unconconscious repentance that involves neutralizing or atoning for an unacceptable action or thought with a second action or thought

undoing

the most fundamental dimensions of personality; the broad, basic traits that are hypothesized to be universal and relatively few in number

source traits

Disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which selectively attacks helper T cells in the immune system, progressively weakening the body's ability to fight infections and diseases After being infected, a person may not develop AIDS for several years but can still infect others he availability of antiretroviral drugs has lowered the death rate from AIDS in the United States and other industrialized countries

AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)

Contemporary American social psychologist who, along with co-researcher John Darley, is best known for his pioneering studies of bystander intervention in emergency situations

Bibb Latané

—sexual arousal achieved by publicly exposing one's genitals to shocked strangers

Exhibitionistic disorders

—sexual arousal in response to inanimate objects (e.g., female undergarments, shoes, leather, fur, body piercings, uniforms) or body parts not typically associated with sexual arousal (e.g., feet, hair, legs)

Fetishistic disorder

—sexual arousal from touching and rubbing against a nonconsenting person, usually in a crowded public situation, such as a crowded bus or subway car

Frotteuristic disorder

Contemporary American social psychologist who, along with co-researcher Bibb Latané, is best known for his pioneering studies of bystander intervention in emergency situations

John M. Darley

American social psychologist who is best known for his Robbers Cave experiments to study prejudice, conflict resolution, and group processes

Muzafer Sherif

American social psychologist, known for his research on cognitive dissonance and social influence, and especially for the Stanford Prison Experiment, which demonstrated how situational forces can impact behavior.

Philip G. Zimbardo

American psychologist who has conducted extensive research on sex roles and gender identity; proposed gender schema theory to explain gender-role development

Sandra Lipsitz Bem

—sexual arousal in response to actually being humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer

Sexual masochism disorder

—sexual arousal achieved through intentionally inflicting psychological or physical suffering on another person

Sexual sadism disorder

American social psychologist who is best known for his pioneering studies of conformity

Solomon Asch

In the second phase, the plateau phase, physical arousal builds as pulse and breathing rates continue to increase. The penis becomes fully erect and sometimes secretes a few drops of fluid, which may contain active sperm. The testes increase in size. The clitoris withdraws under the clitoral hood but remains very sensitive to stimulation. The vaginal entrance tightens, putting pressure on the penis during intercourse. Vaginal lubrication continues. During the excitement and plateau stages, the degree of arousal may fluctuate up and down (Masters & others, 1995). During the plateau stage, the firmness of the male's erection may increase and decrease, and so may the female's degree of vaginal lubrication.

Stage 2: Plateau

Following orgasm, both sexes tend to experience a warm physical "glow" and a sense of well-being. Arousal slowly subsides and returns to normal levels in the resolution phase. The male experiences a refractory period, during which he is incapable of having another erection or orgasm. The duration of the male's refractory period varies. For one man it may last a matter of minutes, for another several hours. As men age, the duration of the refractory period tends to increase.

Stage 4: Resolution

A cluster of characteristics that are associated with all members of a specific social group, often including qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define the group

stereotype

Stage 1: Excitement Stage 2: Plateau Stage 3: Orgasm Stage 4: Resolution

The Stages of Human Sexual Response

A projective personality test that involves creating stories about each of a series of ambiguous scenes the person looks at a series of cards, each depicting an ambiguous scene. The person is asked to create a story about the scene, including what the characters are feeling and how the story turns out. The stories are scored for the motives, needs, anxieties, and conflicts of the main character and for how conflicts are resolved

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

—in heterosexual males, sexual arousal from cross-dressing in women's clothes

Transvestic disorder

American behavioral scientist who, along with William H. Masters, conducted pioneering research in the field of human sexuality and sex therapy

Virginia E. Johnson

—sexual arousal from observing an unsuspecting person who is disrobing, naked, or engaged in sexual activity

Voyeuristic disorder

American physician who, along with Virginia E. Johnson, conducted pioneering research in the field of human sexuality and sex therapy

William H. Masters

A learned tendency to evaluate some object, person, or issue in a particular way; such evaluations may be positive, negative, or ambivalent Attitudes are likely to determine behaviors when they are extreme or expressed frequently, when they have been formed through direct experience, when people are very knowledgeable about the attitude object, when people have a vested interest in the subject of the attitude, and when people expect a favorable outcome from acting in accordance with their attitude. When behavior conflicts with attitudes, cognitive dissonance may occur, and people may change their attitudes to conform to their behavior.

attitude

The mental process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own. Also refers to the explanation made for a particular behavior Attributions can strongly influence our opinions of other people, but the attribution process is susceptible to many biases. Two important attributional biases are the fundamental attribution error and the self-serving bias

attribution

The tendency to blame an innocent victim of misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it

blaming the victim

A phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress

bystander effect

An unpleasant state of psychological tension or arousal (dissonance) that occurs when two thoughts or perceptions (cognitions) are inconsistent; typically results from the awareness that attitudes and behavior are in conflict

cognitive dissonance

The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one's own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures

ethnocentrism

The tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal, personal characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating the effects of external, situational factors; an attributional bias that is common in individualistic cultures

fundamental attribution error

A sexual disorder in which a person engages in a paraphilia that causes distress or harm to that person or to someone who is the target of their paraphilia, or that causes impairment in that person's life

paraphilic disorder

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV): A retrovirus that infects, destroys, and reduces the number of helper T cells in the immune system, producing AIDS No one is immune to HIV, but people with multiple sex partners, intravenous drug users and their partners, and gay men are most at risk to contract HIV. Most women are infected through heterosexual intercourse with HIV-positive men. However, HIV infection rates and deaths from AIDS are rising throughout the world, especially in Africa, Asia, and eastern Europe. People can reduce their chances of contracting a sexually transmitted disease by practicing abstinence, being faithful in a monogamous relationship, and using condoms and spermicides.

human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Preferences and biases toward particular groups that are automatic, spontaneous, unintentional, and often unconscious; measured with the Implicit Associations Test (IAT)

implicit attitudes

A social group to which one belongs

in-group

The tendency to judge the behavior of in-group members favorably and out-group members unfavorably

in-group bias

A negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific social group

prejudice

Any behavior that helps another, whether the underlying motive is self-serving or selfless

prosocial behavior

Any of several infectious diseases that are transmitted primarily through sexual intercourse or other intimate sexual contact may be bacterial, viral, or parasitic. Some STDs have vague or nonexistent symptoms and can be unknowingly transmitted to a sex partner. Left untreated, some STDs can cause severe health problems

sexually transmitted diseases (STDs)

The mental process of categorizing people into groups (or social categories) on the basis of their shared characteristics People often rely on social categories when they evaluate others. Social categorization may be automatic or deliberate. Using social categories is cognitively efficient but can lead to inaccurate conclusions.

social categorization

The mental processes people use to make sense of their social environments

social cognition

The tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance is most likely when a task is simple or well rehearsed. Performance decreases when a task is complex or poorly learned.

social facilitation

The effects of situational factors and other people on an individual's behavior

social influence

The tendency to expend less effort on a task when it is a group effort people expend less effort when working as a group on a collective task than when working alone on the same task. Social loafing is less likely when we know the other people in a group, when we are members of a highly valued group, or when a task is meaningful or unique. Social loafing is reduced or reversed in some collectivistic cultures. Instead, individuals expend more effort when they are working in a group on a collective task, a phenomenon known as social striving.

social loafing

The "rules," or expectations, for appropriate behavior in a particular social situation

social norms

Branch of psychology that studies how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the presence of other people and by the social and physical environment

social psychology

In females, sexual dysfunction characterized by consistent delays in achieving orgasm or the inability to achieve orgasm

female orgasmic disorder

a trait theory of personality that identifies extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience as the fundamental building blocks of personality

five-factor model personality

a projective test using inkblots, developed by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Roschach in 1921 The first projective test published by Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in 1921

Rorschach Inkblot Test

The theory that gender roles are acquired through the basic processes of learning, including reinforcement, punishment, and modeling is based on the principles of learning. Through reinforcement, punishment, and modeling, children learn the appropriate behaviors for each gender

social learning theory of gender-role development

An ego defense mechanism that involves redirecting sexual urges toward productive, socially acceptable, nonsexual activities; a form of displacement involves displacing sexual urges toward "an aim other than, and remote from, that of sexual gratification". In effect, sublimation channels sexual urges into productive, socially acceptable, nonsexual activities.

sublimation

personality characteristics or attributes that can easily be inferred from observable behavior

surface traits

was associated with increased volume in the posterior cingulate cortex, a brain region associated with understanding the beliefs of others. It was also associated with greater volume in the fusiform gyrus, an area of the cortex specialized for perceiving faces

Agreeableness

reflected in the expression of basic biological urges that perpetuate the existence of the individual and the species consists of biological urges that perpetuate the existence of the individual and the species—hunger, thirst, physical comfort, and, most important, sexuality

Eros: The self-preservation or life instinct

was associated with larger brain tissue volume in the medial orbitofrontal cortex, a brain region that is associated with sensitivity to rewarding stimuli.

Extraversion

the mouth is the primary focus of pleasurable and gratifying sensations, which the infant achieves via feeding and exploring objects with his or her mouth

Oral Stage Birth to age 1

social learning theory and gender schema theory

Two contemporary theories that explain gender-role development are

an interdisciplinary field that studies the effects of genes and heredity on behavior

behavioral genetics

in Jung's theory, the hypothesized part of the unconscious mind that is inherited from previous generations and that contains universally shared ancestral experiences and ideas

collective unconscious

In Rogers's theory, the sense that you will be valued and loved only if you behave in a way that is acceptable to others; conditional love or acceptance

conditional positive regard

All the thoughts, feelings, and sensations that you're aware of at this particular moment However, the conscious and preconscious are merely the visible tip of the iceberg of the mind. The bulk of this psychological iceberg is made up of the unconscious

conscious level

the failure to recognize or acknowledge the existence of anxiety-provoking information

denial

The ego defense mechanism that involves unconsciously shifting the target of an emotional urge to a substitute target that is less threatening or dangerous occurs when emotional impulses are redirected to a substitute object or person, usually one less threatening or dangerous than the original source of conflict For example, an employee angered by a supervisor's unfair treatment may displace his hostility onto family members when he comes home from work. The employee consciously experiences anger but directs it toward someone other than its true target, which remains unconscious. Freud believed that a special form of displacement, called sublimation, is largely responsible for the productive and creative contributions of people and even of whole societies

displacement

In males, sexual dysfunction characterized by a recurring inability to achieve or maintain an erect penis

erectile disorder (ED)

A technique used in psychoanalysis in which the patient spontaneously reports all thoughts, feelings, and mental images as they come to mind, as a way of revealing unconscious thoughts and emotions

free association

The cultural, social, and psychological meanings that are associated with masculinity or femininity Gender plays an important role in our culture. From birth, boys and girls are treated differently. During childhood, boys and girls develop different toy preferences and play with members of their own sex. Girls tend to be less rigid than boys in adhering to gender stereotypes.

gender

The behaviors, attitudes, and personality traits that are designated as either masculine or feminine in a given culture

gender roles

represents an optimistic look at human nature, emphasizing the self and the fulfillment of a person's unique potential.

humanistic perspective

The theoretical viewpoint on personality that generally emphasizes the inherent goodness of people, human potential, self-actualization, the self-concept, and healthy personality development the "third force" in psychology The two most important contributors to the humanistic perspective were Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychology

Condition in which a person's biological sex is ambiguous, often combining aspects of both male and female anatomy and/or physiology

intersexed

The psychological and emotional energy associated with expressions of sexuality; the sex drive Freud used the word libido to refer specifically to sexual energy or motivation

libido

In males, sexual dysfunction characterized by delayed orgasm during intercourse or the inability to achieve orgasm during intercourse

male orgasmic disorder

A theory that attempts to describe and explain similarities and differences in people's patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving a personality theory ambitiously tries to explain the whole person -it's important to stress that no single theory can adequately explain all of the aspects of human personality -Every personality theory has its unique strengths and limitations. Personality theories often reflect the work of a single individual or of a few closely associated individuals -it's not surprising that many personality theories bear the distinct personal stamp of their creators to a much greater degree than do other kinds of psychological theories -consequently, we've tried to let the personality theorists speak for themselves. There are many personality theories, but they can be roughly grouped under four basic perspectives: - the psychoanalytic - humanistic - social cognitive -trait perspectives

personality theory

the motive to obtain pleasure and avoid tension or discomfort; the most fundamental human motive and the guiding principle of the id the relentless drive toward immediate satisfaction of the instinctual urges, especially sexual urges. Thus, the id strives to increase pleasure, reduce tension, and avoid pain. Even though it operates unconsciously, Freud saw the pleasure principle as the most fundamental human motive.

pleasure principle

contains information that you're not currently aware of but can easily bring to conscious awareness, such as memories of recent events or your street address. However, the conscious and preconscious are merely the visible tip of the iceberg of the mind. The bulk of this psychological iceberg is made up of the unconscious

preconscious level

In males, sexual dysfunction characterized by orgasm occurring before it is desired, often immediately or shortly after sexual stimulation or penetration

premature ejaculation

An ego defense mechanism that involves the attribution of one's own unacceptable urges or qualities to others

projection

An ego defense mechanism that involves justifying one's actions or feelings with socially acceptable explanations rather than consciously acknowledging one's true motives or desires

rationalization

An ego defense mechanism that involves thinking or behaving in a way that is the extreme opposite of unacceptable urges or impulses

reaction formation

The capacity to accommodate external demands by postponing gratification until the appropriate time or circumstances exist

reality principle

retreating to a behavior pattern characteristics of an earlier stage of development

regression

the beliefs that people have about their ability to meet the demands of a specific situation; feelings of self-confidence or self-doubt

self-efficacy

The biological category of male or female as defined by physical differences in genetic composition and in reproductive anatomy and function. (2) The behavioral manifestation of the sexual urge; sexual intercourse

sex

a relatively stable, enduring predisposition to consistently behave in a certain way

trait

emphasizes the description and measurement of specific personality differences among individuals.

trait perspective

a theory of personality that focuses on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences in behavioral predispositions

trait theory

Condition in which a person's psychological gender identity conflicts with his or her biological sex

transgendered

American psychologist who was one of the founders of humanistic psychology and emphasized the study of healthy personality development; developed a hierarchical theory of motivation based on the idea that people will strive for self-actualization, the highest motive, only after more basic needs have been met; key ideas include the hierarchy of needs and self-actualization

Abraham Maslow

Contemporary American psychologist who is best known for his research on observational learning and his social cognitive theory of personality; key ideas include self-efficacy beliefs and reciprocal determinism

Albert Bandura

Austrian physician who broke with Sigmund Freud and developed his own psychoanalytic theory of personality, which emphasized social factors and the motivation toward self-improvement and self-realization; key ideas include the inferiority complex and the superiority complex

Alfred Adler Feelings of Inferiority and Striving for Superiority

A self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics in normal populations personality inventories that were designed to assess normal populations The CPI provides measures on such characteristics as interpersonal effectiveness, self-control, independence, and empathy

California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

Swiss psychiatrist who broke with Sigmund Freud to develop his own psychoanalytic theory of personality, which stressed striving toward psychological harmony; key ideas include the collective unconscious and archetypes -after studying medicine, he was drawn to the relatively new field of psychiatry because he believed it could provide deeper insights into the human mind -Freud decided Jung would succeed him and lead the international psychoanalytic movement. However, Jung was too independent to relish his role as Freud's unquestioning disciple. -as Jung continued to put forth his own ideas, his close friendship with Freud ultimately ended in bitterness -Jung rejected Freud's belief that human behavior is fueled by the instinctual drives of sex and aggression. -instead he believed that people are motivated by a more general psychological energy that pushes them to achieve psychological growth, self-realization, and psychic wholeness and harmony -also believed that personality continues to develop in significant ways throughout the lifespan. -in studying different cultures, Jung was struck by the universality of many images and themes, which also surfaced in his patients' dreams and preoccupations. These observations led to some of Jung's most intriguing ideas, the notions of the collective unconscious and archetypes -was the first to describe two basic personality types: introverts, who focus their attention inward, and extraverts, who turn their attention and energy toward the outside world

Carl Jung Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious

At each psychosexual stage, Freud believed, the infant or young child is faced with a developmental conflict that must be successfully resolved in order to move on to the next stage. The heart of this conflict is the degree to which parents either frustrate or overindulge the child's expression of pleasurable feelings. Hence, Freud believed that parental attitudes and the timing of specific child-rearing events, such as weaning or toilet training, leave a lasting influence on personality development.If frustrated, the child will be left with feelings of unmet needs characteristic of that stage. If overindulged, the child may be reluctant to move on to the next stage. In either case, the result of an unresolved developmental conflict is fixation at a particular stage. The person continues to seek pleasure through behaviors that are similar to those associated with that psychosexual stage. For example, the adult who constantly chews gum, smokes, or bites her fingernails may have unresolved oral psychosexual conflicts.

Fixation Unresolved Developmental Conflicts

German-born British psychologist who developed a trait theory of personality that identifies the three basic dimensions of personality as neuroticism, extraversion, and psychoticism

Hans Eysenck

The four stages of human sexual response are excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution. Women are capable of multiple orgasms. Men experience a refractory period following orgasm. In nonhuman animals, sexual behavior is biologically determined and typically triggered by hormonal changes in the female. In higher animals, sexual behavior is more strongly influenced by learning and environmental factors and less influenced by biological factors.

Human Sexuality

sexual impulses become repressed and dormant as the child develops same-sex friendships with peers and focus on school, sports, and other activities

Latency Stage Ages 7 to 11

German-born American psychoanalyst who emphasized the role of social relationships and culture in personality; sharply disagreed with Freud's characterization of female psychological development, especially his notion that women suffer from penis envy; key ideas include basic anxiety and womb envy -trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst -emigrated from Germany to the United States during the Great Depression in the 1930s -While Freud traced psychological problems to sexual conflicts, Horney found that her American patients were much more worried about their jobs and economic problems than their sex lives. Thus, Horney came to stress the importance of cultural and social factors in personality development—matters that Freud had largely ignored -also stressed the importance of social relationships, especially the parent-child relationship, in the development of personality. She believed that disturbances in human relationships, not sexual conflicts, were the cause of psychological problems. Such problems arise from the attempt to deal with basic anxiety, which Horney described as "the feeling a child has of being isolated and helpless in a potentially hostile world." Described three patterns of behavior that the individual uses to defend against basic anxiety: moving toward, against, or away from other people. -Those who move toward other people have an excessive need for approval and affection. -Those who move against others have an excessive need for power, especially power over other people. They are often competitive, critical, and domineering, and they need to feel superior to others. -Finally, those who move away from other people have an excessive need for independence and self-sufficiency, which often makes them aloof and detached from others. -contended that people with a healthy personality are flexible in balancing these different needs, for there are times when each behavior pattern is appropriate -Horney also sharply disagreed with Freud's interpretation of female development, especially his notion that women suffer from penis envy. What women envy in men, Horney claimed, is not their penis, but their superior status in society. In fact, Horney contended that men often suffer womb envy, envying women's capacity to bear children -Horney shared Jung's belief that people are not doomed to psychological conflict and problems. Also like Jung, Horney believed that the drive to grow psychologically and achieve one's potential is a basic human motive.

Karen Horney Basic Anxiety and "Womb Envy"

A self-report inventory that assesses personality characteristics and psychological disorders; used to assess both normal and disturbed populations the most widely used self-report inventory The MMPI consists of over 500 statements. The person responds to each statement with "True," "False," or "Cannot say." Topics include social, political, religious, and sexual attitudes; physical and psychological health; interpersonal relationships; and abnormal thoughts and behaviors

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI):

personality test was developed by Isabel Briggs Myers and Katharine Cook Briggs The Myers-Briggs test differs from other self-report tests in that it is designed to assess personality types rather than measure personality traits. the MBTI arrives at personality type by measuring a person's preferred way of dealing with information, making decisions, and interacting with others. There are four basic categories of these preferences, which are assumed to be dichotomies—that is, opposite pairs. These dichotomies are: Extraversion/Introversion; Sensing/Intuition; Thinking/Feeling; and Perceiving/Judging.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

—sexual fantasies, urges, or behaviors involving sexual activity with a prepubescent child (generally age 13 or younger)

Pedophilic disorder

the genitals are the primary focus of pleasurable sensations, which the child derives through sexual curiosity, masturbation, and sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent.

Phallic Stage Ages 3 to 6

Was a strong advocate of the trait approach to personality British-born American psychologist who developed a trait theory that identifies 16 essential source traits or personality factors; also developed the widely used self-report personality test, the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

Raymond Cattell

Males tend to desire and have more sexual partners than females. Most adults are involved in an intimate relationship by the age of 30. Married or cohabiting couples tend to have the most active sex lives and are the most satisfied with their sex lives. In late adulthood, people experience physical changes that affect sexual response, but satisfying sexual relationships can continue throughout the lifespan.

Sexual Behavior

American social psychologist who is best known for his controversial series of studies investigating destructive obedience to an authority

Stanley Milgram

reflected in aggressive, destructive, and self-destructive actions is destructive energy that is reflected in aggressive, reckless, and life-threatening behaviors, including self-destructive actions

Thanatos or the death instinct

the anus is the primary focus of pleasurable sensations, which the young child derives through developing control over elimination via toilet training

Anal Stage Ages 1 to 3

American psychologist who was one of the founders of humanistic psychology; developed a theory of personality and form of psychotherapy that emphasized the inherent worth of people, the innate tendency to strive toward one's potential, and the importance of the self-concept in personality development; key ideas include the actualizing tendency and unconditional positive regard According to Rogers, all other human motives, whether biological or social, are secondary. He compared the actualizing tendency to a child's drive to learn to walk despite early frustration and falls. To get a sense of the vastly different views of Rogers and Freud, read the Critical Thinking box "Freud Versus Rogers on Human Nature."

Carl Rogers

as the adolescent reaches physical sexual maturity, the genitals become the primary focus of pleasurable sensations, which the person seeks to satisfy in heterosexual relationships

Genital Stage Adolescence

was associated with a mixed pattern of brain structure differences. Higher levels of neuroticism were associated with reduced volume in one area of the hippocampus, a finding that has also been found in stress and major depressive disorder

Neuroticism

Austrian neurologist who founded psychoanalysis, which is both a comprehensive theory of personality and a form of psychotherapy; emphasized the role of unconscious determinants of behavior and early childhood experiences in the development of personality and psychological problems; key ideas include the id, ego, and superego; the psychosexual stages of development; and the ego defense mechanisms one of the most influential figures of the twentieth century, was the founder of psychoanalysis Freud's belief that expressions of sexuality are reflected in the behavior of infants and young children was controversial and shocking to his contemporaries Freud dropped the use of hypnosis and developed his own technique of free association to help his patients uncover forgotten memories Breuer and Freud described several of their case studies in their landmark book, Studies on Hysteria. -its publication in 1895 marked the beginning of psychoanalysis In 1900, Freud published what many consider his most important work, The Interpretation of Dreams In 1904, Freud published what was to become one of his most popular books, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life -he described how unconscious thoughts, feelings, and wishes are often reflected in acts of forgetting, inadvertent slips of the tongue, accidents, and errors Freud saw personality and behavior as the result of a constant interplay among conflicting psychological forces -these psychological forces operate at three different levels of awareness: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. Dream analysis was particularly important to Freud. "The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind," he wrote in The Interpretation of Dreams. -beneath the surface images, or manifest content, of a dream lies its latent content—the true, hidden, unconscious meaning that is disguised in the dream symbols According to Freud , each person possesses a certain amount of psychological energy. -this psychological energy develops into the three basic structures of personality—the id, the ego, and the superego -understand that these are not separate identities or brain structures. Rather, they are distinct psychological processes.

Sigmund Freud

A self-report inventory developed by Raymond Cattell that generates a personality profile with ratings on 16 trait dimensions personality inventories that were designed to assess normal populations was originally developed by Raymond Cattell and is based on his trait theory. The 16PF uses a forced-choice format in which the person must respond to each item by choosing one of three alternatives the results generate a profile on Cattell's 16 personality factors. Each personality factor is represented as a range, with a person's score falling somewhere along the continuum between the two extremes is widely used for career counseling, marital counseling, and evaluating employees and executives

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

The excitement phase marks the beginning of sexual arousal. Sexual arousal can occur in response to sexual fantasies or other sexually arousing stimuli, physical contact with another person, or masturbation. In both sexes, the excitement stage is accompanied by a variety of bodily changes in anticipation of sexual interaction. There is a rapid rise in pulse rate and blood pressure. The rate of breathing increases. Blood shifts to the genitals, producing an erect penis in the male and swelling of the clitoris in the female. The female's vaginal lips expand and open up, and her vagina becomes lubricated in preparation for intercourse. Her nipples and breasts may also become enlarged, and the nipples become erect and more sensitive.

Stage 1: Excitement

Orgasm is the third and shortest phase of the sexual response cycle. During orgasm, blood pressure and heart rate reach their peak. The muscles in the vaginal walls and the uterus contract rhythmically, as do the muscles in and around the penis as the male ejaculates. Other muscles may contract as well, such as those in the face, arms, and legs. Both men and women describe the subjective experience of orgasm in similar—and very positive—terms. The vast majority of men experience one intense orgasm. But many women are capable of experiencing multiple orgasms. If sexual stimulation continues following orgasm, women may experience additional orgasms within a short period of time

Stage 3: Orgasm

projective tests are mainly used in counseling and psychotherapy. the primary strength of projective tests is that they provide a wealth of qualitative information about an individual's psychological functioning, information that can be explored further in psychotherapy. However, there are several drawbacks to projective tests: -First, the testing situation or the examiner's behavior can influence a person's responses. -Second, the scoring of projective tests is highly subjective, requiring the examiner to make numerous judgments about the person's responses. Consequently, two examiners may test the same individual and arrive at different conclusions. -Third, projective tests often fail to produce consistent results. If the same person takes a projective test on two separate occasions, very different results may be found. -Finally, projective tests are poor at predicting future behavior.

Strengths and Limitations of Projective Tests

The two most important strengths of self-report inventories are their standardization and their use of established norms. Each person receives the same instructions and responds to the same items. thousands of studies have demonstrated that the MMPI, the CPI, and the 16PF provide accurate, consistent results that can be used to generally predict behavior self-report inventories also have their weaknesses. -First, despite the inclusion of items designed to detect deliberate deception, there is considerable evidence that people can still successfully fake responses and answer in socially desirable ways -Second, some people are prone to responding in a set way. They may consistently pick the first alternative or answer "True" whether the item is true for them or not. -Third, people are not always accurate judges of their own behavior, attitudes, or attributes. And some people defensively deny their true feelings, needs, and attitudes, even to themselves

Strengths and Limitations of Self-Report Inventories

Freud felt that because of the intense anxiety associated with the Oedipus complex, the sexual urges of boys and girls become repressed during the latency stage in late childhood. Outwardly, children in the latency stage express a strong desire to associate with same-sex peers, a preference that strengthens the child's sexual identity. The final resolution of the Oedipus complex occurs in adolescence, during the genital stage. As incestuous urges start to resurface, they are prohibited by the moral ideals of the superego as well as by societal restrictions. Thus, the person directs sexual urges toward socially acceptable substitutes, who often resemble the person's opposite-sex parent In Freud's theory, a healthy personality and sense of sexuality result when conflicts are successfully resolved at each stage of psychosexual development (summarized in . Successfully negotiating the conflicts at each psychosexual stage results in the person's capacity to love and in productive living through one's work, child rearing, and other accomplishments.

The Latency and Genital Stages

In Freud's theory, a child's unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent, usually accompanied by hostile feelings toward the same-sex parent The most critical conflict that the child must successfully resolve for healthy personality and sexual development occurs during the phallic stage.As the child becomes more aware of pleasure derived from the genital area, Freud believed, the child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and hostility toward the same-sex parent. According to Freud, this attraction to the opposite-sex parent plays out as a sexual drama in the child's mind, a drama with different plot twists for boys and for girls. For boys, the Oedipus complex unfolds as a confrontation with the father for the affections of the mother. The little boy feels hostility and jealousy toward his father, but he realizes that his father is more physically powerful. The boy experiences castration anxiety, or the fear that his father will punish him by castrating him.To resolve the Oedipus complex and these anxieties, the little boy ultimately joins forces with his former enemy by resorting to the defense mechanism of identification. That is, he imitates and internalizes his father's values, attitudes, and mannerisms. Girls also ultimately resolve the Oedipus complex by identifying with the same-sex parent and developing a strong superego taboo against incestuous urges. But the underlying sexual drama in girls follows different themes. The little girl discovers that little boys have a penis and that she does not. She feels a sense of deprivation and loss that Freud termed penis envy.

The Oedipus Complex A Psychosexual Drama

In Jung's theory, the inherited mental images of universal human instincts, themes, and preoccupations that are the main components of the collective unconscious. Two important archetypes that Jung described are the anima and the animus—the representations of feminine and masculine qualities. Jung believed that every man has a "feminine" side, represented by his anima, and that every woman has a "masculine" side, represented by her animus. To achieve psychological harmony, Jung believed, it is important for men to recognize and accept their feminine aspects and for women to recognize and accept the masculine side of their nature.

archetypes

Latin for I; in Freud's theory, the partly conscious rational component of personality that regulates thoughts and behavior, and is most in touch with the demands of the external world hus, a new dimension of personality develops from part of the id's psychological energy Partly conscious, the ego represents the organized, rational, and planning dimensions of personality. As the mediator between the id's instinctual demands and the restrictions of the outer world, the ego operates on the reality principle the ego is the pragmatic part of the personality that learns various compromises to reduce the tension of the id's instinctual urges. If the ego can't identify an acceptable compromise to satisfy an instinctual urge, such as a sexual urge, it can repress the impulse, or remove it from conscious awareness In early childhood, the ego must deal with external parental demands and limitations. Implicit in those demands are the parents' values and morals, their ideas of the right and wrong ways to think, act, and feel. Eventually, the child encounters other advocates of society's values, such as teachers and religious and legal authorities. Gradually, these social values move from being externally imposed demands to being internalized rules and values. The ego has a difficult task. It must be strong, flexible, and resourceful to successfully mediate conflicts among the instinctual demands of the id, the moral authority of the superego, and external restrictions. According to Freud, everyone experiences an ongoing daily battle among these three warring personality processes. When the demands of the id or superego threaten to overwhelm the ego, anxiety results . If instinctual id impulses overpower the ego, a person may act impulsively and perhaps destructively if superego demands overwhelm the ego, an individual may suffer from guilt, self-reproach, or even suicidal impulses for failing to live up to the superego's moral standards

ego

Largely unconscious distortions of thoughts or perceptions that act to reduce anxiety. If a realistic solution or compromise is not possible, the ego may temporarily reduce anxiety by distorting thoughts or perceptions of reality through processes that Freud called ego defense mechanisms By resorting to these largely unconscious self-deceptions, the ego can maintain an integrated sense of self while searching for a more acceptable and realistic solution to a conflict between the id and superego In Freud's view, the drawback to using any defense mechanism is that maintaining these self-deceptions requires psychological energy. As Freud pointed out regarding the most basic defense mechanism, repression does not take place "on a single occasion" but rather demands "a continuous expenditure of effort." Such effort depletes psychological energy that is needed to cope effectively with the demands of daily life. The use of defense mechanisms is very common. Many psychologically healthy people temporarily use ego defense mechanisms to deal with stressful events. When ego defense mechanisms are used in limited areas and on a short-term basis, psychological energy is not seriously depleted. Using ego defense mechanisms is often a way of buying time while we consciously or unconsciously wrestle with more realistic solutions for whatever is troubling us. But when defense mechanisms delay or interfere with our use of more constructive coping strategies, they can be counterproductive.

ego defense mechanisms

The theory that gender-role development is influenced by the formation of schemas, or mental representations, of masculinity and femininity is based on the idea that children actively develop mental categories for each gender. Children's gender schemas influence what they learn and remember. At a young age, children develop an awareness of the underlying meaning of gender categories.

gender schema theory

The beliefs and expectations people hold about the typical characteristics, preferences, and behavior of men and women men and women are polar opposites. Research shows that men are more assertive than women and women are more nurturant than men but that men and women are otherwise similar in their personality characteristics. On average, women outscore men on tests of verbal fluency, spelling, reading comprehension, and writing. Men outscore women on mental rotation tasks. Average math scores of men and women are very similar, but more men score in the very highest range. Men and women are largely similar in their sexual attitudes and behaviors. Men have a higher incidence of masturbation and are more accepting of casual sex than are women.

gender-role stereotypes

A sexual dysfunction characterized by little or no sexual desire either sex can experienced Women can experience chronic genital pain associated with intercourse, a condition called genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder. Men can experience erectile disorder, male orgasmic disorder, or premature ejaculation. Women can experience female orgasmic disorder. Sexual dysfunction may be caused by physical or psychological factors

hypoactive sexual desire disorder

Latin for the it; in Freud's theory, the completely unconscious, irrational component of personality that seeks immediate satisfaction of instinctual urges and drives; ruled by the pleasure principle -the most primitive part of the personality, is entirely unconscious and present at birth. -is completely immune to logic, values, morality, danger, and the demands of the external world. -the original source of psychological energy, parts of which will later evolve into the ego and superego -is rather difficult to describe in words. "We come nearer to the id with images," Freud wrote, "and call it a chaos, a cauldron of seething excitement." The id's reservoir of psychological energy is derived from two conflicting instinctual drives: the life instinct and the death instinct The id is ruled by the pleasure principle

id

In psychoanalytic theory, an ego defense mechanism that involves reducing anxiety by imitating the behavior and characteristics of another person

identification

A network of assumptions or beliefs about the relationships among various types of people, traits, and behaviors provide a mental framework that organizes observations, memories, and beliefs about other people. One common implicit personality theory is "what is beautiful is good." However, there are few personality differences between attractive and less attractive people.

implicit personality theory

Behavior that is motivated by the desire to be correct

informational social influence

The assumption that the world is fair and that therefore people get what they deserve and deserve what they get

just-world hypothesis

Behavior that is motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance and approval

normative social influence

The performance of a behavior in response to a direct command was studied most extensively by Stanley Milgram. In Milgram's original obedience experiment, the subject (the "teacher") thought he was delivering ever-increasing levels of electric shock to another person (the "learner"). In contrast to predictions, most of the subjects obeyed the experimenter and progressed to the maximum shock level. Milgram identified several powerful aspects of the original experimental situation that influenced subjects to obey the experimenter and continue delivering electric shocks. In later experiments, Milgram also identified several situational factors that made people less likely to obey. Asch's research on conformity and Milgram's research on obedience demonstrate the degree to which behavior is influenced by situational factors.

obedience

A social group to which one does not belong

out-group

The tendency to see members of out-groups as very similar to one another

out-group homogeneity effect

Any of several forms of nontraditional sexual behavior in which a person's sexual gratification depends on an unusual sexual experience, object, or fantasy

paraphilia

The mental processes we use to form judgments and draw conclusions about the characteristics and motives of other people is an active and subjective process that occurs in an interpersonal context. The interpersonal context includes the characteristics of the individual you are judging, your own characteristics, and the situation Person perception is influenced by subjective perceptions, personal goals, social norms, and self-perception.

person perception

a type of personality test that involves a peron's interpreting an ambigous image; used to assess unconscious motives, conflicts, psychological defenses, and personality traits developed out of psychoanalytic approaches to personality

projective test

A type of psychotherapy originated by Sigmund Freud in which free association, dream interpretation, and analysis of resistance and transference are used to explore repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties, and internal conflicts is a theory of personality that stresses the influence of unconscious mental processes, the importance of sexual and aggressive instincts, and the enduring effects of early childhood experience on personality.

psychoanalysis

In Freud's theory, age-related developmental periods in which the child's sexual urges are focused on different areas of the body and are expressed through the activities associated with those areas According to Freud people progress through five psychosexual stages of development. The foundations of adult personality are established during the first five years of life, as the child progresses through the oral, anal, and phallic psychosexual stages. The latency stage occurs during late childhood, and the fifth and final stage, the genital stage, begins in adolescence. Each psychosexual stage represents a different focus of the id's sexual energies. Freud contended that "sexual life does not begin only at puberty, but starts with clear manifestations after birth." This statement is often misinterpreted. Freud was not saying that an infant experiences sexual urges in the same way that an adult does. Instead, Freud believed that the infant or young child expresses primitive sexual urges by seeking sensual pleasure from different areas of the body Thus, the psychosexual stages are age-related developmental periods in which sexual impulses are focused on different bodily zones and are expressed through the activities associated with these areas. Over the first five years of life, the expression of primitive sexual urges progresses from one bodily zone to another in a distinct order: the mouth, the anus, and the genitals. The first year of life is characterized as the oral stage. During this time the infant derives pleasure through the oral activities of sucking, chewing, and biting. During the next two years, pleasure is derived through elimination and acquiring control over elimination—the anal stage. In the phallic stage, pleasure seeking is focused on the genitals.

psychosexual stages

a model proposed by psychologist Albert Bandura that explains human functioning and personality as caused by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors

reciprocal determinism

-An ego defense mechanism Motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously; a memory that is blocked and unavailable to consciousness The most fundamental ego defense mechanism To some degree, repression occurs in every ego defense mechanism. In simple terms, repression is unconscious forgetting. Unbeknownst to the person, anxiety-producing thoughts, feelings, or impulses are pushed out of conscious awareness into the unconscious. Common examples include traumatic events, past failures, embarrassments, disappointments, the names of disliked people, episodes of physical pain or illness, and unacceptable urges. Repression, however, is not an all-or-nothing psychological process. In other words, if you encounter a situation that is very similar to one you've repressed, bits and pieces of memories of the previous situation may begin to resurface. In such instances, the ego may employ other defense mechanisms that allow the urge or information to remain partially conscious.

repression

The set of perceptions and beliefs that you hold about yourself According to Rogers, people are motivated to act in accordance with their self-concept. So strong is the need to maintain a consistent self-concept that people will deny or distort experiences that contradict their self-concept. The self-concept begins evolving early in life. Because they are motivated by the actualizing tendency, infants and young children naturally gravitate toward self-enhancing experiences. But as children develop greater self-awareness, there is an increasing need for positive regard. Positive regard is the sense of being loved and valued by other people, especially one's parents

self-concept

A type of psychological test in which a person's responses to standardized questions are compared to established norms People answer specific questions or rate themselves on various dimensions of behavior or psychological functioning. Often called objective personality tests, self-report inventories contain items that have been shown by previous research to differentiate among people on a particular personality characteristic. Unlike projective tests, self-report inventories are objectively scored by comparing a person's answers to standardized norms collected on large groups of people.

self-report inventory

Disorders that are associated with significant disturbances in a person's ability to respond sexually or to experience sexual pleasure are disorders that are associated with significant disturbances in a person's ability to respond sexually or to experience sexual pleasure. Recent research reveals that sexual problems are relatively common in the United States

sexual dysfunctions

The direction of a person's emotional and erotic attraction toward members of the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes is not as easily categorized as many people think. More people have had some same-sex sexual experience than identify themselves as exclusively homosexual. Although psychologists do not know exactly what determines sexual orientation, genetics and differences in brain structure may be involved. Cross-gender play patterns in childhood seem to be related to a later homosexual orientation. Sexual orientation develops at a fairly early age and is difficult to change. In itself, homosexuality is not considered a psychological disorder.

sexual orientation

emphasizes learning and conscious cognitive processes, including the importance of beliefs about the self, goal setting, and self-regulation.

social cognitive perspective

Albert Bandura's theory of personality, which emphasizes the importance of observational learning, conscious cognitive processes, social experiences, self-efficacy beliefs, and reciprocal determinism

social cognitive theory

In Freud's theory, the partly conscious, self-evaluative, moralistic component of personality that is formed through the internalization of parental and societal rules By about age 5 or 6, the young child has developed an internal, parental voice that is partly conscious—the superego. As the internal representation of parental and societal values, the superego evaluates the acceptability of behavior and thoughts, then praises or admonishes. Put simply, your superego represents your conscience, issuing demands "like a strict father with a child" It judges your own behavior as right or wrong, good or bad, acceptable or unacceptable. And, should you fail to live up to these morals, the superego can be harshly punitive, imposing feelings of inferiority, guilt, shame, self-doubt, and anxiety

superego

A transgendered person who undergoes surgery and hormone treatments to physically transform his or her body into the opposite sex

transsexual

In Rogers's theory, the sense that you will be valued and loved even if you don't conform to the standards and expectations of others; unconditional love or acceptance

unconditional positive regard

In Freud's theory, a term used to describe thoughts, feelings, wishes, and drives that are operating below the level of conscious awareness The bulk of this psychological iceberg is made up of the unconscious, which lies submerged below the waterline of the preconscious and conscious. You're not directly aware of these submerged thoughts, feelings, wishes, and drives, but the unconscious exerts an enormous influence on your conscious thoughts and behavior. Freud believed that unconscious material often seeps through to the conscious level in distorted, disguised, or symbolic forms Freud believed that the unconscious can also be revealed in unintentional actions, such as accidents, mistakes, instances of forgetting, and inadvertent slips of the tongue, which are often referred to as "Freudian slips." According to Freud, many seemingly accidental or unintentional actions are not accidental at all, but are determined by unconscious motives.

unconscious level