psych final lectures

Mechanism of Action

"Dismantling" Studies

The "Forced Curve"

"Grading on the Curve" - M = C; As and Bs = Ds and Fs • WAIS, WISC, Stanford-Binet - M = 100, SD = 15 • SAT, GRE, GMAT - M = 500, SD = 100 • LSAT - M = 150, SD = 10

Substantial Diathesis

"High Risk" - Little Stress Required for Acute Episode - Poor Premorbid Personality

Somatogenic

"Plagues and Tangles" in Alzheimer's Disease - Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia - Monoamine Hypothesis of Depression • Norepinephrine, Serotonin

Cultural View of Development

"Primitive" vs. "Advanced" - Stone, Bronze, Iron Ages • Anthropological Psychology • History - Ancient, Medieval, Early Modern - Modern, Post-Modern • Forms of Development - Literacy - Economic - Political Cultural Psychology Diversity of Mind

pragmatics of language

"practical" rules of using language the meaning of words and grammar used semantically, except within context (inferred meanings); taking turns speaking -->idioms "he could eat a horse"=hungry rules for using language in different contexts the implicit rules, skills, and concepts which regulate the behavior of speakers and listeners in conversation __________and Context • Linguistic - Surrounding Sentences • Nonlinguistic - Environmental Context - Prosody • "What am I doing here?" - Gesture • Sign Language in the Deaf - Facial Expressions, Other "Body Language"

Nativism

(Descartes) - Innate Knowledge • Independent of Sensory Experience

Training Studies

(Gesell & Thompson, 1929) - Twin Girls: "T" & "C" - Length of Training

direct perception

(Gibson's "Ecological View") • All the Information Needed for Perception is Supplied by the Stimulus - The Whole Pattern of Proximal Stimulus Information Available in the Environment • Perceptual Systems Evolved to Extract the Information Relevant for Perception - Part of Innate Biological Endowment - Little or No Learning, Memory - Little or No Reasoning, Judgment, Inference theory arguing that sensory perception is the direct result of info. from the surrounding environment; this is contrary to the theory of our inferences and beliefs affecting sensory experiences the interpretation of sensory information directly by the brain as opposed to perceptual interpretation resulting from cognitive processing A theory of perception, proposed by James J. Gibson, holding that information in the world is "picked up on" by the cognitive processor without much construction of internal representations or inferences. The emphasis is on direct acquisition of information. Problems for Ecological Perception • Conceptual Problem - Availability vs. Utilization • Empirical Problems - Organization - Pattern Recognition - Perceptual Constancies - Ambiguous (Reversible) Figures - Perceptual Illusions - Cultural Differences - Perceptual Problem-Solving

synthesis

(Kant) - Knowledge Acquired Through Experience - Presumes Categories of Thought

Major Categories of Mental Illness

(Organization Differs from DSM-5) 1. Organic Brain Syndromes 2. Developmental Disorders 3. "Psychoses" 4. "Neuroses" 5. Psychophysiological (Psychosomatic) Disorders 6. Dissociative Disorders 7. Somatoform Disorders 8. Personality Disorders 9. Behavioral Disorders 10. "Problems in Living"

illusion

(n.) a false idea; something that one seems to see or to be aware that really does not exist. Unconscious Inference in ________• Upper line appears farther away - Size an inverse function of distance • Retinal image same size as lower line • Therefore the upper line must be longer than the lower line Unconscious inferences represent "going beyond the information given

"Psychotic" Symptoms at Age 26

- "Schizophreniform" Hallucinations/Delusions

Accessibility

- At Retrieval Attempt - Impaired by Interference

Diathesis

- Bacterial Infection • helicobacter pylori

Stress

- Challenge to Current Level of Adaptation - Precipitates Acute Episode • But Only in Vulnerable Individuals

Origin

- Congenital or Acquired?

Perception

- Constructive Problem-Solving

Peril

- Danger to Other People

Psychological Diathesis

- Depressogenic Schemata, Attributional Style • Affect Interpretation of Changes in Mood, Activity

Disruptiveness

- Does Stigma Impair Social Interactions?

Components of Performance

- Fluid Intelligence + Education + Motivation 15

Septal Lesions in Rats

- Freezing When Punished - Passive Avoidance - Delay of Gratification

function vs content

- Functions may be localized - Contents distributed widely across cortex

Motives

- Goals, Needs, and Desires

Biological Substrates

- Heart-Rate Acceleration as a Measure of Fear Response 21

Classification by Shared Properties

- Hierarchical Structure

availibility of memory

- In Storage - Impaired by Decay, Displacement, Consolidation Failure

Thought

- Judgment Under Uncertainty

Importance of Non-Shared Environment

- Key to Uniqueness of the Individual

Drugs Useful, but Far from Cures

- Magnified, Complemented by Psychotherapy

Interdependence

- Nature Interacts with Nurture

Independence

- Nature and Nurture

Aesthetics

- Other People's Reactions to the Stigma

Hypnotic Blindness, Deafness, Analgesia

- Parallel Symptoms of Conversion Disorders

Cognitions

- Perception of Present - Memory of Past - Expectations of Future - Inferences, Beliefs, Judgments

Reciprocal Determinism

- Persons - Environments - Behavior

Diathesis

- Predisposition - Vulnerability ("At Risk") - Adaptation • "Good" vs. "Poor" Premorbid Adjustment

Types of Environment

- Prenatal - Perinatal - Postnatal

Sensation

- Signal-Detection as Judgment

Course of the mark

- Stigma Becomes More Apparent Over Time

Progestin-induced Pseudohermaphroditism

-Caused by a drug, progestin, given to pregnant women who were prone to miscarriage, to help them maintain their pregnancy. -In utero the progestin acted as androgen; this caused female embryos to develop masculinized external genitals, similar to CAH.

Associative Memory Illusion

-Remembering is a constructive activity vulnerable to illusions -Semantically related items activate the associated item which had not been studied

Patient SM

-amygdala damage -emotion afraid was rated less intense -did not understand fear

cranial nerves

12 pairs of nerves that carry messages to and from the brain. Afferent (olfactory-smell, optic-vision), efferent (oculomotor-eyes, hypoglossal-tongue), and mixed (trigeminal-touch, chewing, facial-taste, face)

spinal nerves

31 pairs of nerves arising from the spinal cord. They combine afferent and efferent fucntions

Klinefelter's Syndrome

47XXY - Feminized Physique, Infertility - Hormone Therapy to Replace Testosterone

Pathological Shyness

5-HTT Allele (Short) - Social Support

Depression

5-HTT Allele (Short) - Stressful Events

Amphetamine Psychosis

A Laboratory Model of Schizophrenia? Snyder (1972, 1976) • Amphetamines - Benzedrine (Amphetamine) - Dexedrine (Dextroamphetamine) - Methedrine (Methamphetamine) • Amphetamine Psychosis - Habitual, Heavy Use - Hallucinations - Thought Disorder - Paranoid Symptoms

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object - Eyes turn inward when focusing on object - Angle of vectors indicates distance • up to 30-40 feet

eyewitness memory

A narrative memory of a personally witnessed event. Remembering and reporting events the person has witnessed or experienced. the reporting of events witnessed or experienced Loftus, Miller, & Burns (1978) • Variant on Verbal-Learning Paradigm - List is Continuous Scene • Rather than Words, Pictures - View Slide Show, Film - Subsequent Memory Test

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

Mental Health Parity

A standard that would require health insurers to provide equal levels of coverage for physical and mental illnesses. Equating annual and aggregate lifetime insurance coverage limits for mental health services with annual and aggregate lifetime insurance coverage for medical care. Historically, health insurance covered mental health care differently than other medical care. Recent laws have begun bringing them into balance

hypnotic suggestion

According to Bernheim and Liebault, a mental process could both cause and cure even a physical dysfunction. suggestion made during hypnosis that the person carry out a specific instruction following the hypnotic session. specific change in ability the person should experience or the specific task/behavior the person should perform while hypnotized Blindness, Deafness - Analgesia/Anesthesia

Catastrophic Stress

Acute Episode Even in "Low-Risk" Individuals - Good Premorbid Personality

Nature's Rule

Add Something to Masculinize Money & Ehrhardt (1972)

The Modularity of Emotion

Affective Neuroscience Panskepp (1992, 1996, 1998); Davidson & Sutton (1995); Davidson (2000) • Fear (and Other Negative Affect?) - Amygdala • Emotion Regulation - Orbitofrontal Cortex • Discrepancies - Anterior Cingulate Gyrus • Positive Affect - Nucleus Accumbens • Disgust - Insula

Emotions

Affects, Feelings, and Moods

Explicit and Implicit Thought

After Kihlstrom, Shames, & Dorfman (1996); Dorfman, Shames, & Kihlstrom (1996) • Explicit Thought - Conscious Cognitive Activity • Reasoning, Problem-Solving • Judgment, Decision-Making • Any Effect of an Idea (or Image) on Experience, Thought, or Action - Not Itself a Percept or (Episodic) Memory • Nor Recent Learning - Absence of Conscious Access to Idea

a

Amnesia and Short-Term Memory (Wickelgren, 1968) Patient H.M. Medial Temporal Lobes Hippocampus, Mammillary Bodies • Normal Digit Span - Normal Short-Term Memory • Impaired Free Recall After Distraction - Impaired Long-Term Memory

Dementia

An abnormal condition marked by multiple cognitive defects that include memory impairment. a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes a chronic or persistent disorder of the mental processes caused by brain disease or injury and marked by memory disorders, personality changes, and impaired reasoning.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsession) and/ or actions (compulsions). an anxiety disorder characterized by repetitive obsessions and compulsions

hindbrain

An area of the brain that coordinates information coming into and out of the spinal cord. Cerebellum, medulla, and pons are located here

perceptual hypothesis

An inference about which distal stimuli could be responsible for the proximal stimuli sensed. an inference about what form could be responsible for a pattern of sensory stimulation an initial guess regarding how to organize (perceive) a stimulus pattern

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits. physical characteristics of an organism the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. Actualized Potential • Same Genotype, Different Phenotype

general arousal theory

Arousal is a physical response that can be perceived in different ways (anxiousness, eagerness, excitability) Physiological Arousal - Single, Undifferentiated State • Different Emotions Vary Only in Intensity

temporal dynamics of affect

Arousing Event 2. Increased Emotion 3. Decreased Emotion 4. Stabilization 5. Termination of Event 6. Replacement by Opposite State 7. Gradual Return to Baseline

Mind in the Context of Culture

Assumptions About Ourselves, Universe • Categories for Understanding Experience • History of Previous Generations • Cultural Institutions • Social Rewards and Punishments • Philosophy, Literature, Art

Traditional Social Psychology

B = f (E) • Emphasizes Situational Factors - Physical - Social • Interpersonal • Organizational • Cultural • Personal Factors Largely Irrelevant Canonical Method for _______ ________ _________: Manipulate Some Feature of the External Environment - Independent Variable • Expose Subjects to All Conditions or • Random Assignment of Subjects to Conditions • Determine Effect of Manipulation on Behavior in Specific Situation - Dependent Variable

traditional personality psychology

B = f (P) • Emphasizes Personal Factors - Beliefs - Attitudes - Traits - Emotions - Motives - Values • Situational Factors Largely Irrelevant Canonical Method for _________ ____________: Measure Some Personality Variable - Predictor Variable • Self-Report Questionnaire • Rating Scale • General Behavioral Observations • Correlate "Individual Differences" with Behavior in Specific Situation - Criterion Variable

independence

B = f (P, E) = f (P + E) • Behavior is Predicted by Personality Trait • Behavior is Affected by Situational Manipulation • These Effects are Independent of Each Other

Looking Times

Babies look more at things they are interested in Babies look longer at things they are interested in

The Inevitable Automaticity of Being

Bargh & Chartrand (1999) "[M]ost of a person's everyday life is determined not by their conscious intentions and deliberate choices but by mental processes that are put into motion by features of the environment and that operate outside of conscious awareness and guidance."

Automaticity of Social Behavior

Bargh (1984, 1989, 1990, 1994, 1997, 2005) • Inevitable Evocation • Incorrigible Completion • Efficient Execution • Parallel Processing

Twin

Behavior Genetics: _____ Studies • Monozygotic (MZ) Twins - Identical - 1 Fertilized Egg - 100% of Genes in Common • Dizygotic (DZ) Twins - Fraternal - 2 Fertilized Eggs - 50% of Genes in Common • If a Trait is Inherited - Similarity: MZ > DZ Implications of ______ Studies • MZ Twins More Alike Than DZ Twins - Prima Facie Evidence for Genetic Contribution • But MZ Twins Also Share Environment - Arguably More Alike than For DZ Twins • Same Sex, Physical Resemblance How Do We Tease Apart Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Personality?

Self-Perception Theory of Attitudes

Bem (1972) • Reverses Usual View of Causality - Attitudes Do Not Cause Behavior - Rather, Behavior Causes Attitudes • Perception of our own behavior leads us to form attitudes that are consistent with that behavior Bem (1972) • People infer their attitudes from observations of their own behavior. - Just as they infer others' attitudes from observations of their behavior. • Attitudes Do Not Cause Behaviors to Occur • Rather, Behaviors Cause Attitudes to Form

Anger, Weapons, and Aggression

Berkowitz & LePage (1967) • Subject, Confederate Work Together on Problems - Evaluate Each Other's Performance • Deliver 1-10 Shocks • Confederate Evaluates Subject First - Delivers 1 vs. 7 Shocks - Induces Anger in Subject • Subject Evaluates Confederate - Opportunity to Retaliate Against Confederate • Objects in the Room - Guns vs. Badminton Equipment • Belong to Confederate or Someone Else

Growth of Intelligence

Binet & Simon (1905): Mental Age - Correlated with Chronological Age • Test Items Clustered by Age Level • Terman (1916): IQ - "Ratio" IQ = MA/CA x 100 • Wechsler (1936) - "Deviation" IQ

Dual Nature of Psychology

Biological Science - Biological Substrates of Mental Life • Social Science - Sociocultural Context of Mental Life

320(+) Gender-Related Categories?

Biological Sex - Male, Female - Intersex • Chromosomal XY • Chromosomal XX • "True" Hermaphrodite(?) • Gender Identity - Male, Female - Transgender • Male, Female • Gender Role - Masculine, Feminine - Androgynous - Undifferentiated • Erotic Orientation - Heterosexual - Homosexual - Bisexual - Asexual

Brain as the Physical Basis of Mind

Biological Substrate of Cognition - Specialized Neural Structures

Mind in the Context of Biology

Brain as the Physical Basis of Mind - Biological Substrate of Cognition - Specialized Neural Structures • Legacy of Biological Evolution - Intelligence • Capacity for Learning, Understanding - Consciousness • Awareness, Reflection - Language • Symbolic Representation, Flexible Communication

brain lesions

Brain insult, injury or disease. specific brain damage caused by strokes, tumors, blows to the head, accidents, or other traumas. affects crocas area

frontal cortex

Brain region in which most conscious thinking takes place. - Executive Functions - Problem-solving

domain of emotion

Brief, adaptive responses, involving physiological and cognitive reactions to objects, people, or situations." [?] • An internal mental state consisting of subjective feelings of pleasantness and unpleasantness. • The Affective Lexicon - Feeling - Mood - Emotion

Modeling Effects on Altruism

Bryan & Test (1967) • Female College Student with Flat Tire - Model 1/4 Mile Previously • Salvation Army Christmas Kettle - Model Donates

preparedness principle

By Virtue of Its Evolutionary History, Each Species is Predisposed to Learn Certain Associations • Prepared • Unprepared • Contraprepared

disease problem

Certainty: If A is Adopted - 200 People Will Be Saved • Risky Prospects: If B is Adopted - 1/3 Probability that All Will Be Saved - 2/3 Probability that None Will Be Saved Which Program Do You Choose?

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit information from one neuron to another.

Development as the Acquisition of Expertise

Chi, Glaser, & Farr (1988); Bedard & Chi (1992) • Young Child as Novice - Expertise Acquired Through Learning • Characteristics of Expert Problem-Solving - Cross-Referencing - Higher-Order Patterns ("Chunks") • Expertise vs. Learning - Qualitative Leaps • Successive Reorganization of Task Performance - Infant not a Blank Slate • Innate if Rudimentary Cognitive Apparatus

Interaction of Child with Environment

Child as Agent of His/Her Own Development - Across the Lifespan, from Birth to Death

Emotion and Cognition

Cognition Affects Emotion - Self-Regulation of Pain, Anxiety in Surgery - "Depressogenic" Schemata in Depression • Emotion Affects Cognition - Perception ("Rose-Colored Glasses") - Memory: Mood-Congruent, Mood-Dependent - Judgment - Performance - Risk-Taking

Interactions Among the Trilogy of Mind

Cognitive Construction of... - Emotions - Motives • Emotional and Motivational Influences on... - Perception - Memory - Thought • Emotion and Motivation

Diathesis often Biological, and Stress often Psychological, but Diathesis Can Be Psychological

Cognitive Theory of Depression Beck (1967) • Depressogenic Schemata - Negative View of Self - Negative View of the World - Negative View of the Future "I'm no good, the world is hostile, and the future is bleak."

Lines of Improvement

Comparison Condition - Placebo Condition - "Standard of Care" • Clinical vs. Statistical Significance - "File-Drawer Problem" • Mechanism of Action - "Dismantling" Studies

Clinical Trials

Comparison with Control Condition - No Treatment (Waiting List) • Random Assignment of Patients • Objective Evaluation of Outcomes - Blind to Condition • Statistical Significance • Multiple Independent Studies

Gender-Role Dimorphism

Constantinople (1973); Bem (1974); Spence et al (1975); Heilbrun (1976) Stereotypically Masculine: Agency Instrumentality : - Decision-Making - Independence - Active - Leadership - Competitiveness - Provider Role - Achievement Outside Family Stereotypically Feminine: Communality Expressiveness - Sensitivity - Emotionality - Kindness, Empathy - Concern for Others - Interpersonal Harmony - Caring Orientation - Nurturance - Achievement Inside Family

Diencephalon

Contains thalamus and hypothalamus

Rehabilitation Programs

Cope with Chronic Disability - Make Optimal Social Adjustment

Major Depressive Disorder

DSM-5 (2013) 5+ Symptoms Over 2 Weeks • Depressed Mood and/or • Diminished Interest • Weight Loss • Insomnia or Hypersomnia • Psychomotor Agitation or Retardation • Loss of Energy or Fatigue • Worthlessness or Guilt • Inability to Concentrate or Indecisiveness • Thoughts of Death or Suicide

Diagnoses as Fuzzy Sets

DSM-III (1980), DSM- IV (1994), DSM-5 (2013) • Characteristic Symptoms - Textbook Cases as Prototypes • Heterogeneity within Category - Family Resemblance • No Clear Boundaries

Sperling Paradigm

Decays < 1 Second - Displacement << 1 Second

Personality Disorders

Deeply Ingrained Since Childhood or Adolescence "Ego-Dystonic" vs. "Ego-Syntonic" Symptoms • Antisocial Personality Disorder - Psychopathic Personality Disorder - Psychopathy, Sociopathy • Borderline Personality Disorder

a

Diathesis is a Specific Predisposition

Organic Brain Syndromes

Disorders involving memory loss, confusion, loss of ability to manage daily functions, and loss of ability to focus attention. what type of changes in mental health are: -dementia: alzheimers or multi-infarct (very old age) most diff health issue = confusion, disorientation, loss of control over basic ADLs, obsticals for adaptation Insult, Injury, or Disease Affecting Brain • Dementia - Alzheimer's Disease • Amnesic Syndrome - Korsakoff's Syndrome • Aphasia - Expressive (Broca's) - Receptive (Wernicke's)

Dissociative Disorders

Disruptions in Consciousness Awareness and/or Control • Affecting Memory / Identity - Functional/"Psychogenic" Amnesia - Fugue - Multiple Personality Disorder • Dissociative Identity Disorder • Affecting Sensation / Perception / Action - "Hysteria" / Conversion Disorder • Functional Blindness, Deafness, Anesthesia • Functional Paralysis

Mood and Manipulated Expressions

Duclos, Laird et al. (1989) • Psychophysiology Experiment - "Calibrate Equipment" • Hold certain poses - Adjust Facial Muscles in Certain Ways • Hold Pen Between Teeth • Hold Pen Between Lips • Collect "Incidental" Mood Ratings

Maze Learning in rats

During the mid-1900s, many experimental psychologists studied rats in mazes. As this approach failed to produce general laws of learning and behavior, researchers became discouraged with it and largely abandoned it.

Dissociations Between Explicit and Implicit Thought

Dyads of Triads" Paradigm - Semantic Priming • Risky Choices - Damage to Prefrontal Cortex • Insight Learning

The Debate Over Empirically Supported Treatments

Efficacy (Effectiveness) • Clinical Judgment • Patient Values Clinical Psychology Owes Its Autonomy from Psychiatry, and Its Eligibility for Insurance Payments, to the Assumption that Its Practices Rest on a Firm Scientific Foundation

Laboratory Studies of Psychological Deficit

Emil Kraepelin in Wundt's Laboratory - Donders's Reaction-Time Technique • Attentional Deficit in Schizophrenia - Breakdown in Selective Attention • Distractibility • Inability to Filter Out Irrelevant Ideas - Consequences • Language Disorder • Social Withdrawal

secondary motivation

Emotion as a Source of ______ ______ Drives Acquired Through Experience • Fear Conditioning - Conditioned Emotional Response • Behavior Motivated by Fear - Escape Learning - Avoidance Learning

Seven (Plus or Minus Two) Principles of Memory

Encoding - Elaboration - Organization • Storage - Time-Dependency • Interference • Retrieval - Cue-Dependency • Availability vs. Accessibility - Encoding Specificity - Schematic Processing - Reconstruction At least so far as conscious recollection is concerned...

orthography

English _________• Elementary Features - Vertical, Horizontal, Oblique Lines - Right, Acute Angles - Continuous, Discontinuous Curves

Family Transactional Characteristics

Enmeshment - Overprotectiveness - Rigidity - Lack of Conflict Resolution

Diathesis Within Normal Limits

Episode a Function of Stress

dissociation

Explicit Memory Impaired - Implicit Memory Spared

Predicting Behavior from Traits

Extraversion - Warmth • Likes Most People - Will he like Judy when he meets her? • Strong Attachments to Friends - Will he still call Judy after she moves away? - Assertiveness • Dominant and Forceful - Will she interrupt the speaker? • Usually Leads Groups - Will she take over the task? Agreeableness - Trust • Believes Most People are Honest - Will he let his coworker borrow some money? • Assumes Best About People - Will he still like his coworker when he doesn't repay? - Altruism • Courteous to Everyone - Will she say "please" to the store clerk? • Charitable - Will she donate to the Salvation Army?

Clinical vs. Statistical Significance

File-Drawer Problem

Aspects of Metacognition

Flavell (1979) • Goals or Tasks - Objectives of Cognition • Actions or Strategies - What Works for a Given Task • Metacognitive Knowledge - Understanding of Influences on Cognition • Metacognitive Experiences - Thoughts and Feelings About Cognition

Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy

Focus on "Here and Now" - Acquire New, More Adaptive Knowledge, Beliefs • Behavior Change Flows from Cognitive Change

Locked-in syndrome

Follows coma, largely immobile, limited responsiveness vertical eye movements, blinking, Individual is aware and capable of thinking but is paralyzed and cannot communicate

Personality and Delay of Gratification

Funder, Block, & Block (1983) • Ratings by Teachers at Age 4 • Ego Control (Conscientiousness) - Impulse Control • Delay of Gratification • Inhibition of Aggression • Planfulness • Ego Resiliency (Neuroticism) - Ability to Adapt to Environmental Demands • Security • Competence

Interaction of Genes and Environments

Genotypes not Decisive for Phenotypes

The Stigma of Mental Illness

Goffman (1963) • "Attribute that is Deeply Discrediting" - "Whole Person" "Tainted, Discounted One" • Discrediting - Undesirable, Rejected • Discreditable - Vulnerable to Discrediting • "Passing"

Group Socialization

Harris (1995, 1998, 2006) • Socialization is Context-Specific - Within vs. Outside Home • Different Extrafamilial Contexts • "Code Switching" in Bilinguals, Biculturals - Minority Children "Acting White" • Peer Groups, Peer Cultures - The Case of Food Preferences

trichromatic theory of color vision

Helmholtz (1856-1867), after Young (1802) and Maxwell (1855) • Any Visible Color can be Produced by Mixing Three Primary Colors • Three Kinds of Cones - "Red" • Long Wavelengths - "Green" • Medium Wavelengths - "Blue" • Short Wavelengths problems: Yellow as Pure Color - Not Mix of Red and Green • Two Forms of Color Blindness - Monochromacy • Loss of All Color Sensitivity - Dichromacy • Protanopia - Loss of "Red" Receptors • Deuteranopia - Loss of "Green" Receptors • Negative Afterimages

Eye tracking and attention

Holzman et al. (1981) • Follow swinging pendulum with eyes - Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements • Eye-Tracking Dysfunctions - Interruptions of SPEMs - Saccadic Tracking - Saccadic Intrusions • Eye-Tracking and Attention - Peripheral, Psychophysiological Index

diathesis often Biological, and Stress often Psychological, but Diathesis Can Be Psychological Part

Hopelessness Theory of Depression Abramson & Alloy (1989) • Learned Helplessness Theory of Depression • Depressive Attributional Style - Stable vs. Variable - Internal vs. External - Global vs. Specific "I'm always responsible for all the bad things that happen to me"

Schizophrenia

Iconic Memory in _______• Iconic Memory - Very-Short-Term Sensory Store - Prelude to Storage in Short-Term or Working Memory • Available for Further Processing • Sperling Paradigm - Decays < 1 Second - Displacement << 1 Second • Mask Displaces Iconic Trace - Stimulus Onset Asynchrony • Between Onset of Target and Onset of Mask

Social Selection

Idea that an individual's health can influence their social mobility. Social conditions can affect reproductive rates of individual in a population a perspective that explains the greater happiness, health, and well-being found among married people compared to unmarried people as a consequence of the types of people who marry. some teenage girls are more likely than others to become pregnant, and those same factors that cause girls to become pregnant may put their children at risk

ambiguous figures

Images that are capable of more than one interpretation can be perceived as two different things depending on how you look at them images that can be interpreted in more than one way Reversible Figures Bistable Figures • Pattern of proximal stimulation constant - Retinal image doesn't change • Perception of distal stimulus is changes - Mental representation does change

frontoparietal, thalamus, superior parietal, anterior cingulate gyrus

Imaging the Stage Model of Attention Fan et al. (2005), after Posner & Peterson (1990) • Alerting and Interruption - ________, __________ Orienting and Localizing - __________ ___________ Executive Control - __________ _________ ________ (Shift) • (Re-) Engage • Inhibit

pre operational period

In Piaget's theory, the period from about ages 2 to 7, in which a child can think representationally, but can't yet relate these representations to each other or take a point of view other than her own. Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, lasting from ages 2 to about 7; children begin to think symbolically but often lack the ability to perform mental operations such as conservation 2-7 years Age 2-7 • Object Permanence • Unrelated Internal Representations • Conservation Failure • Egocentrism

Sperling experiment

In his experiment he flashed images of 12 letters in a screen for one-twentieth of a second. The letters were arranged in four rows of three letters each. Subjects focused their attention on the screen and, immediately after the screen went blank, reported as many letters as they could remember three part experiment on properties of the visual icon (1) whole report: show display and let participants report as many letters as they can remember (2) partial report - immediate tone: show display and indicate with a cue tone which row the participant shall report (3) partial report - delayed tone: show display and indicate target row after a delay --> immediately after a stimulus is presented, all or most of the stimulus is available for perception but there is a rapid decay of iconic memory (sensory memory) (1960) • Visual Presentation • 3x4 Array of Letters • Retention Interval - 0-1 sec • Whole Report • Partial Report X

secondary traits

In trait theory, preferences and attitudes. Traits that are more preferences/attitudes Allport's term for specific traits that influence behavior in relatively few situations

Mechanisms of Recovery of function

Incomplete Damage • Redundancy in Neural Organization • Neurogenesis • Plasticity

Learning

Information about Prediction, Control

Irreversible Brain Damage

Injury to the brain that is caused by various conditions, such as head trauma, inadequate oxygen supply, infection, or intracranial hemorrhage, and that may be associated with a behavioral or functional abnormality.

Freud's Instinct Theory

Instinct vs. Somatic Excitation - Innate Bodily Need - Repetition Compulsion • Eros - Life-Maintenance - Sexual (Libido) • Love and Sex • Thanatos • Hate and Aggression

Legacy of Biological Evolution

Intelligence • Capacity for Learning, Understanding - Consciousness • Awareness, Reflection - Language • Symbolic Representation, Flexible Communication

human nature

Intelligent Creatures - Not Just Reflex, Taxis, Instinct, Conditioning - Behavior Reflects "Effort After Meaning" • Social Creatures - Experience, Thought, Action in Social Context - Cooperation, Competition, Social Exchange What is the relation between mental processes within the individual and social processes impinging from outside?

double depletion hypothesis

Intracellular Fluids - Extracellular Fluids (Blood Plasma)

Where Cure is Impossible

Irreversible Brain Damage - Organic Brain Syndromes - Intellectual Disability • Chronic-Disease Management - Schizophrenia - Affective Disorder • Rehabilitation Programs - Cope with Chronic Disability - Make Optimal Social Adjustment

A Tumbling-Ground for Whimsies?

James, Principles of Psychology (1890), p. 163 The distinction... between the unconscious and the conscious being of the mental state... is the sovereign means for believing what one likes in psychology, and of turning what might become a science into a tumbling-ground for whimsies.

19th-Century Psychiatric Diagnosis

Jean-Etienne Dominique Esquirol (1772-1840) - Insane - Mentally Deficient - Criminal • Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926) - Dementia Praecox (Schizophrenia) - Manic-Depressive Illness (Affective Disorder) • Pierre Janet (1859-1947) - Hysteria (Dissociative Disorders) - Psychasthenia (Anxiety, Depression)

transformational grammar

Kernel of Meaning - Proposition NP + VP • Transformational Rules - Attitude Assertion, Denial, Question Focus on Subject, etc. - Sentence Att + Prop Kernel as "Gist" or Deep Structure Transformational Rules Yield Surface Structure From Deep Structure to Surface Structure Chomsky (1957, 1965) • Kernel Proposition • Assertion • Denial • Question • Focus on Object • Combination • The boy hit the ball. • The boy hit the ball. • The boy did not hit the ball. • Did the boy hit the ball? • The ball was hit by the boy. • The ball was not hit by the boy, was it? Psychological Reality of Deep Structure and Transformational Grammar • Novice Language - I no go sleep - Why Mommy hit Billy? • Phrase and Paraphrase - He sent a letter to Galileo • Galileo sent a letter about it to him. • A letter about it was sent to Galileo by him. • Meaning Verification - The boy hit the ball. • Has the boy hit the ball? • Was the ball hit by the boy?

proprioception

Kinesthesis • Equilibrium (Vestibular) • (Skin Senses) - Touch - Temperature - Pain

procedural knowledge

Knowledge of how to do something, such as riding a bike; expressed in behaviors rather than in words. knowing how to do something Knowledge concerning how to do something (e.g., a skill). Directions for Goal-Directed Action • "If-Then" Format (Productions) - Goal - Condition - Action - Production System • Motor - Actions Take Form of Overt Behavior • Alter Objective, Publicly Observable World • Mental X + 6 = 38 - Actions Take Form of Mental Transformation • Alter Internal, Private Mental Representations

pre-conventional morality

Kohlberg's stage of moral development in which rewards and punishments dominate moral thinking Moral reasoning is based on REWARD and PUNISHMENT from those in authority. Children; (1) Obediance and Punishment Orientation; (2) Self-interest orientation Obedience and Punishment - Self-Interest

Racial Prejudice and Hospitality

LaPiere (1934) • "Do you accept members of the Chinese race as guests?" No - Hotels: 43/47 • All But 1 Actually Gave Accommodations - Restaurants: 75/81 • Every One Actually Served Meals • "In the end I was forced to conclude that those factors which most influenced the behavior of others towards the Chinese had nothing at all to do with race."

Thorndike's Laws of Learning

Law of Readiness Law of Exercise Law of Effect

Analyzing Social Interaction

Lewin (1933/1935) B = f (P,E) • B = Behavior - Overt Action • P = Personal Determinants - Internal States and Dispositions • Cognitions, Emotions, Motivations • E = Environmental Determinants - Physical Ecology - Social Ecology

reticular formation

Located in midbrain. a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Hypothalamus

Located in the forebrain. A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward. It is for biological motives

basal ganglia

Located in the forebrain. a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements. Incluse globus pallidus, caudate nucleus, Putamen

limbic system

Located in the forebrain. neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives. includes cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, hippocampal formation(amygdala, hoppocampus, fornix, mammillary bodies) "old mammalian brain"

Expiremental method

Looking to prove casual relationships. Experimental Manipulation • Independent vs. Dependent Variables • Quasi-Experiments Within-Subjects vs. Between-Groups Designs

Scientific Revolution in Medicine

Louis Pasteur (Rabies) - Robert Koch (Tuberculosis)

language of emotion

Love - Liking, Passion • Happiness - Joy, Ecstasy • Anger - Frustration, Rage, Resentment, Disgust, Envy • Sadness - Agony, Grief, Disappointment, Guilt, Loneliness, Pity • Fear • Alarm, Fright, Anxiety • Surprise (A "Pre-Emotion")

Adolescent Conduct Disorder

MAOA Activity - History of Maltreatment

Genetic and Environmental Components of Extraversion

MZ = 0.48 DZ = 0.24 T = G + E G = 2 * (MZ - DZ) G = 2 * (0.48 - 0.24) G = 2 * (0.24) G = 0.48 E = ES + ENS ENS = 1 - MZ ENS = 1 - 0.48 ENS = 0.52 ES = 1 - G - ENS ES = 1 - 0.48 - 0.52 ES = 0.00

Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Variance in IQ

MZ = 0.86 DZ = 0.60 T = G + E G = 2 * (MZ - DZ) G = 2 * (0.86 - 0.60) G = 2 * (0.26) G = 0.52 E = ES + ENS ENS = 1 - MZ ENS = 1 - 0.86 ENS = 0.14 ES = 1 - G - ENS ES = 1 - 0.52 - 0.14 ES = 0.34

Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Variance in Education

MZ = 0.86 DZ = 0.66 T = G + E G = 2 * (MZ - DZ) G = 2 * (0.86 - 0.66) G = 2 * (0.20) G = 0.40 E = ES + ENS ENS = 1 - MZ ENS = 1 - 0.86 ENS = 0.14 ES = 1 - G - ENS ES = 1 - 0.40 - 0.14 ES = 0.46

the Limbic System and the Visceral Brain

MacLean (1952; 1970, 1990) • Neocortex - "New Brain" • Limbic System - "Old Mammalian" Brain" • Amygdala • Hypothalamus • Hippocampus • R-Complex - "Reptilian Brain" • Brain Stem • Cerebellum

Development of Gender Role

Maccoby & Jacklin (1974); Maccoby (1998) Before Age 2, Undifferentiated Active Learning Direct Experience Observational Learning • Entry to School - Playmate Preferences - Group Size - Roughhousing - Fighting - Resources • Asymmetry - Taboo - Stringent Differentiation - Fathers vs. Mothers

Laboratory Models as Theories of Psychopathology

Maser & Seligman (1977) • Symptoms - Phobia as Conditioned Fear • Causes - But Often No Conditioning Experience! - Observational/Vicarious Learning • Cures - Systematic Desensitization as Extinction • Prevention - Prevent Fearful Encounter/Social Learning • Biological Substrates - Heart-Rate Acceleration as a Measure of Fear Response

Diagnosis as Feature-Matching

Match Patient's Symptoms to Syndrome

Schizophrenics vs. Normals

Matched for Demographic Variables - Patients Taking Medication

cognitive functions of the mind

Mediate Adaptive Behavior - Interactions Between Person, World • Form Internal Representations of the World - Perception, Memory • Reflect on this Knowledge - Reasoning, Problem-Solving • Use Knowledge to Guide Behavior - , Decision, Choice, Action • Communicate Knowledge to Others - Language

Twin Studies of Homosexuality

Meta-Analysis of 12 Studies by Bailey et al. (2016) • Concordance Rates - 5 "Targeted Studies" • MZ = .52 • DZ = .17 - 7 "Nontargeted Studies" • MZ = .25 • DZ = .13 - Median Estimate • MZ = .24 • DZ = .15 - Corrected for Baserate • MZ = .57 • DZ = .41

child-rearing practices

Methods used to take care of infants and young children, including ways of feeding, playing with, and carrying, as well as sleeping arrangements. Furnishing of Rooms • Household Chores • Differential Rewards, Punishments • Differential Modeling • Differential Socialization Outside Home

The Paradox of Evolution

Mind Creates the Possibility of Culture - Conscious Awareness of What We Are Thinking - Linguistic Communication • Learning, Cultural Evolution Faster than Biological Evolution - Transcendent Mind - Biology is not Destiny We Evolved in the Pleistocene. But We Live in the Anthropocene

Diathesis and Stress in Phobias

Mineka & Zinbarg (2006) • Stress - Fear Conditioning, But... • History Not Always Positive • Phobias are Not Arbitrary • Laboratory Model in Monkeys - Observational Fear Conditioning • Exposure to Snakes but not to Flowers • Preparedness Argument - Evolved Predisposition as Diathesis • Fear Dark, Heights, Open Spaces, Certain Animals

Family Therapy for Eating Disorders

Minuchin et al. (1974) • Open Systems Model - Family Organization Triggers Child's Symptoms - Child's Symptoms Maintain Family Organization • Family Transactional Characteristics - Enmeshment - Overprotectiveness - Rigidity - Lack of Conflict Resolution • Mobilize Entire Family for Treatment

Utility

Mischel (1968) • Efficiency of Measurement • Cost-Benefit Ratio

MAOA gene

Monoamine Oxidase - A • Located on X Chromosome • Metabolizes Many Neurotransmitters • Linked to Aggression in Mice, Humans

aerial perspective

Monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that more distant objects are likely to appear hazy and blurred. Diffraction of Light by Dust, Moisture - "Bluing" of Distance

The Domain of Motivation

Mook (1996) • An internal mental state that causes an organism to initiate, choose, or persist in approach or avoidance behavior. • The Conative Lexicon - Drive - Need - Want - Goal

Origins of Knowledge

Nativism (Descartes) - Innate Knowledge • Independent of Sensory Experience • Empiricism (Locke) - Knowledge Acquired Through Experience - Child as a Tabula Rasa

Depressogenic Schemata

Negative View of Self - Negative View of the World - Negative View of the Future

Minority Size and Conformity

Nemeth et al. (1977) • Judgments of Color - Blue vs. Blue-Green • Group composition - 6 Naïve Subjects (Usually Judged "Blue") - 1-4 Confederates (Wrongly Judged "Blue-Green") • Adoption of Erroneous Minority Judgment

"Problems in Living"

Not Necessarily Mental Illnesses Treated by Mental Health Professionals • Marital Stress • Sexual Dysfunction • Adjustment Problems • Stress Reactions • Vocational Quandaries

memory as narrative

Objections to Verbal-Learning Paradigm - Rote Associations • Remembering More Like Telling Stories • Study Memory for Stories, Not for Lists - Method of Repeated Reproduction • Subjects Repeat the Same story - Method of Serial Reproduction • Subjects Repeat Each Others' Stories

Laboratory Model in Monkeys

Observational Fear Conditioning • Exposure to Snakes but not to Flowers

Food, Flavor, and Addiction

Olds & Milner (1954) Kessler (2009); Moss (2013) • Mesolimbic Reward System ("Pleasure Center") - Ventral Tegmental Area - Medial Forebrain Bundle - Nucleus Accumbens • Dopamine ("Pleasure Chemical") • "The Bliss Point"

Traditional Perspectives on Nature and Nurture

Opposition - Nature vs. Nurture • Independence - Nature and Nurture • Interdependence - Nature Interacts with Nurture

Irreversible Brain Damage

Organic Brain Syndromes - Intellectual Disability

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Organization and Elaboration Compared • Elaboration - Item-Specific (Intra-Item) Processing • Organization - Relational (Inter-Item) Processing • Both reflect "Effort after meaning" • F.C.Bartlett (1932) - Make sense of what is happening - Relate what is new to what is already known

Posthypnotic Amnesia

Parallels Symptoms of Dissociative Disorders

anterior cingulate gyrus

Part of Limbic Lobe - Anterior Cingulate Cortex • "ACC" • Executive Functions - Controlled Processing • Self-Regulation - Error Detection - Conflict Monitoring

"Know Thyself"

Pausanias, Description of Greece (X, 24.1) In the fore-temple at Delphi are written maxims useful for the life of men, inscribed by those whom the Greeks say were sages [who] came to Delphi and dedicated to Apollo the celebrated maxims, "Know thyself," and "Nothing in excess."

Pavlov's Apparatus

Pavlov classically conditioned dogs to salivate. Salivation was measured by a pen attached to a slowly rotating cylinder of paper. Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep the dog in a consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva samples - no harm to the dog Harness and fistula (mouth tube) help keep dog in a consistent position and gather uncontaminated saliva samples Classical Conditioning of "Psychic" Reflexes

Interaction of Person, Situation

People Create Their Own Environments - Evocation - Selection - Behavioral Manipulation - Cognitive Transformation • Reciprocal Determinism - Persons - Environments - Behavior

memory

Perception and _____• Perception Draws on ___________- Permanent Repository of World-Knowledge - Momentary Expectations • Perception Changes _________- _________"Trace" • Mental Representation of Stimulus • Persists After Termination of Stimulus

illusions in perception and memory

Perceptual Illusions - Perceive the Present Inaccurately • Systematic Distortion, Bias - Product of Constructive Activity • "Going Beyond the Information Given" in Stimulus • Memory Illusions - Remember the Past Inaccurately • Systematic Distortion, Bias - Product of Reconstructive Activity • "Going Beyond the Information Given" in Trace

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Personal and Environmental Factors Are Independent Personal and Environmental Factors Interact

Social Learning

Phobias, Obsessions, Compulsions

Somatoform Disorders

Physical Complaints But No Organic Cause • Hypochondriasis • Somatization Disorder - Briquet's Syndrome ("Hysteria") • Somatoform Pain Disorder • Body Dysmorphic Disorder

Qualitative Stages of Intellectual Development

Piaget (1951, 1952) • Schema • Assimilation and Accommodation • Stages of Cognitive Development - Sensory-Motor Intelligence - Pre-Operational Thought - Concrete Operations - Formal Operations • Landmarks of Stages

Comparison Condition

Placebo Condition - "Standard of Care"

Psychogenic

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - Phobias as Acquired Fear - Compulsions as Avoidance Learning - Learned Helplessness in Depression

Failure of De-Institutionalization

Premature Discharge • Lack of Financing • Lack of Community Support - "Not in My Back Yard"

Birth Complications in Schizophrenia

Prenatal • Exposure to Viruses • Malnutrition • Short Gestation, Low Birth Weight - Perinatal • Birth Complications But These Factors Do Not Inevitably Give Rise to Mental Illness Nor Are They Specific to Schizophrenia

Stress

Prolonged Emotional Stress • Autonomic Nervous System activation

environment dependent memory

Putting ourselves in the same environment we were in when we learned something may help us do better recalling the learned information aka Locus dependent learning

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Realism Spontaneity External, Problem-Centered Focus Autonomy Ethical Sensitivity Openness to Experience "Peak Experiences

innate responses to stimulations

Reflexes - Involve Individual Muscles • Taxes - Involve Entire Body • Instincts (Fixed Action Patterns) - Very Discriminating

reflexes in the human infant

Reflexes of Approach - Rooting - Grasping - Plantarflexion • Reflexes of Avoidance - Eye Closure - Mouth Closure - Dorsiflexion • Babinski Reflex • Stepping

memory as reproduction

Remembering as Reproducing Event - Encoding makes Knowledge Available - Retrieval Gains Access to Knowledge • Mechanisms of Forgetting - Unavailability • Poor Encoding - Inaccessibility • Poor Retrieval

common judgment heuristics

Representativeness - Categorization - Other Judgments of Similarity - Probability, Causality • Availability - Frequency, Probability • Simulation - Probability, Causality • Anchoring and Adjustment - Estimation

Rewarding Pinball Wizardry

Reward Structure - Task-Contingent - Performance-Contingent • Evaluative Contingency - Expected vs. Unexpected • Performance Feedback • Delivery of Reward • Types of Rewards - Controlling - Informational

triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that describes intelligence as having analytic, creative and practical dimensions Sternberg's theory that there are three kinds of intelligence: analytical, creative, and practical Sternberg's theory that intelligence consists of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence Analytical Intelligence - Meta-Components - Performance Components - Knowledge Acquisition Components • Creative Intelligence - Novelty Skills - Automatization Skills • Practical Intelligence - Adaptation, Shaping, Selection

Color Perception in the Dani

Rosch Heider & Olivier (1972), after Berlin & Kay (1969; Kay and Moffi, 1999) • Evolution of Color Terms 1. All Languages Have Black & White (Light vs. Dark, Warm vs. Cool) 2. If 3 Color Terms, Add Red 3. If 4 Color Terms, Add Green or Yellow 4. If 5 Color Terms, Add Yellow or Green 5. If 6 Color Terms, Add Blue 6. If 7 Color Terms, Add Brown 7. If 8+ Color Terms, Add Purple/Pink/Orange/Gray; then Light Blue • Two Color Names - Mili - Dark and Cold - Mola -- Light and Warm • Experimental Tasks - Naming Colors - Matching Colors from Memory

The Tertiary Level of Analysis

Rosenberg et al. (1968) • Social Desirability • Intellectual "Good-Bad" - Intelligence (+) - Openness to Experience (+) • Social "Good-Bad" - Extraversion (+) - Neuroticism (-) • Emotional Stability (+) - Agreeableness (+) - Conscientiousness (+)

The "Pseudopatient" Study

Rosenhan (1973), after Nellie Bly's Ten Days in a Mad-House (1887) • Confederates Sought Treatment - Auditory Hallucinations - Ceased Simulation Upon Admission • Diagnosis of Schizophrenia • Largely Ignored by Staff - Custodial Care - Medication (M = 14 Capsules/Day) • Discharge after M =19 days - "Schizophrenia in Remission"

Behavior-Genetic Analysis of Adolescent Behavior

Rowe (1992) • Parents Who Smoke Tend to Have Children Who Smoke-- G, not ES • Adolescents Who Smoke Tend to Have Peers Who Smoke -- ENS Drinking Delinquency Sex, Pregnancy

Chronic-Disease Management

Schizophrenia - Affective Disorder

Examples of Diathesis and Stress

Schizophrenia and Unipolar Affective Disorder - Genetic Component - Nonshared Environment - Communication Deviance • Adolescent Conduct Disorder - MAOA Activity - History of Maltreatment • Depression - 5-HTT Allele (Short) - Stressful Events • Pathological Shyness - 5-HTT Allele (Short) - Social Support

General Adaptation Syndrome

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

Components of Environmental Variance in Personality

Shared Environment: Between-Family Variance What Siblings Have in Common • Family • Race, Ethnicity, Culture • Neighborhood • School • Church Nonshared Environment: Within-Family Variance Siblings' Unique Experiences • Birth Order • Gender • Sibling Interaction • Parental Interaction • Extrafamilial Networks • Nonsystematic Factors

experimental Neurosis in Animals

Shenger-Kristovnikova (c. 1927); Pavlov (1941); Gantt (1944) Mineka & Kihlstrom (1978) • Discrimination Learning - Salivary Conditioning • CS+ (Circle/Ellipse) • CS- (Ellipse/Circle) - Test Stimulus: 9:8 Ratio • Response to Difficult Discrimination - Agitation - Loss of Discriminative CR - Impaired Savings in Relearning

Birth-Order and the "Big Five"

Sibling relations: - Competition for Niche in Family • Firstborns Have First Choice • Primogeniture - Please Parents by Traditional Behavior - Become Conscientious, Conservative • Laterborns Threaten Authority of Firstborns • "Born to rebel" - Seek Alternative Paths to Distinction - Become Empathic, Egalitarian, Anti-Authoritarian, Strive for Uniqueness • Neuroticism: First > Later - More Jealous - Anxious - Neurotic - Fearful - Likely to Affiliate Under Stress Extraversion: First > Later - More Extraverted - Assertive - Likely to Exhibit Leadership Agreeableness: Later > First - More Easygoing - Cooperative - Popular • Conscientiousness: First > Later - More Responsible - Achievement Oriented - Organized - Planful Openness: First < Later - More Conforming - Traditional - Closely Identified with Parents

Medical Model of Psychopathology

Siegler & Osmond (1974); Kihlstrom (2002) • Mental Illness Analogous to Medical Illness - Mental Patient, Mental Hospital, Mental Hygiene • Diagnosis, Treatment, Rehabilitation • Acute vs. Chronic - Symptoms Caused by Underlying Pathology • Signs Observed by Professional - Syndromes • Co-Occurring Symptoms - Diseases • Syndromes with Known Cause

Other Stage Theories of Development

Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual DevelopmentL 1. Oral 2. Anal 3. Phallic 4. Latency Period 5. Genital Erik Erikson: "Eight Ages of Man" : 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 8. Ego integrity vs. Despair

traits, attitudes, behaviors

Significant Genetic Component - Even in Attitudes! • Nonshared Environment Dominates the Shared Environment • Nonshared Environment Matches the Genetic Component

Social Psychology as the Psychology of Social Influence

Social Behavior (F. Allport, 1924) - Behavior that Occurs in Response to the Stimulus of Another's Behavior - Behavior that Serves as a Stimulus to Another's Response • Social Influence (G. Allport, 1954) - "[H]ow the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings"

stereotypes

Social Categories Marked by Physical, Social-Demographic Attributes • Race, Ethnicity, National Origin • Sex (Gender) • Socioeconomic, Educational Status

Social Influence Extends Beyond Overt Behavior

Social Influence (G. Allport, 1954) - "[H]ow the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings" • Internal States and Dispositions - Thoughts, Beliefs, Feelings, Desires - Traits, Attitudes, Values

Conformity Experiment

Solomon Asch 1. Participants were asked to choose which line was the longest 2. 35% of participants choose the line that was obviously wrong because the other participants did Perceptual Task - Identify Line Whose Length Matches Standard • Some Trials Easy, Others Difficult Asch (1955) • Conditions of Testing - Isolation vs. Group of • Group Composed of Confederates - Some Trials, Unanimously Opposed to Subject • How Does the Subject's Judgment Vary? Conditions of Testing - Isolation vs. Group of 7 • Group Composed of Confederates - Some Trials, Unanimously Opposed to Subject - Other trials, Single Dissenter with Subject • How Does the Subject's Judgment Vary?

The Movement for De-Institutionalization

Sources - Pharmaceutical Revolution - "Anti-Psychiatry" Movement • Thomas Szasz • T.J. Scheff • R.D. Laing - Disability Rights - Economics • Phases - Mental Illness - Intellectual Disability

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Space and Time in the Pormpuraaw Tribe Boroditsky & Gaby (2010) • Spatial Direction Terms in Kuuk Thaayore - Left/Right vs. North/South/East/West - Spatial Location Ability • Arrange Pictures in Temporal Sequence - English: Left to Right - Hebrew: Right to Left - Kuuk Thaayore: East to West • Facing South: Left to Right • Facing North: Right to Left

Behavioral Disorders

Specific Maladaptive Behaviors No Other Signs of Mental Illness • Alcoholism, Alcohol Abuse • Drug Addiction, Substance Abuse • Addictions to Sex, Gambling, et

Universal • Obligatory • Stereotyped • Irreversible

Stage Theories of Development are

Construals of Deviance

Statistical, Social Standards for Abnormality - Unusual, Nonconforming Behavior as "Sick" - Inappropriate Diagnoses • Moral vs. Medical Model - Mentally Ill as Socially Undesirable - Mentally Ill Responsible for Own Afflictions - Emphasize "Criminal" Role • Emphasize Restraint, Confinement

Stereotyping and Prejudice

Stereotypes - Social Categories Marked by Physical, Social-Demographic Attributes • Race, Ethnicity, National Origin • Sex (Gender) • Socioeconomic, Educational Status • Evoke Prejudicial Behavior from Others - Ingroup vs. Outgroup

Stigma and the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Stereotyping and Stigma - Dominance of First Impressions - Diagnoses as Labels • Tend to "Stick" • Expectancy Confirmation Effects - Diagnosis as Expectancy - Behavioral Confirmation - Perceptual Confirmation - Effects on Self-Construal

Contact Comfort

Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver positive emotions afforded by touch the instinctual need to touch and be touched by something soft, such as skin or fur • Infant-Caretaker Bond - Derived From Feeding? • Rhesus Monkeys - Raised Alone • "Mother" Objects - Wire with Nipple - Terry-Cloth, No Nipple • Frightened Infant - Clings to Terry-Cloth Mother

Limitations on Innate Responses to Stimulation

Stimulus Must be Physically Present in Current Environment • Cannot Respond to New Stimulus • Cannot Acquire New Responses • Little Opportunity for Trial-and-Error Learning

Mask Displaces Iconic Trace

Stimulus Onset Asynchrony • Between Onset of Target and Onset of Mask

Balancing the Ledger

Strong Evidence • Implicit Memory • Implicit Perception Weaker Evidence • Implicit Learning • Implicit Thought Ambiguous Evidence • Implicit Motives • Implicit Emotions

depth of processing paradigm

Structural (Orthographic) - Is the word printed in capital letters? - Does the word contain the letter "e"? - How many vertical lines are in the word? • Phonemic (Acoustic) - Does the word rhyme with weight? • Semantic (Conceptual) - Is the word a type of fish? • Sentence (Linguistic) - Would the word fit the sentence: He met a man in the _____?

verbal-learning paradigm

Study Phase (Encoding) - Present List of Familiar Words • Episodic, not Semantic Memory • Alternative Materials - Nonsense Syllables, Sentences, Paragraphs, Stories - Pictures, Scenes, Film/Video - Sounds, Smells, Tastes, etc. • Retention Phase (Storage) - Interval (Distraction) • Long-Term or Secondary Memory • Not Short-Term, Primary, or Working Memory • Test Phase (Retrieval) - Remember Items of Word List

explicit emotion

Subjective Mood, Affect, or Feeling

Biological Stress

Sudden Changes in Hormonal Environment • e.g., Pregnancy, Parturition, Menopause - Behavioral Consequences • Altered Mood State • Reduction in Activity Levels

Hierarchical Structure of Personality and Social Behavior

Superordinate Level Subordinate Level Tertiary Traits Secondary Traits Primary Traits Habitual Actions Specific Actions ocially Desirable Extraversion Agreeableness Warmth Assertiveness Trust Altruism Likes Most People Strong Attachments to Friends Dominant and Forceful Usually Leads Groups Believes Most Are Honest Assumes Best About People Courteous to Everyone Charitable

Diagnosis Classifies Patient

Symptoms are Features - Syndromes are Categories

Diagnoses as Proper Sets

Symptoms as Defining Features Bleuler (1911) The "4 As" of Schizophrenia: • Association Disturbance • Anhedonia • Ambivalence • Autism Schizophrenic Subtypes : • Simple • Hebephrenic • Catatonic • Paranoid problems: • Partial Expression - Schizoid Personality Disorder - Schizotypal Personality Disorder - Paranoid Personality Disorder • Combined Expression - Pseudoneurotic Schizophrenia - Pseudopsychopathic Schizophrenia - Schizoaffective Disorder - Borderline Personality Disorder

Theories of Feeding

Teitelbaum & Epstein (1962); Powley & Keesey (1970) • Dual-Center Theory - Lateral Hypothalamus: "Go" - Ventromedial Hypothalamus: "Stop" • Set-Point Theory - Calories - Body Weight/Body Mass

Coherence of Personality and Behavior

The "Big Five" is Ubiquitous • Restricted Level of Analysis - Primary Traits - Habitual Behaviors • Implicit Personality Theory? - Self-Reports - Peer Ratings • By Acquaintances • By Strangers

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The American Scene • Louis Terman (1916) - Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale - Study of "Gifted" Children • Robert Yerkes (1921) - Army "Alpha" and "Beta" Tests • Armed Forces Qualification Test • David Wechsler (1936) - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children

Development as Quantitative Change

The Child as "Short, Stupid Adult" • Training Studies (Gesell & Thompson, 1929) - Twin Girls: "T" & "C" - Length of Training • Hopi Cradleboards (Dennis, 1940) - Swaddled for first year of life - Age of Walking (by 18 mos.) - Lesions in Occipital Bone

Features of P/E Interaction

The effect of a personality variable depends on the situation the person is in. • The effect of a situation depends on the kind of person in it.

MAOA gene

The gene responsible for the activity of the enzyme monoamine oxidase in the brain. The low-activity variant of the gene is closely associated with aggressive behaviour. Has a correlation to anti social behavior if mutated

dual-center theory

The hypothesis that one area in the lateral hypothalamus is the "on" center, the initiator of eating, while another area in the ventromedial hypothalamus is the "off" center, the terminator of eating. Current evidence indicates that although these brain regions are crucial for eating, the regulation of eating also involves other circuits. The hypothalamus contains two different regions, one acting to initiate eating and one to stop it Hypothalamus has two centers • Hunger center • Satiety ("full") center Lateral Hypothalamus: "Go" - Ventromedial Hypothalamus: "Stop"

cereberal cortex

The intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cereberal hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

forebrain

The largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum. It is the sensory relay station. The thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia and limbic system are all located here

Patient HM

The late Henry Molaison, a patient who was unable to encode new declarative memories because of surgical removal of medial temporal lobe structures.

temporoparietal junction

The point in the brain where the temporal and parietal lobes meet. It plays a role in shifting attention to a new location after target onset.

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind. the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's physiological state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same. Memory Depends on the Match Between the Organism's Physiological State at the Time of Encoding and Its Physiological State at the Time of Retrieval Magnitude of Drug-Induced ______ _________ ________ in Humans Eich (1980) • Strong Effects - Anesthetics • Barbiturates • Ethyl Alcohol • Chloral Hydrate • Ether • Nitrous Oxide - Librium - Nicotine • Moderate Effects - Marijuana - Narcotics - Hallucinogens • Weak Effects - Physostygmine - Chlorpromazine - Imipramine • No Effects - Caffeine - Aspirin - Lithium

Testing a Hypothesis Aging Impairs Memory Scanning

Theory (Aging Slows Mental Processes) • Hypothesis (Elderly Are Slower on Sternberg Task) • Population - Representative Sample • Confounding Variables • Independent Variable - Age • Dependent Variable - Response Latency

Primary and Secondary Reinforcement

Thorndike's Laws - Effect - Readiness • Primary Reinforcers • Conditioned Reinforcers

rote rehearsal, elaboration, organization

Three Modes of Processing at Encoding

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Three Modes of Processing at Encoding • Rote Rehearsal - Recirculating/Refreshing Items - Primary/Short-Term Memory • Elaboration - Processing Individual Items - Secondary/Long-Term Memory • Organization - Relating Items to Each Other - Secondary/Long-Term Memory

the undoing problem

Two Different Travelers - Heading for Airport • Different Flights, Leave at the Same Time • Decide to Share Cab • Caught in Traffic Jam - Expect to Miss Plane • Get to Airport 30 Minutes Late - A's Plane Left on Time - B's Plane Was Delayed, But Left 5 Minutes Ago Who is more upset?

schema dependency

Two Processes in _______ ________ • Schema-Congruent Behaviors - Easily Encoded - Schema Provides Retrieval Cues • Cue-Dependency • Schema-Incongruent Behaviors - Must Be Explained - Explanation Requires Processing • Elaboration • Schema-Irrelevant Behaviors - Receive Neither Benefit

Social Environment

Unpredictable Anxiety - Uncontrollable Depression

Simple System

Very few elements, components relationships are simple - Components are Independent - Unidirectional Causation

automaticity

Views of Attention and _______• Traditional "Filter" View - Elementary Processes are Preattentive • Physical/Spatial Analyses - Complex Processes Must be Post-Attentive • Meaning Analysis/Categorization • Revisionist "Capacity" View - Elementary Processes Typically Preattentive • Performed Automatically - Complex Processes can be Preattentive Too • Once Automatized through Practice

Appointment Time and Punctuality

Ware & John (1995) • UCB MBA Students • Appointment in Morning or Afternoon • Punctuality at Scheduled Appointments

Conscientiousness, Appointment Time, and Punctuality

Ware & John (1995) • UCB MBA Students • Measure Trait of Conscientiousness - NEO-PI • Appointment in Morning or Afternoon • Punctuality at Scheduled Appointments

Conscientiousness and Punctuality

Ware & John (1995) • UCB MBA Students • Measure Trait of Conscientiousness - NEO-PI • Punctuality at Scheduled Appointments

Mind as the Basis for Action

We Behave In Accordance With Our Mental Representation of the Stimulus Situation • Cognitions - Perception of Present - Memory of Past - Expectations of Future - Inferences, Beliefs, Judgments • Emotions - Affects, Feelings, and Moods • Motives - Goals, Needs, and Desires

What Do _________ ______ Children Do?

What Do ______ _________ Children Do? Mischel et al., (1989) • Avoid Deliberately Looking at Rewards - Covering Eyes with Hands - Resting Heads on Arms • Generate Own Diversions - Talk/Sing Quietly to Themselves - Create Games with Hands/Feet - Try to Sleep In Other Words, They Manipulate the Situation Through Their Overt Behavior

Structure of Personality

What are the Basic Dimensions of Individual Differences in Personality? • Factor Analysis - Summarizes Patterns of Correlations Between Variables - Reveals Underlying Basic Dimensions

neurotransmiters

What causes these?: Myasthenia Gravis (Ach) • Parkinson's disease (Dopamine, l-DOPA) • Chorea (Dopamine; Haloperidol) • Huntington's Disease • Gilles de la Tourette's Syndrome • Schizophrenia - Dopamine Hypothesis, Chlorpromazine • Affective Disorder - Serotonin Hypothesis, SSRIs

physics is the only science

What is reductionism?

sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions

What is the organization of autonomic nervous system?

Mental Health Policy

White House Conference on Mental Health (1999) Surgeon General's Report (1999) • "Mental Health is Fundamental to Health" • "Mental Health Disorders are Real Health Conditions" • "The Efficacy of Mental Health Treatments is Well Documented" • "A Range of Treatments Exists for Most Mental Disorders"

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think language determines the way we think view that all thought is represented verbally and that, as a result, our language defines our thinking The structure of a language determines the way its native speakers perceive and think about the world.

Conditioning Models of Phobias, Obsessions, and Compulsions

Wolpe (1952, 1958) • Phobias as Conditioned Fear Responses - Observational Learning vs. Direct Experience - Preparedness • Obsessions as Generalized Fear Responses - Similar Behavior During Conditioning Experience • Compulsions as Avoidance Behaviors - Reduce Conditioned Fear - Resistance to Extinction

Infant Arithmetic

Wynn found that 5-month olds look longer when the apparent removal of one of two objects results in two objects being present than they do when the removal results in one object being there. Wynn (1992) • 4-5 month-old Infants • Looking Time - Measure of Attention • Surprise • Baseline Control - 1 vs. 2 Items • Arithmetic Test - Add 1+ 1 - Subtract 2 - 1

adaptationist fallacy

You take something that seems like a trait in the present and assume that because it existed it must have had adaptive effect during evolution. This assumes that evolution progresses towards a set of all optimum traits for an organism.

Confluence Model of Intellectual Development

Zajonc & Markus (1975) • Mutual Influence Among Children • Dilution Effect - Newborn Diminishes Intellectual Resources • Growth Effect - Developing Child Contributes More Intellectual Resources • Each Laterborn Increases Dilution • Each Earlyborn Counteracts Dilution • Spacing Matters - and So Does Family Size Zajonc & Markus (1974) • Teaching Effect - Earlyborns Profit from Laterborns • Last-Child Handicap • Only-Child Handicap • Multiple Births • Single-Parent Households • Extended Families

"Mere Presence" Effects on Behavior

Zajonc (1965); Guerin (1986) • Social Facilitation (Triplett, 1898; Allport, 1920) - Simple Tasks - Automatic Processes - Experts • Social Inhibition (Zajonc, 1965) - Difficult Tasks - Controlled Processes - Novices

prototype view

____ _____: Categories as Fuzzy Sets Rosch (1975) • No Defining Features - Probabilistic Relationship • Central vs. Peripheral • Family Resemblance • Category Based on Similarity to Prototype - Many Features Central to Category Membership - Few Features Central to Membership in Contrasting Categories • Permits Heterogeneity Within Category - Typicality Effects Problems with the Classical View of Categories Solved by the ______ ________ Rosch & Mervis (1975); Rosch et al. (1976) • Disjunctive Categories • Unclear Category Membership • Difficult to Specify Defining Features • Imperfect Nesting • Variations in Typicality

The Five Sexes

_______ ________ ________ and more? Anne Fausto-Sterling (1985, 1992, 2000); Sax (2002) • Male • Female • "Intersex" (c. 0.2% of Population) - Pseudohermaphrodites • XY, Female Anatomy • XX, Male Anatomy - "True" Hermaphrodites

Psychological Abnormality

_________ __________ as Conceptual Prototype • Features of Presumptive Normality - Accurate, Efficient Mental Function - Self-Awareness - Self-Control - Self-Esteem - Social Relations Based on Affection - Productivity, Creativity • Features of Abnormality - Low Frequency - Noncompliance - Personal Distress - Maladaptiven

language

_________ in Cognition • _________ as a Tool for Communication - Experience, Thought, and Action • _________ as a Tool for Thought - Labels for Objects, Events, Attributes, Concepts - Reasoning, Problem-Solving properties: • Meaning • Reference • Interpersonal • Structure - Prescriptive vs. Descriptive • Creativity - 1030 Sentences in English - 109 Seconds in a Century "Language doesn't have so much to do with words and what they mean as it does with people and what they mean" Clark (1979) Any Thought Can Be Expressed in Any Language

_________

__________ Changes the Situation • Instrumental or Operant Behavior - Operates on the Environment • Changes It In Some Way • Person as Part of the Situation - Individual Behavior Changes Situation • For Others in that Situation • For Him- or Herself - Behavior of Others Also Changes Situation

Token Economies

a behavioral technique in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with a token, such as a small chip or fake coin, which can be exchanged for privileges A technique used in behavior therapy to reinforce behavior by giving tokens (that can be cashed in for something desirable) for appropriate behavior. agencies that use tokens as a system of behavior modification

self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment an expectation that causes you to act in ways that make that expectation come true. the tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave Merton (1947, 1958) "Definitions of a situation... become an integral part of the situation and thus affect subsequent developments.... The self-fulfilling prophecy is, in the beginning, a false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the originally false conception come true. The specious validity of the self-fulfilling prophecy perpetuates a reign of error. For the prophet will cite the actual course of events as proof that he was right from the very beginning. Such are the perversities of social logic." • Behavioral Confirmation • Perceptual Confirmation

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object. Eyes Separated by 2-3 Inches • Each receives somewhat different image of object - Stereoscopic Vision • 2-Dimensional images on retina • Fused into 3-dimensional image in brain

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient a biomedical treatment in which electric shock is used to produce a cortical seizure accompanied by convulsions a treatment that involves inducing a mild seizure by delivering an electrical shock to the brain _________ ___________ and retrograde amnesia _________ ___________ for Depression - Electrodes Placed on Scalp • Right and Left Temples; or Temple and Vertex - Brief Electrical Current - Convulsive Seizure • Between-Subjects Design - Patients Receiving ECT • Tested 6 Hrs. After Last ECT - Controls • No ECT

preference reversal

a change in preference from one incentive to another as a result of a change in their discounted values based on changes in the incentive-delay intervals

dissociative disorders

a class of disorders in which people lose contact with portions of their consciousness or memory, resulting in disruptions in their sense of identity disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings Psychogenic Amnesia - Psychogenic Fugue - Multiple Personality Disorder

categorization

a cognitive process used to organize information by placing it into larger groupings of information The process by which objects are placed in categories. the natural tendency of humans to sort objects into groups "Every act of perception is an act of _________" Fundamental Cognitive Process - Perceptual Identification... • Of Individual Object - _________... • As Belonging in Same Class as Other Objects • Categorical Knowledge is Part of Semantic Memory Algorithms for _________• Defining a Category - Determine Defining Features • Shared by All Members • Categorize an Object - Analyze Features of Object • Perception - Retrieve Defining Features of Category • Memory - Match Object Features to Defining Features • If Match, Assign Object to Category implications: Logically, Categories are Structured as Proper Sets - Represented by Defining Features • Psychologically, Categories are Structured as "Fuzzy" Sets - Represented by Prototypes, Exemplars - Representations Differ by Expertise • Principles of Reasoning Do Not Necessarily Follow the Principles of Formal Logic - Cannot be Discovered by Reason Alone

holism

a concept that considers the whole person; the whole person has physical, social, psychological, and spiritual parts that are woven together and cannot be separated

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them. Used for intractable epilepsy(epilepsy that does not respond to medication). Cuts the corpus callosum (A thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them. the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. A thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them. )

Isomorphism

a constraining process that forces one unit in a population to resemble other units that face the same set of environmental conditions a constraining process that forces one organization to resemble others that face the same set of environmental conditions in institutional theory, the quality that two or more organizations have by virtue of being structurally very similar a constraining process that forces one unit in a population to resemble other units that face the same set of environmental conditions a constraining process that forces one organization to resemble others that face the same set of environmental conditions

sunk cost

a cost that has already been committed and cannot be recovered a cost that has already been paid and cannot be recovered A cost that has already been incurred and that cannot be changed by any decision made now or in the future. problem: Have Already Been Incurred - Cannot be Recovered • Rational Choices Based on Current Assets - Should Ignore Sunk Costs • Sunk Costs are Part of the Contextual Frame for Decision-Making Sunk Costs in Public Policy "To terminate a project in which $1.1 billion has been invested represents an unconscionable mishandling of taxpayers' dollars." Jeremiah Denton (R-Alabama), 1981 "Completing Tennessee-Tombigbee is not a waste of taxpayer dollars Terminating the project at this late stage of development would, however, represent a serious waste of funds already invested" James Sasser (D-Tennessee), 1981

Amphetamine Psychosis

a delusional and psychotic state, closely resembling acute schizophrenia, that is brought on by repeated use of high doses of amphetamine a psychotic state characterized by hallucinations and delusions, induced by ingestion of amphetamines a set of symptoms, including hallucinations, paranoia, and disordered thinking, resulting from high doses of amphetamines

motion parallax

a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene the apparent movement of stationary objects relative to one another that occurs when the observer changes position the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment a motivation to take actions that lead to reward - A person's desire to engage in some specific activity in order to achieve some goal or satisfy some need Rewards Do Not Always Undermine Intrinsic Motives • It Depends on What the Reward is For • And How the Reward is Perceived • And Whether the Person Cares

Diathesis-Stress Model

a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event suggests that a person may be predisposed for a mental disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress suggests that a person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress

grammatical gender

a grammatical category designating the class of a noun as masculine or feminine (or neuter), in contrast to other types of gender the practice of applying to nouns and pronouns the categories masculine, feminine, and neuter, without regard to the object in nature to which the word refers In some languages, such as French and German, a way of classifying nouns, usually as feminine, masculine, or neuter Masculine, Feminine, Neuter - Spanish: el vs. la - French: le vs. la - German: der, die, das • "My friend Pat" - In Spanish • Mi amigo Pat if Male • Mi amiga Pat if Female - In German • Mein Freund Pat if Male • Meine Freundin Pat if Female

Schizophrenia

a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression A psychotic disorder involving distortions in thoughts, perceptions, and/or emotions. DSM-5 (2013) 2 or More Symptoms: • Delusions • Hallucinations • Disorganized Speech • Grossly Disorganized or Catatonic Behavior • Negative Symptoms - Diminished Emotional Expression - Avolition Plus: • Postmorbid Decline - Occupational - Social - Self-Care • Duration 6+ Months • Subtypes? - Acute vs. Chronic - First vs. Multiple Episodes - Type I vs. Type II • Positive vs. Negative Symptoms

Wenicke's aphasia

a language disorder characterized by difficulty comprehending the meaning of spoken language. "Receptive" - Fluent (Phonetics, Grammar) - Paraphasias - Semantic Deviance - Problems Understanding Speech, Writing

Associationism

a learned connection between two ideas or events the theory that our understanding of the world occurs through ideas associated with similar sensory experiences and perceptions the idea that all complex ideas are combinations of two or more simple ideas The Mind Forms Associations Between... • Stimuli - Events in the Environment - Their Correlates and Consequences • Responses - Organism's Behaviors - Their Correlates and Consequences

Analgesia

a lessening of pain without loss of consciousness Pain relief; inability to feel pain inability to feel pain

sensory register

a memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information a temporary storage device for holding sensory memories sights and sounds are represented directly and stored briefly One (or More) per Sensory Modality - Icon, Echo • Unlimited Capacity • Veridical Representation of Sensory Input - Precategorical • Transfer to Short-Term Memory • Forgetting via Decay or Displacement

representativeness heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information Basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. applications: Categorization (Prototype-Matching) • Similarity Judgments • Probability of Future Event • Causality • Judgments are Based on the Extent to Which an Event... - Resembles Its Parent Population - Reflects Salient Features of the Generating Process • Representativeness = Similarity • Problems - Failure to Appreciate Baserates - Failure to Calculate Prior Probabilities ______________in Judgments of Causality Causes Should Resemble Effects • Sex Education, Birth Control - Causes Sexual Behavior to Occur • Violence in Movies, TV, Videogames - Causes Violent Behavior to Occur • Arts and Music Education in Schools - Causes Academic Achievement

Persuasive Communication

a message advocating a particular side of an issue communication advocating a particular side of an issue Communication (e.g., a speech or television ad) advocating a particular side of an issue Janis et al. (1965) • Subjects Read Opinion Essays - Express "Pro" or "Con" Attitude • Government Funding for Cancer Cure • Increased Military Funding • Federal Program for Moon Landing • Prohibition of 3-D Movies • Rate Agreement with Essay - Snack or No Snack While Reading

elaborative rehearsal

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way the linking of new information to material that is already known A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over. - Links representation to other knowledge - Encodes representation in long-term (secondary) memory

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli visual sensory memory Very-Short-Term Sensory Store - Prelude to Storage in Short-Term or Working Memory • Available for Further Processing

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli visual sensory memory may only be useful for reading a book in a lightning storm

relative size

a monocular cue for perceiving depth; the smaller retinal image is farther away - Distance constant, object size = f(image size) - Size constant, object distance = f(1/image size)

texture gradients

a monocular cue where distant parts of a uniform surface appear denser; that is its elements seem spaced more closely together

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. active maintenance of information in short-term storage Not a Route to Long-Term Memory • Maintains Item in Active State - While Work is Being Performed

genetic heritage

a particular set of genes and alleles that is typical of the species but different from that of all other species genotype Because of this, we are motivated to seek rewards and avoid punishments; we seek optimal return on our expenditures of time and other resources; and we have the capacity to create and use complex symbol systems (including language) and thereby develop symbolic cultures.

refractory period

a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

Maladaptiveness

a person with psychopathology exhibits thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are maladaptive rather than deviant Abnormal indicator involving acting in ways that make others fearful or interfere with their well-being. harmful dysfunction Harmfulness Criterion - Criminal Behavior • The Insanity Defense

R-complex

a primitive portion of the brain involved in self-preservation behaviors such as mating, aggressiveness, and territoriality. "Reptilian Brain" • Brain Stem • Cerebellum

The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

a principle stating that animals aggress only when their goals are thwarted the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate aggression the extent to which people feel frustrated predicts the likelihood that they will act aggressively Dollard et al. (1939); Miller (1941) • Aggression is a Reflexive Response to Frustration • Frustration Defined - Any Obstacle to Goal-Completion • Other People Can Be Obstacles to Goals revised: Berkowitz (1989, 1993) • Broaden Definition of Frustration - Any Aversive Event • Construed as Intentionally Harmful • Aggression not a Reflexive Response - Mediated by Anger • Elevated Emotional Arousal • Thoughts of Attack - Presence of Situational Cues

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning an irreversible, progressive brain disorder, characterized by the deterioration of memory, language, and eventually, physical functioning Progressive degeneration of the brain that ultimately results in dementia.

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. • Relatively Permanent... • Change in Behavior... • Resulting from Experience. - Not Drugs - Not Injury - Not Maturation Constraints on Learning • Biological - Evolutionary History • Cognitive - Internal Representation of CS CR Cognitive Reinterpretation of Learning • Relatively Permanent... • Change in Behavior Knowledge... - Predictability - Controllability • Resulting from Experience. - Not Drugs - Not Injury - Not Maturation What is Learned in Learning? • Not Associations between Stimuli, Responses • Expectations - Outcomes of Events - Outcomes of Behaviors • Classical Conditioning - Predictability of Environmental Events • Instrumental Conditioning - Controllability of Environmental Events Learning as Cognition • Not Just a Change in Behavior • Change in Knowledge About the World - Predict Events - Control Events Acquiring Knowledge Through Experience • Sensation - Is There Something Out There? - How Intense Is It? • Perception - Where Is It? - What Is It Doing? - What Is It? • What Can I Do With It? • What Can It Do to Me? Classical Conditioning • How can I predict some event? - Instrumental Conditioning • How can I control that event?

correlation method

a research procedure used to determine how much events or characteristics vary along with each other two different variables are observed to determine whether there is a relationship between them making measurements to discover relationships between events Natural Variation • Predictor vs. Criterion Variables - Association Between Variables • Direction, Strength

digital span test

a series of numbers is read to subjects who are then asked to recall the numbers in order

Phrase Structure Grammar

a set of rules for partitioning a sentence into its grammatical units syntactical analysis of the structure of phrases as they are used see grammar. Noun man, woman, horse, dog, etc. Verb saw, heard, hit, etc. Article a, an, the Adjective happy, sad, fat, timid, etc. Noun Phrase Art + Adj + N Verb Phrase V + NP Sentence NP + VP The 1st NP verbed the 2nd NP

anterior commissure

a small bundle of axons that connects structures in the right and left cerebral hemispheres. bundle of axons that connects the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex

Hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

personality coefficient

a stereotypic correlation between personality and behavior of about 0.30 the tendency for personality test scores and behavioral measures to be only moderately correlated Mischel's quantification of the amount of consistency found in human behavior. He found that the correlation of behavior across time, across similar situations, and between personality questionnaires and behavior was about 0.30. This weak correlation suggested that human behavior was not nearly as consistent as it had been widely assumed to be. Upper-limit of correlation between personality in general (predictor) and specific behavior (criterion) r = .30 (10% of variance) • There is a ceiling on the extent to which we can predict behavior in a specific situation, knowing the individual's traits

subthreshold

a stimulus too small to create an action potential in a neuron

dichotic listening

a task in which people wearing headphones hear different messages presented to each ear The procedure of presenting one message to the left ear and a different message to the right ear. people wearing headphones hear different messages in each ear • The "Cocktail-Party" Phenomenon • Shadowing • Memory for Unattended Channel - Switch in Language - Switch Between Forwards and Backwards + Switch Between Male and Female Voice

hysteria

a temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences exaggerated or uncontrollable emotion or excitement, especially among a group of people. nervous condition of uncontrolled laughing and crying usually brought on by unsual emotional stress Functional Blindness, Deafness, Anesthesia • Functional Paralysis

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions the response to a stimulus depends both on a person's sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a person's response criterion Discriminate between "Signal" and "Noise" • Components of Decision - Sensitivity (Information) - d' - Bias (Criterion) - β • Expectation • Motivation Signal Detection as Decision Under Uncertainty • Detection not simply a matter of intensity - Judgment Under Uncertainty • Example: Mammography - Family History - Cost/Benefit Analysis • Determinants of Decisions - Expectations - Motives Implications of Signal Detection Theory • Detection Not a Simple Matter of Intensity • Passive vs. Active Observer - Expectations, Motives • "Lower" vs. 'Higher" Mental Processes - Proximity to Physical Stimulus - Ties to Sensory Physiology • Sensory Detection as Judgment - Decision-Making

cognitive social learning theory

a theory that emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning behavior is a product of the interaction of cognitive (thinking), learning, and past experiences; unique to each person An approach to personality that focuses on social learning (modeling), acquired cognitive factors (expectancies, values), and the person-situation interaction. Expectations, not Behavior • Learning by Response Consequences - Direct Experience • Trial and Error • Reward and Punishment • Vicarious (Observational) Learning - Example • Modeling, Imitation (Informal) - Precept • Sponsored Teaching (Formal)

post conventional morality

actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles adolescence and beyond; actions reflect belief in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles Kohlberg's highest stage of morality- occurs late in life and is a personal morality, developed by the adult and which supersedes society's rules, laws. And restrictions Social Contract - Universal Ethical Principles - Transcendental Morality (?)

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten activated memory that holds a few items briefly Properties of _______ __________ Miller (1956) • Acoustic Recoding - Verbal Rehearsal • Limited Capacity - "The Magical Number 7, Plus or Minus 2" • Maintained by Rehearsal • Transfer to Long-Term Memory - Passive Storage • Forgetting via Decay or Displacement

traumatic retrograde amnesia

affects memories that were formed before the onset of amnesia. caused by damage to the memory-storage areas of the brain, in various brain regions. This type of damage can result from a traumatic injury, a serious illness, a seizure or stroke, or a degenerative brain disease.

Secondary Traits and Primary Traits

after McCrae & Costa (1992) • Extraversion - Interpersonal Warmth - Gregariousness - Assertiveness - Activity - Excitement-Seeking - Positive Emotions

perceptual constancies

allow us to recognize familiar stimuli under varying conditions tendency to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite changing sensory info (size, shape, brightness, color) our top-down tendency to view objects as unchanging, despite shifts in the environmental stimuli we receive Pattern of proximal stimulation changes - Retinal image gets larger • Perception of distal stimulus is constant - Object perceived as getting closer - Perceived size stays the same

Memory as reconstruction

an account of an event that has been pieced together from a few highlights not exact replica of event, made up portions Bartlett (1932) • Retrieve Dominant Details - Trace Information • Vague,Fragmentary, Ambiguous - General "Attitude" Toward Story • Schema-Based Inferences - Attitudes - Expectations - World Knowledge • Coherent Story - But May Not Be Accurate

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience disorder in which victims of traumatic events experience the original event in the form of dreams or flashbacks an anxiety disorder associated with serious traumatic events and characterized by such symptoms as survivor guilt, reliving the trauma in dreams, numbness and lack of involvement with reality, or recurrent thoughts and images

Sternberg Paradigm

an experimental procedure in which participants are presented with a memory set consisting of a few items and must decide whether various probe items are in the memory set Memorize Study Set • Varies from 2-8 Letters

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

perceived self-efficacy

an individual's beliefs about how effectively he or she can control his or her own behavior, thoughts, and emotions in order to achieve a desired goal what a person believes he or she is capable of doing In social-cognitive theory, the perceived ability to cope with specific situations. an individual's beliefs about how effectively he or she can control his or her own behavior, thoughts, and emotions in order to achieve a desired goal what a person believes he or she is capable of doing

primary reinforcement

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need something necessary for psychological or physical survival that is used as a reward Something that is naturally reinforcing, such as food (if you were hungry), warmth (if you were cold), and water (if you were thirsty).

Raven's Progressive Matrices

an intelligence test that emphasizes problems that are intended not to be bound to a particular language or culture an intelligence test that is based on pictures, not words, thus making it relatively unaffected by language or cultural background Nonverbal measures of general intelligence

intermittent reinforcement

an operant conditioning principle in which only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement when only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time

Avoidance Learning

an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring an organism's learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response the process by which one learns to perform a behavior in order to ensure that a negative or aversive stimulus will not be present Dog Placed in One Side of Apparatus • Overhead Lights Deliver CS • Floor Grid Delivers US - After CS-US Interval • Vault Barrier - Escape After US Onset - Avoidance Before US Onset

bottom-up processing in perception

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception Data-Driven • Perceptually Driven - Input: Low-Level Representation - Output: Higher-Level Representation

Basic Emotions

anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise The most fundamental set of emotion categories, which are biologically innate, evolutionarily determined, and culturally universal. happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival Happiness Sadness Fear Anger Surprise Disgust • Noncognitive Motor Signs - Prewired, Automatic • Universal - Across Cultures - Across Species • Blends of Emotion

Facets of Neuroticism

anxious, angry, depressed, self-conscious, impulsive, vulnerable anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, vulnerability anxiety, anger, depression, self-consciousness, immoderation, vulnerability anxious, angry, depressed, self-conscious, impulsive, vulnerable anxiety, angry hostility, depression, self-consciousness, impulsiveness, vulnerability

psychometric test

any scientific measurement of a person's mental functions exam to measure scientifically a person's mental capacities and personality any measurement of a person's mental functions properties: Standardization • Norms • Reliability - Inter-rater - Test-Retest • Validity - External Criterion • Utility - Cost-Benefit Ratio

Metalanguage

any use of language about language A language used for defining other languages. language used to talk about language

premotor cortex

area of the frontal cortex, active during the planning of a movement •Brodmann Area 6 •Brodmann Area 8

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

argues that delusions, halucinations, and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from oversensitivity to dopamine in the brain idea that schizophrenia results from excess activity at dopamine synapses in certain brain areas idea that the underlying cause of schizophrenia is excessive stimulation of certain types of dopamine synapses

Doctrine of Situationism

behavior varies as a function of features of the external environment, particularly the social situation After Watson (1917); B.F. Skinner (1953) [Often wrongly ascribed to Lewin (1938)] Behavior varies as a function of features of the external environment, particularly the social situation. "A person does not act upon the world, the world acts upon him.

Glia cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons. Functions include building Myelin sheath, guiding migration, packing tissue, transfering nutrients, removing waste.

mere presence effect

changes in a person's behavior due to another person's presence changes in a person's behaviour due to another person's presence the finding that we tend to perform differently when others are present than when alone

psychogenic fugue

condition in which individuals sometimes assume a new identity a dissociative disorder where a person loses all sense of identity, wanders away, and establishes a new life A form of psychogenic amnesia typically lasting a few hours or days following a severe trauma, in which afflicted individuals forget their entire life history, including who they are.

Coma

deep prolonged unconsciousness caused by disease, poison, or a severe blow. Eyes closed, enresponsice to stimulation, no sleep-wake cycle, spared vegetative function.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100. defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100 a child's mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100 Mental Age - Items Arranged in Increasing Order of Difficulty - Items Grouped into Clusters by Age Level • Ages 3-13 • Passed by a Majority of Children at That Level • IQ = (MA/CA) x 100 - Mental Age - Chronological Age

Neuroticism

degree of emotional instability or stability

Psychological Abnormality

deviance, distress, dysfunction, danger impaired functioning with respect to expected performance suitable for the person in a relevant context four d's: deviance, distress, dysfunction, danger

berlyne epistemic curiosity

directed attempt to build understanding, it's hard work requiring sustained cognitive effort quest for knowledge and understanding

Psychopathy

disease of the mind

somatoform disorders

disorders characterized by physical symptoms for which no known physical cause exists A class of psychological disorders involving physical ailments with no authentic organic basis that are due to psychological factors. psychological problems in which there are symptoms of a physical disorder without a physical cause

Dissociative Disorders

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings a class of disorders in which people lose contact with portions of their consciousness or memory, resulting in disruptions in their sense of identity

Psychoses

disorders in which hallucinations or delusions indicate some loss of contact with reality Severe mental disorders that interfere with a perception of reality gross disturbances involving a loss of touch with reality Schizophrenia • Affective Disorder - Bipolar Disorder • Manic-Depressive Illness - Unipolar Disorder • Mania • Depression

Pathology

disorders of mind and behavior

Elevation

distance from horizon

localist view of knowledge representation

each mental representation corresponds to one unit. Activity of Single Neurons • Or Small Clusters of Neurons - Centered on Specific Cortical Location

medial temporal lobe

encodes and transfers new explicit memories to long-term memory. the innermost portion of the temporal lobe, which includes the hippocampus and neighboring cortex

Stage Analysis of Memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

Phylogenetic View of Development

evolution of mind and behavior, comparative psychology, evolutionary psychology, sociobiology, environment of early adaptation • Evolution of Mind and Behavior • Comparative Psychology • Evolutionary Psychology - Sociobiology - Environment of Early Adaptation • African Savanna, Pleistocene Epoch

Dimensions of Feelings

excitement, relaxation, unpleasantness, pleasantness, strain calm

Smooth Pursuit Eye Movements

eye movements made to track a moving object or to track a stationary object while the head is moving voluntary tracking eye movements Type of eye movements involved in visual tracking.

decay

fading away of memory over time loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used fading of information from memory over time sensory registers

interference

failure of retrieval of memory Long-Term Memory (Episodic or Semantic) Storage is Essentially Permanent Forgetting over Time Occurs by Virtue of Interference by Accumulated Memories The Paradox of _________: The More You Know, the Harder it is to Remember to any Particular Item of Information

ocular

from eyes

optical

from light

social imprimatur

gender differentiation: the _________ _________ Money & Ehrhardt (1972) • Biographical History • Gender-Role Socialization - Cultural Concepts of Masculinity, Femininity • Development of Self-Concept • Social Learning - Direct Experience - Precept - Example

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations. genetic makeup - Biological Potential • Different Genotype, Same Phenotype

"Theory theory" of cognitive development

gnitive Development Gopnik & Wellman (1994) Gopnik & Meltzoff (1997) Gopnik, Meltzoff, & Kuhl (2000) • Piaget: Child as "Naïve Scientist" - Actively Exploring and Experimenting • Formulate Hypotheses • Gather Evidence • Revise Hypotheses • Develop Theories of World - Abstract, Coherent Knowledge Systems • Predict, Control Events • Interpret and Explain Events

Laboratory Model in Rats

h. pylori Infection - Unpredictable, Uncontrollable Shock

thorndikes law

if a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated if a response is folweed by a negative, it tends to not be repeated law of effect if a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view the inability to see the world through anyone else's eyes the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning smallest unit of meaning

backwards conditioning

in classical conditioning, presenting the unconditioned stimulus before the conditioned stimulus presentation of the CS after the presentation of the UCS UCS presented, pause, then CS presented Most ineffective Conditioned Inhibition in Backwards Conditioning • Fear Conditioning - Tone ==> Shock - CR = Heart Rate Acceleration • Physiological Index of Fear • Standard Paradigm - HR Acceleration During Tone • Conditioned Fear Response • Backward Paradigm - HR Deceleration During Tone • Inhibition of Fear Response

Phonemes

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit smallest unit of sound the basic units of sound in language

Reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows any event that strengthens the behavior it follows An event following a response that strengthens the tendency to make that response. Role of Reinforcement in Learning • Corollary to S-R Learning Theory - Conditioned Response - Reinforced in Presence of Conditioned Stimulus • Classical Conditioning - CS Reinforced by Experience of US • Instrumental Conditioning - CR to CS Reinforced by Reward • Yields Thorndike's Law of Effect • Skinner: Reinforcement is Any Stimulus that Increases the Probability of the Conditioned Response to the CS

Anhedonia

inability to experience pleasure inability to feel pleasure a diminished ability to experience pleasure - Flat/Blunted Affect - Inappropriate Affect

Prosopagnosia

inability to recognize faces - Bodamer (1947) - Brodmann Area 37 • Also Areas 18, 19

Parent-Driven Effects

independent of child's characteristics, unplanned child, identical twins, easy first child vs difficult second child Person-by-Situation Interaction Cognitive Transformation • Independent of Child's Characteristics • "Unplanned" Child • Identical Twins - Differential Treatment • Contrast Effects - First Child "Easy" vs. "Difficult"

Chromosomal XY

individuals, who would otherwise be males often have feminine secondary sexual characteristics, yet maintain internal degenerate testes and are sterile

bell curve of iq

intelligence lies on this; StDev of 15, mean is 100; racial/ethnic studies report different numbers but true intelligence between races lies on the same curve; differences due to educational opportunities

nuclei

interneurons inside brain and spinal codr

Developmental Corollary to the Doctrine of Interactionism

just as the Person is a Part of His or Her Own Environment, So the Child is an Agent of His or Her Own Development.

Psychiatric Diagnosis Beyond Symptoms and Signs

kihlstrom (2002); Cuthbert & Insel (2010) • Neural Structure and Function - Subtle Lesions in Brain Tissue - Abnormalities in Neurotransmitter Function - Dysregulation in Activity of Neural Circuitry • Psychopathology - Deficits in Psychological Function • Basic Cognitive, Emotional, Motivational Processes - Beliefs, Expectations, Behaviors • Acquired Through Experience

Metamemory

knowledge about memory an understanding about the processes that underlie memory, which emerges and improves during middle childhood understanding of processes of memory

5-HTT Gene

known to be important in the production and use of the neurotransmitter serotonin gene on chromosome 17 that might have some predisposition for depression. Responsible for brain's production of serotonin transporters associated with a serotonin transporter protein, has two variants, or alleles, one "short" and one "long" based on their chromosomal structure - people with the short allele score higher on measures of neuroticism--relevant to anxiety and overreaction to stress - amygdala in people with short allele also shows stronger responses to viewing fearful and unpleasant stimuli

free recall

learning procedure in which material that has been learned may be repeated in any order a testing condition in which a person is asked to remember information without explicit retrieval cues a procedure for testing memory in which the participant is asked to remember stimuli that were previously presented - Query Specifies Spatiotemporal Context • What were the words on the last list studied in class?

Latent Learning (Tolman)

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it learning is hidden until useful (rats in maze get reinforced half way through, performance improved) learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful

amnesia

loss of memory

anesthesia

loss of sensation

phobic disorder

marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that presents no realistic danger A type of anxiety disorder marked by a persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that presents no realistic danger. persistent and irrational fear of an object or situation that presents no realistic danger

contralateral projection

means that right hemisphere receives sensory input from the left side and vice versa. Right cerebral hemisphere receives its sensory input from the left side of the body, and left cerebral hemisphere receives its sensory input from the right side of the body.

Psychophysiological Disorders

medical problems influenced by an interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties physical disorders or diseases in which symptoms are brought about or worsened by stress and emotional factors disorders in which biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors interact to cause or worsen a physical illness "Psychosomatic" Disorders Organ Damage or Malfunction Actual Damage to Internal Organs • "Psychosomatic" Ulcers • Coronary Heart Disease - "Type A" Behavior

cue-dependency principle

memory depends on the informational value of the cues provided at the time of retrieval The memorability of an event is a function of the richness and informativeness of the cues used to access it in storage Memory depends on the richness and informativeness of the cues provided at the time of retrieval. Memory depends on the informational value of the cues provided at the time of retrieval

the doctirine of mentalism

mental states effect actions

Shadowing

monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that shadows often appear on the parts of objects that are more distant - Relative positions of shadows - Distance with respect to light source

sulcus

narrow groove. •Central Sulcus •Parieto-Occipital •Pre-Occipital Notch

Mullerian inhibiting substance

necessary for the degeneration of the Mullerian ducts The testicular hormone that causes the precursor of the female reproductive ducts (the Mullerian system) to degenerate and the testes to descend Causes the Mullerian system to degenerate and the testes to descend into the scrotum

The Stigma of Mental Illness

negative stereotypes, discrimination, misinterpret normal behaviors Those with psychological disorders are often stigmatized in ways that most physically ill people are not Stigma has a negative impact on their life negative reaction to an individual or group because of some assumed inferiority

Thorndike law of readiness

one must be ready to perform an act before performing it could be satisfying

Views of Mental Development

ontogenetic, phylogenetic, and cultural

contralateral vs ipsilateral

opposite side vs. same side

organization principle

organization facilitates memory performance Memory is a function of the extent to which individual events are related to each other Memory is a function of the extent to which individual events are related to each other

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically organizing items into familiar, manageable units Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.

Somatogenic

originating in the body originating in the body (organic as opposed to psychogenic) originating in the cells of the body

Psychogenic

originating in the mind originates in the mind originating in the mind or emotions

paraplegia

paralysis from the waist down. Loss of function, spinal reflexes are exaggerated, unconscious, and involuntary

cortical

pertaining to the brain cortex(outer region of an organ)

Stages of Moral Development

preconventional, conventional, postconventional Lawrence Kohlberg • Pre-Conventional - Obedience and Punishment - Self-Interest • Conventional - Interpersonal Accord and Conformity - Authority and Obedience • Post-Conventional - Social Contract - Universal Ethical Principles - Transcendental Morality (?)

Psychological Diathesis

predispositions arising from stressful events, learning theory, or dysfunctional core beliefs

person-by-situation interactions

process by which some personality dispositions are activated only under certain circumstances people express particular traits in particular situations the controversy concerning whether the person or the situation is more influential in determining a person's behavior Behavior is Predicted by Personality Trait • Behavior is Affected by Situational Manipulation • These Effects are Not Independent of Each Other

posterior cortex

provides sensory information to the frontal cortex Perceptual Integration

Neuroses

psychological disorders characterized by anxiety or tension mild emotional disturbances that impair judgement Anxiety • Phobic Disorders • Anxiety Disorder - Panic Disorder • Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder • Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

anxiety disorders

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety A class of disorders marked by feelings of excessive apprehension and anxiety. disorders in which the main symptom is excessive or unrealistic anxiety and fearfulness Panic Disorder

Personality Disorders

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms

typicality ratings

ratings of how "birdy" a bird is, on a 7-point scale where 7 is the highest Furniture Chair, 1.10 Desk, 1.54 Rug, 5.0 Ashtray, 6.35 • Vegetable Pea, 1.07 Corn, 1.55 Tomato, 2.23 Pickle, 4.57 • Bird Sparrow, 1.18 Owl, 2.96 Chicken, 4.02 • Fruit Penguin, 4.53 Orange, 1.07 Cherry, 1.82 Pickle, 4.57 Tomato, 5.58 Even Number 4, 1.1 10, 1.7 18, 2.6 106, 3.9 • Odd Number 3, 1.6 23, 2.4 501, 3.5 447, 3.7 • Female Mother, 1.7 Housewife, 2.4 Princess, 3.0 Policewoman, 3.9 • Plane Geometry Figure Square, 1.3 Rectangle, 1.9 Circle, 2.1 Ellipse, 3.4

hypermnesia

remembering that improves over successive attempts at reproduction of the studied material; repeated testing leads to higher l gain of memory over time The supposed enhancement of a person's memory for past events through a hypnotic suggestion. levels of recall

Thorndike's Law of Effect

responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation

performance-contingent rewards

rewards that are based on how well we perform a task rewards based on how well we perform a task the reward depends on how well people perform the task • Evaluative Contingency - Expected vs. Unexpected • Performance Feedback • Delivery of Reward

norms

rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members shared rules of conduct that tell people how to act in specific situations how values tell us to behave - Representative Sample of the Population - Permit Comparison of Individual Scores

Hierarchical Organization of Language

sentence, phrase, word, morpheme, phoneme Phonemes (40 in English) • Morpheme (50,000 in English) - Roots, Stems, Prefixes, Suffixes - Open- vs. Closed-Class • Word (200,000 in English) - Root/Stem + Prefix, Suffix • Phrases, Sentence (1 Nonillion in English) • Language Basics (Mommy go store) • Language Elaborations (Mommy goes to the store)

erotic orientation

sexual desire Heterosexual • Homosexual • Bisexual • Asexual

Family Context Effects

share random 50% of genes, systematic differences in birth order, position within family constellation Family "Microenvironment" Systematic Differences Between Nontwin Siblings • No Systematic Genetic Differences - Share Random 50% of Genes • Systematic Differences in Birth Order - Position within Family Constellation • Older (Firstborn) vs. Younger (Laterborn)

Fast and Frugal Heuristics

shortcuts that guide us in decision making about probabilities. Can be useful and more successful than expected. a cognitive process that searches for minimal information and consists of building blocks that exploit evolved abilities and structures in the environment quick decision making devices that do not use elaborate calculation or cost benefit analysis Bounded Rationality is Based on _________ ______ ________ ________:Heuristics Are Often the Best Approach - Many Problems are Ill-Defined - Many Algorithms are Uneconomical • It is Rational to Inject Economies into Decision-Making - So Long as We Can Pay the Price of Error • Reduce Errors - Understanding Normative Principles - Understanding Liabilities of Heuristics

exemplar view

specific examples of category members that are stored in long-term memory No single prototype but rather multiple examples convey what the concept represents - No single prototype but rather multiple examples convey what the concept represents - Vegetable Concept = Peas, Carrots, or Beans - The more similar a specific exemplar is to a known category member, the faster it will be categorized - Similar to Prototype View - Representation is not a definition - Different from prototypes: Representation is not abstract - Descriptions of specific examples - To categorize, compare to stored examples Abandons Features - No Defining or Characteristic Features • Concept as List of Members - Salient Examples of Category • Compare Object to List of Exemplars - Categorization Still Based on Similarity

reflexes

specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the knee-jerk response. They involve individual muscles Automatic Response to Adequate Stimulus - Patellar Reflex - Eyeblink Reflex - All "Spinal" Reflexes www.osceskills.com • Involve Single Muscles • Mediated by Spinal, Cranial Nerves - No Involvement of "Higher" Cortical Centers Respond to External Stimulation - No Need for Learning • Limited Repertoire • No Control by Goals, Intentions

schedules of reinforcement

specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior these include fixed interval and variable ratio Continuous • Partial • Intermittent - Fixed Ratio (FR) - Variable Ratio (VR) - Fixed Interval (FI) - Variable Interval (VI) • Differential Reinforcement - Of Low Rates (DRL) - Of High Rates (DRH)

automatic processes

states of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities cognitive activities that require virtually no effort Mental activities requiring minimal attention and having little impact on other activities

superthreshold

stimulus that is greater than a threshold but produces the same impulse

Posthypnotic Amnesia

supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion the failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget the inability to recall specific information because of a hypnotic suggestion

• Posthypnotic Amnesia

supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion the failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget the inability to recall specific information because of a hypnotic suggestion

Surface Structure vs. Deep Structure

surface structure is what the sentence literally means whereas the deep structure is the implied meaning. A single sentence can have two different surface structure and a single surface structure can have two deep meanings Chomsky described: surface: actual arrangement of words in a syntactic order (phrase or sentence one hears) deep: primarily contains the rules of sentence formation Surface and deep structure are related through grammatical transformations (operation that relates deep and surface structures and yields different forms of sentences (deleting, adding to change word meaning) to add creative nature of language Noam Chomsky Surface- parts of speech Deep- underlying meanings of words

Gender Dimorphism

tending to see male and female as absolutely different, presuming heteronormativity (blue for boys, pink for girls...etc.) The belief that gendered bodies should appear opposite from one another the notion that there are two kinds of bodies, men and women

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests. the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests Verbal Scales • Information • Comprehension • Memory span - 8 Digits Forward - 6 Digits Backward • Arithmetical Reasoning • Similarities • Vocabulary Performance Scales • Picture Arrangement • Picture Completion • Block Design • Object Assembly • Digit Symbol

social influence

the ability to control another person's behavior the effect that the words, actions, or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior the process through which the real or implied presence of others can directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of an individual (G. Allport, 1954) - "[H]ow the thought, feeling and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of other human beings" More ________ _________ on Behavior • Conformity - Real or Imagined Social Pressure • At the Level of Behavior • At the Level of Belief • Obedience - Unequal Power Relationship • Compliance - Response to Explicit Requests

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions the ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning "The ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and action" (p. 189)

dorsal root

the afferent/sensory branch of each spinal nerve

Adaptationism

the belief or assumption, now generally held, that each feature of an organism is the result of evolutionary adaptation for a particular function. a premise that all aspects of an organism have been molded by natural selection to a form optimal for enhancing reproductive success

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently Believing that 'runs' occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins. You said that 'runs' occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins. On a roulette wheel, half the numbers are "red" and half are "black". Which of the following runs is more likely to end with a red? RBRRBRB__ BBBBB__ BBBBBBBBBB__

Insticts

the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals innate tendencies that determine behavior innate needs that influence behavior very discriminating • Complex, Stereotyped Action Patterns - Rigidly Organized • Respond to Releasing Stimulus • Innate - Not Modified by Learning • Species-Specific - Universal within Species Imprinting in Greylag Geese

• General Anesthesia

the blockage of all body sensations, causing un-consciousness and loss of reflexes. involves the total loss of body sensation and consciousness induced by anesthetic agents administered primarily by inhalation or intravenous injection state of narcosis, analgesia, relaxation, and loss of reflexes produced by pharmacologic agents - Conscious Sedation

endocrine system

the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells. Consists of glands that control many of the body's activities by producing hormones.

Plasticity

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development. the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience. Evidence of Plasticity Merzenich et al. (1988); Kass (1995) • Somatotopic Cortical Mapping • Mapping Changes with Experience - Sever the Nerves to a Digit - Amputate Digit - Sew Adjacent Digits Together - Exercise. There is Plasticity in hippocampus

thinking for speaking

the claim that speakers organize their thought processes to meet the requirements of their language as they speak When using language, certain kinds of information may be easier to access or process depending on the categories set up by the particular language being used. When using language, info can be easier to access/ process based on the categories created by the language used We can only talk and understand one another in terms of a particular language. The language or languages that we learn in childhood are not neutral coding systems of an objective reality. Rather, each one is a subjective orientation to the world of human experience, and this orientation affects the ways in which we think while we are speaking." • Language Influences Thought "Online" - Speaker Must Attend to Some Features of World

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle illness of the heart caused by a blockage in the coronary arteries - "Type A" Behavior

optic flow

the complex motion of points in the visual field caused by relative movement between the observer and environment; provides information about the relative distance of objects from the observer and of the relative direction of movement the changing angular position of points in a perspective image that we experience as we move through the world the changing angular positions of points in a perspective image that we experience as we move through the world

Phrenology

the detailed study of the shape and size of the cranium(skull) as a supposed indication of character and mental abilities.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations. Acts as a unit, rapid onset, offset depletes resources

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy. acts discretely, slow onset, offset conserves, restores resources

ventral root

the eferrent branch of each spinal nerve; carries motor neurons

temporal gradient (Ribot's Law)

the effect in which some cases of retrograde amnesia tend to be greatest for the most recent events the effect in which some cases of retrograde amnesia are greatest for most recent events; extends backwards from the time of the damage, but does not include the entire life of the individual retrograde amnesia tends to be greatest for most recent events

Temperament

the enduring characteristics with which each person is born a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin Speed, Strength of Arousal - Quiet vs. Fussy

fan effect

the finding that memory retrieval is more difficult the greater the number of items associated with the cue item(s). The phenomenon whereby retrieval time to retrieve a particular fact about a concept increases as more facts are known about that concept. when more words associated with a concept, response times were longer

Binet-Simon Scale for measuring intelligence

the first test of intelligence, developed for testing children constructed in 1904, considered the first modern intelligence test an intelligence test developed by Binet and Simon for children that consists of 30 different tasks of increasing difficulty Following a Moving Object With the Eyes • Finding and Eating a Square of Chocolate Wrapped in Paper • Comparing Two Lines of Unequal Length • Repeating a Sentence of 15 Words • Telling How Two Common Objects are Different • Telling How Two Common Objects are Similar • Making Rhymes • Repeating Spoken Digits • Sentence Completion • Using Three Nouns in a Single Sentence • Paper Folding and Cutting • Defining Abstract Terms

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons. (• Pasko Rakic's Dictum: No Neurogenesis - Organism Born with All Its Neurons - Neural Loss is Permanent - Peripheral vs. Central • Songbirds (Nottebohm) • Mammalian Hippocampus (Gould) • Mammalian Neocortex - Enriched Environment - Learning)

Learned Helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past A condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control.

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past A condition that occurs after a period of negative consequences where the person begins to believe they have no control. the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past

Spair-Whorf Hypothesis

the hypothesis that perceptions and understandings of time, space, and matter are conditioned by the structure of a language Hypothesis that perception and understanding of the world is morphed by structure of language. In order to fully understand society, must fully understand culture Proposed that people of different cultures think and behave differently because the languages they speak influence them to do so variants: Linguistic Determinism - The structure of a language determines the way its native speakers perceive and think about the world. • Linguistic Relativity - Structural differences between two languages are paralleled by non-linguistic cognitive differences between native speakers of those languages.

Helplessness Theory of Depression

the idea that individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal, stable, and global Internal, stable, widespread individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal, stable, and global

social behavior

the interaction between animals of the same species All interactions taking place between members of the same species any kind of interaction between two or more animals, usually of the same species - Behavior that Occurs in Response to the Stimulus of Another's Behavior - Behavior that Serves as a Stimulus to Another's Response

social intelligence

the know-how involved in comprehending social situations and managing oneself successfully ability to understand and navigate social situations the know-how involved in successfully comprehending social situations "The ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls - to act wisely in human relations" (p. 228)

gender role socialization

the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and family the lifelong process of learning to be masculine or feminine, primarily through four agents of socialization: families, schools, peers, and the media the process of learning which gender roles are available to you and to people of the opposite gender

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

episodic memory

the memory of autobiographical events (times, places, associated emotions, and other contextual who, what, when, where, why knowledge) that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place. the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place A category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations and experiences. memory for one's personal past experiences Retrieval from _________ _________ Anderson (1974) • Learn Facts about People, Locations • The doctor is in the bank (1-1) • The fireman is in the park (1-2) • The lawyer is in the church (2-1) • The lawyer is in the park (2-2) - Memorize to Criterion of Perfect Recall - Recognition • Studied targets - The doctor is in the bank • Unstudied lures - The doctor is in the park - Particular Experiences and Behaviors • Specific Events

Hunger

the natural physical drive to eat, prompted by the body's need for food A natural physical drive that protects you from starvation The physical need for food Interoception • Glucose Levels - Liver • Glucose Glycogen, Fatty Acids • Glycogen, Fatty Acids Glucose - Glucoreceptors • Liver • Stomach, Duodenum, Fatty Tissue • Hypothalamus

preattentive processing

the nonconscious processing of stimuli in peripheral vision processing of sensory information that precedes attention to specific objects the analysis, at an unconscious level, in which the mind determines which stimuli are worth passing into working memory Persisting Problem: Extent of ______ ________ • Analysis Without Conscious Attention - Limited to Physical Structure? - Extends to Semantic Meaning? • Debate over Subliminal Perception - Is Subliminal Perception Limited to Analyses of Physical Structure?

Consistency Across Situations

the notion that a person behaves the same way in different situations and carries who he or she is into almost every situation refers to the notion that a person behaves the same way in different situations and carries who he or she is into almost every situation Greatest Across Similar Situations • Greatest at Superordinate Levels of Analysis • Tertiary Traits • Secondary Traits • Primary Traits • Habitual Actions • Specific Actions

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

Behavioral Disorders

the person may feel guilt, shame, or anxiety when thinking about disturbing experiences or thoughts and start avoiding thoughts about them. This " thought avoiding" is negatively reinforced by the reduction of the anxiety and unpleasant feelings and eventually will become a habit of "not thinking about" these things; reinforcement Exhibiting patterns of behavior that depart significantly from the expectations of others Conditions in which the emotional or behavioral responses of individuals significantly differ from those of their peers and seriously impact their relationships.

Mere Exposure Effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them the tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure The finding that the more exposure we have to a stimulus, the more apt we are to like it Zajonc (1968) • Subjects Taught to Pronounce Unfamiliar, Meaningless Material - "Turkish" Words - "Chinese" Ideographs • Vary Number of Trials - 0 (Control) to 25 Exposures • Items Identified as Adjectives - Guess Meaning • "Something Good" • "Something Bad" zajonc (1968) • Repeated Exposure Increases Judgments of Likability - Even in Absence of Substantive Contact • Likability is an Expression of Preference - Preference is an Attitude • Exposure is a Purely Situational Effect - Prefer Whatever is Encountered Frequently in the Environment

Neocortex

the phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex, and association cortex. New phylogenetically(evolution of species), emerged relatively recently in evolutionary time. New ontogenetically (development of the individual organism), emerges relatively late in fetal development

consolidation

the process by which memories become stable in the brain A hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory. the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when a memory is formed encoding takes time - Traumatic Retrograde Amnesia Two Kinds of ___________? • Short-Term - Byproduct of Encoding - Occurs within Seconds of Event - Disruption Causes Anterograde Amnesia • Long-Term - Persists After Initial Encoding - Transpires Over Longer Periods of Time • Facilitated by Sleep - Disruption Causes Retrograde Amnesia

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment simple stimulation of a sense organ stimulation of sense organs Distal Stimulus • Proximal Stimulus • Transduction • Neural Impulse Object, Event • Stimulus Energy - Radiated - Reflected • Sensory Receptor • Transmitted to Cortex qualities: Boring (1953) • Modality-Specific - Vision: Hue, Saturation - Audition: Pitch, Timbre - Olfaction: Odor - Gustation: Flavor - Touch: Roughness, Wetness - Pain: Sensory Pain (Fast/Slow), Suffering • General: Intensity - Vision: Brightness - Audition: Loudness Thresholds for Conscious Awareness • Absolute - Weakest Detectable Stimulus • Relative - Smallest Detectable Change • "Just-Noticeable Difference" - Absolute Threshold a Special Case • Isomorphism - Physical Intensity - Sensory Intensity

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage the process of getting info out of memory storage the process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored Recovering Trace from Storage - Activating, Accessing Available Knowledge The ________Phase of Memory Processing • Assume that a Memory Trace has been Adequately Encoded... • ...and Remains Available in Storage Over the Retention Interval... • How Do We Gain Access to Available Memories? Queries and Cues

anchoring heuristic

the process of making decisions based on certain ideas or standards held by the decision maker a mental shortcut that involves basing judgements on existing information A mental shortcut that involves basing judgments on existing information. application: estimates • Final estimates are overwhelmingly influenced by initial estimates - Estimates Begin with Initial Value - Initial Value Serves as Anchor • Problems - Formulation, Partial Computation Misleading - Insufficient Adjustment

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events The act of becoming aware through the senses the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses. Mental Representation - of Distal Stimulus Object, Event - Physical Features - Meaning, Implications Ecological View of _________ by james Gibson (1950, 1966, 1979) Eleanor J. Gibson (1967) • Stimulus provides information • Perception involves extracting this information • Direct Perception (Direct Realism) - All information needed for perception is supplied by the stimulus - No need for "higher" cognitive activity - Learn to extract relevant information • Exploration of object • All information is available "in the light" Cues for the Perception of Motion • Successive Covering, Uncovering • Movement of Image Across Retina - Holding Head and Eyes Steady Cues for the Perception of Motion • Successive Covering, Uncovering • Movement of Image Across Retina - Holding Head and Eyes Steady • Egomotion - Head/Eye Movements • Alter placement of retinal image image-retina system - detects shifts in the relative position of parts of the visual image over time eye/head system - interprets motion created by eye and head movements The Information for Motion: Discrepancy • Information provided by image-retina system - Movement of image across retina • Information provided by the eye/head system - Movement of eyes, head, body Binocular Cues for the Perception of Distance • Convergence - Eyes turn inward when focusing on object - Angle of vectors indicates distance • up to 30-40 feet Retinal (Binocular) Disparity - Eyes Separated by 2-3 Inches • Each receives somewhat different image of object - Stereoscopic Vision • 2-Dimensional images on retina • Fused into 3-dimensional image in brain Monocular Cues for the Perception of Distance • Accommodation - Lens bulges to focus on near objects - Lens flattens to focus on distant objects Relative Size (the size-distance rule) - Distance constant, object size = f(image size) - Size constant, object distance = f(1/image size) • Superposition (Interposition) - Nearby object cuts off view of more distant objectmonocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away Linear perspective: A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance. Vanishing point elevation: distance from horizon aerial perspective: Monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that more distant objects are likely to appear hazy and blurred. Diffraction of Light by Dust, Moisture - "Bluing" of Distance a monocular cue where distant parts of a uniform surface appear denser; that is its elements seem spaced more closely together shadowing: monocular cue to distance and depth based on the fact that shadows often appear on the parts of objects that are more distant - Relative positions of shadows - Distance with respect to light source Pictorial Cues to Depth and Distance • Relative Size • Linear Perspective • Elevation • Superposition • Texture Gradients • Aerial Perspective • Shadowing Motion Cues to Depth and Distance: Motion Parallax: a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene the apparent movement of stationary objects relative to one another that occurs when the observer changes position the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away optic flow: the complex motion of points in the visual field caused by relative movement between the observer and environment; provides information about the relative distance of objects from the observer and of the relative direction of movement the changing angular position of points in a perspective image that we experience as we move through the world the changing angular positions of points in a perspective image that we experience as we move through the world Perception and Memory • Perception Draws on Memory - Permanent Repository of World-Knowledge - Momentary Expectations • Perception Changes Memory - Memory "Trace" • Mental Representation of Stimulus • Persists After Termination of Stimulus

subliminal perception

the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness the processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness thought or behavior that is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving

storage

the retention of encoded information over time the process of retaining encoded information over time the process of maintaining information in memory over time Retaining Trace in Memory - Latent, Available for Use

kinesthesis

the sense that provides information about the position and movement of individual body parts the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts the sense of movement and body position movement, positon Proximal Stimulus - Activity in Skeletal Musculature • Stretching, Contraction, Movement • Receptor Organ - Neuromuscular Spindles - Neurotendinous (Golgi) Organs - Nerve Endings in Joints • Sensory Tract - Spinal Nerves - (Afferent) Cranial Nerves • Primary Somatosensory Cortex - Brodmann's Areas 1, 2, 3

semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Meaning of words and sentences The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another. Types of Reference - Denotative - Connotative • Semantic Memory Networks - Associative - Propositional • Categorization - Prototypes - Exemplars

postcentral gyrus

the strip of parietal cortex, just behind the central sulcus, that receives somatosensory information from the entire body. primary somatosensory cortex•Brodmann Areas 1-3

Phonology

the study of speech sounds in language English: 40 phonemes • Hawaiian: 14 phonemes - "glottal stop" • humuhumunukunukuapua'a • Hawai'i, Kaua'i • German: ch as in Ach! or Bach • Russian: Щ, shcha • Khoisan: ǃ and ǂ, "click"

touch

the tactile sense Proximal Stimulus - Mechanical Pressure on Skin • Mechanoreceptors - Free Nerve Endings - "Basket" Endings, Merkel's Disks - Meissner's / Pacinian Corpuscles • Sensory Tract - Afferent Tract • Spinal, Cranial Nerves • Spinal Cord • Primary Somatosensory Cortex - Brodmann's Areas 1, 2, 3 - Roughness, Wetness (Pressure, Pain, Warmth)

size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance Perception of an object as the same size regardless of the distance from which it is viewed we perceive objects as having a constant size, even while our distance from them varies

constancy

the tendency to perceive certain objects in the same way regardless of changing angle, distance, or lighting Two Sources of ________• Gibson: Ratios - Comparison of object with background - Consistent with ecological view • All information needed by stimulus • Helmholtz: Unconscious Inferences - Unaware of Performing Calculations - Cannot Specify What They Are • Know operation only by inference

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli A conclusion drawn from specific information that is used to make a broad statement about a topic or person

cognitive appraisal theory of emotion

the theory that emotional responses are triggered by a cognitive evaluation our emotional experience depends on our interpretation of the situation we are in A theory stating that the experience of emotion is the joint effect of physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal, which serves to determine how an ambiguous inner state of arousal will be labeled. Smith & Ellsworth (1985), after Lazarus (1968) • Pleasantness • Anticipated Effort • Certainty • Attentional Activity • Attributional Activity - Situational Control - Self-Other

retention interval

the time that elapses between learning and retrieval the amount of time elapsed since information was learned and when it must be recalled the length of time between the presentation of materials to be remembered and the measurement of forgetting what happens over the _____ ________? forgetting

Hidden cost of reward

the unexpected, unintended, and adverse effects that extrinsic rewards sometimes have on intrinsic motivation, high-quality learning, and autonomous self-regulation. the unexpected/unintended, aversive effects that extrinsic rewards sometimes have on intrinsic motivation, high-quality learning & autonomous self-regulation

nonshared environment

those environmental factors that are not experienced by all relevant members of a household unique aspects of a person's environment and experience that are not shared with family members environmental factors that are not experienced by all relevant members of a household

absolute refractory period

time during which another action potential is impossible; limits maximal firing rate

cerebral commissures

tracts that connect the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Include the corpus callosum and anterior commissure

superior pariental

used from orienting and localizing (stage model of attention)

mood-dependent memory

when learning occurs during a particular emotional state, it is most easily recalled when one is again in that emotional state Long-term memory retrieval is best when a person's mood state at the time of encoding and retrieval of the information is the same. The fact that what we remember while in a given mood may be determined, in part, by what we learned when previously in that mood

context dependent memory

when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place. improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same Episodic Context - Time, Place - Features of External Environment - Features of Internal Environment • Physiological State • Emotional State • Motivational State? • Psychoactive Drugs Impair Cognition • Context Effects are Cue-Dependent - Overshadowed by Other Cues _________ ________ ________ and Encoding Specificity • Encoding - Sets the Stage for Retrieval • Retrieval - Recapitulates Encoding Processes • Congruent Conditions - Facilitates Match with Trace • Incongruent Conditions - Cue Information Mismatches Trace - Forgetting as Failure of Access

conditions of uncertainty

where the "correct" answer is difficult to know or would take a great deal of effort to determine Ill-Defined Problem • Algorithm Unknown • Insufficient Information • Insufficient Opportunity - Time - Motivation

algorithm for estimation

• Approximate Frequency - Count - Estimation • Algorithm for Estimation - Draw Representative Sample • Random • Stratified - Extrapolate from Sample to Population • Statistical Inference • Hypothesis Testing

Syndromes

• Clusters of Symptoms that Tend to Co-Occur

hopi sibling terminology

• Elder Brother • Elder Sister • Younger Sister of Male • Younger Brother of Male - or Younger Sibling of Female

recoverable conditions

• In Aphagia - Lesions in Lateral Hypothalamus • In Aphasia - Lesions in Broca's and Wernicke's Areas • In Paraplegia - Severing of Spinal Cord

Examples of Psychological Measurement

• Intelligence Tests - Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale - Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children - Raven's Progressive Matrices • Personality Inventories - Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory - California Psychological Inventory - Personality Research Form - NEO Five-Factor Inventory

Reliability

• Inter-Rater - Inter-Judge • Test-Retest • Internal Consistency - Item-to-Total

The Lost-Ticket Scenario

• Two People Decide to See a Play • Tickets Cost $10 • As A Approaches the Ticket Booth, He Discovers that He Has Lost a $10 Bill - Will He Still Buy the Ticket? • B Buys a Ticket, but Loses It Before He Enters the Theater - Will He Buy Another Ticket?

Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Political Attitudes

• Virginia 30K Twin Study - c. 29,080 subjects and 1st-degree relatives • 2,648 MZ Twins; 1,748 DZ twins • Wilson-Patterson Attitude Inventory - Endorse Socio-Political Issues • School Prayer, Property Tax, Busing, Abortion • Agree, Disagree, Uncertain - 25 "Liberal", 25 "Conservative" - 28 items were expressly political

Female Adrenogenital Syndrome

♣ Circulation of androgen to fetus ♣ Masculinization of external genitalia • No effects on internal genitalia ♣ Surgical correction, cortisone therapy

peripheral nervous system

A division of the nervous system consisting of all nerves that are not part of the brain or spinal cord.

reflex arc

A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.

gyrus

A ridged or raised portion of a convoluted brain surface.•Inferior Frontal •Superior Temporal

midbrain

A small part of the brain above the pons that integrates sensory information and relays it upward. Reticular formation is located here

autonomic nervous system

A subdivision of the peripheral nervous system. Controls involuntary activity of visceral muscles and internal organs and glands.

stroke

A sudden attack of weakness or paralysis(voluntary motor function) that occurs when blood flow to an area of the brain is interrupted. • Paralysis - voluntary motor function • Anesthesia - tactile sensation • Aphasia - speech, language

triune brain

Conceptual model of brain structure distinguishing among three main parts of the human brain that evolved at different points and perform distinct functions. The three parts are the neocortex "new brain", limbic system "old mammalian brain" (amygdala hypothalamus, hippocamus), and the r-complex "reptillian brain" (brain stem, cerebellum)

primary visual cortex

The region of the cerebral cortex that receives information directly from the visual system; located in the occipital lobe Striate Cortex (VI) •Brodmann Area 17 • "Retinotopic" Organization

hemispatial neglect

a failure to attend to stimuli on the opposite side of space to a brain lesion. a syndrome where patients are unaware of the world on one side of space, usually from damage to right posterior parietal cortex. contralateral(on the opposite side of the body)

persistent vegetative state

a type of coma in which the patient exhibits alternating sleep and wake cycles. situation in which a person's cortical functioning ceases while brainstem activity continues. follows coma within one month, wakefullness without consciousness, eyes open, apparently vigilant, some reflex functions, normal sleep cycle, unresponsive to stimulation, spared vegetative state, "minimally conscious state"

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord

fusiform gyrus

brain area of the inferior temporal cortex that recognizes faces

The Trilogy of Mind

cognition, emotion, motivation

Broca's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Broca's area, causing the affected person to be unable to speak fluently, to mispronounce words, and to speak haltingly "Expressive" - Slow, Labored, Inarticulate Speech • Possible Problems with Writing, Reading Aloud - Speech Comprehensible - No Problems Understanding Speech, Reading

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Contains 31 spinal nerves (spinal cord) and 12 cranial nerves (brain and brainstem)

diathesis

: 5-HTT Gene - Located on Chromosome 17 • 2 Alleles, "Short" and "Long" - 4 Genotypes: SS, SL or LS, and LL - Serotonin Transporter • Serotonin Linked to Depression in Humans • Efficacy of SSRIs like Prozac, Zoloft

Child-Driven Effects

(Reactive) Effects gender-role socialization, other aspects of physical appearance, temperament, positive feedback, negative feedback person-by-Situation Interaction Behavioral Manipulation • Temperament - Speed, Strength of Arousal - Quiet vs. Fussy • Positive Feedback - Vicious (and Virtuous) Cycles • Negative Feedback - Lower-Limit Control Behaviors - Upper-Limit Control Behavior

Concealable

- Can the Person "Pass" for "Normal"?

Emil Kraepelin in Wundt's Laboratory

- Donders's Reaction-Time Technique

Scientific Revolution in Mental Health

- Empirically Supported Treatments • Evidence-Based Treatments - Extensions • Assessment, Diagnosis • Prevention

Stress Within Normal Limits

- Episode a Function of Diathesis

Dissociations in Hypnosis and "Hysteria"

- Explicit and Implicit Perception, Memory • Parallel Findings in Dissociative, Conversion Disorders

Stress

- Fear Conditioning, But... • History Not Always Positive • Phobias are Not Arbitrary

Social Selection

- Identifies, Labels Differences

Genotypes not Decisive for Phenotypes

- Importance of Nonshared Environment

Opposition

- Nature vs. Nurture

Attention

- Not Controlled by Salience

Memory

- Reconstructive Problem-Solving

Depressive Attributional Style

- Stable vs. Variable - Internal vs. External - Global vs. Specific

loss of egocentrism

- Take Another's Point of View

constructivist view of perception

- We are not perceiving the world as it is. - We are perceiving the world as our brain was designed to perceive it. - Based on prior knowledge The perceiver must go beyond the information given" by the stimulus Conditions - Stimulus information insufficient for perception - Stimulus information is misleading • Perception is intelligent - Problem-Solving Activity - Requires knowledge of the world - Entails judgment, inference, reasoning

Schema-Incongruent

- p(behavior | schema) < p(behavior | no schema) • Judy made the same mistake three times. • Judy was confused by the daytime television show.

schema irrelevant

- p(behavior | schema) = p(behavior | no schema) • Judy ordered a sandwich for lunch. • Judy took the elevator to the third floor.

Schema-Congruent

- p(behavior | schema) > p(behavior | no schema) • Judy won the chess tournament. • Judy attended the symphony concert.

all of none law

-a neuron either fires or it doesn't; no half fire, etc. -to show variations in urgency (or pain)(EX arm cut off compared to papercut), the rate at which neurons fire differs

B.F. Skinner and the operant chamber

-created operant chamber AKA skinners box with lever it key animal has to learn how to manipulate -works on shaping a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain food or water B. F. Skinner, like Ivan Pavlov, pioneered more controlled methods of studying conditioning. The operant chamber, often called "the Skinner box," allowed detailed tracking of rates of behavior change in response to different rates of reinforcement.

De-institutionalization

-the release of those with mental disorders from mental hospitals for the purpose of treating them in their home communities -thanks to new drug therapies and policies to move patients out, mental patients have been de-institutionalized since the 1950's -the populations of state mental hospitals have declines dramatically It was first seen after the introduction of anti-psychotic drugs like Henri Laborit's use of Chlorpromazine later being used on schizophrenic patients-these patients, when given a high dose. As a result their mental state changed now being able to make contact with others and be left without supervision. So they were considered "normal" and discharged from the hospitals PROBLEM!! The medication had unpleasant side effects so once de-institutionalized patients would stop taking the drug. is the process of replacing long-stay psychiatric hospitals with less isolated community mental health services for those diagnosed with a mental disorder or developmental disability.

Two Aspects of Consciousness

1. monitoring ourselves and our external environment so that we can be aware of certain things 2. controlling ourselves (starting and stopping behavior based on our plans and goals) 1. Monitoring ourselves and our external environment (awareness) 2. Controlling ourselves (starting and stopping behavior based on our plans and goals) monitoring ourselves and our external environment (awareness) controlling ourselves (starting and stopping behavior based on our plans and goals) Monitoring (Awareness) - Sensation, Perception, Memory, Thought - Cognition, Emotion, Motivation • Controlling - Cognition, Emotion, Motivation - Behavior

From "Impossible Science" to a Science of Mind and Behavior

17th-18th Centuries - Descartes - Kant • 19th Century - Psychophysics - Physiological Psychology • "Higher" Mental Processes - Memory - Learning - Thinking • Beyond Cognition - Emotion - Motivation • Individual Differences - Intelligence - Personality - Attitudes • Social Interaction • Psychopathology - Psychotherapy

Hopi Cradleboards

1930's. Until 1 year of age, Hopi babies may be swaddled and tied to a board (for up to 23 hours a day). Legs are extended, arms have little room to bend. Yet, when free of board, infants exhibited expected movement sequences of non-cradled infants. (Dennis, 1940) Swaddled for first year of life - Age of Walking (by 18 mos.) - Lesions in Occipital Bone

Guevodoces

5-α-Reductase Deficiency Syndrome - Apparently Female External Genitalia • Raised as Girls - Masculinization at Puberty • Recognized as Boys

Diathesis

: COMT Gene - Located on Chromosome 22 • 2 Alleles, "MET" (Methionine) and "Val" (Valine) - 4 Genotypes: MetMet, MetVal or ValMet, ValVal - Involved in Metabolism of Dopamine • MetMet, Fastest Breakdown; ValVal, Slowest Breakdown - Linked to Schizophrenia

Diathesis

: MAOA Gene - Promotes Monoamine Oxidase - A • Located on X Chromosome • Metabolizes Many Neurotransmitters • Linked to Aggression in Mice, Humans

taste aversion learning

A biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness. a form of learning in which an organism learns to avoid a taste after just one pairing of that taste with illness development of a dislike of or aversion to a flavor or food that has been paired with illness A biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness. a form of learning in which an organism learns to avoid a taste after just one pairing of that taste with illness

Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome

A condition caused by a congenital lack of functioning androgen receptors; in a person with XY sex chromosomes, causes the development of a female with testes but no internal sex organs mutation in androgen receptor can't receive male hormones; XY male develops as phenotypic female A condition in which the testicles secrete normal amounts of testosterone during male embryonic development, but the tissues do not respond to it. As a result, a clitoris, labia, and a short vagina develop, but the internal female structures do not develop because the testicles still secrete Mullerian duct-inhibitory substances. - Failure to Masculinize External Genitalia - Surgical Correction - Typically Raised as Girls • Natural Estrogen Feminizes Physique • Do Not Menstruate; Infertile

The Unexamined Life Is Not Worth Living

A famous quote of Socrates. It inspired his Socratic Method. If knowledge is virtue and ignorance is vice, one must examine himself in order to live a worthy life.

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. procedure whereby voters can remove an elected official from office A procedure for submitting to popular vote the removal of officials from office before the end of their term.

medical model of psychopathology

A method of defining mental disorders in which each disorder is an entity defined categorically and features a list of specific symptoms each disorder is an entity defined categorically and features a list of specific symptoms the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.

Open Systems Model

A model that depicts the dynamic relationship an organization has with its environment. views organizations as not only influenced by environments, but also dependent on them. Organizations take inputs from the environment, transform them, and produce outputs.

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance. Vanishing point

Major Depressive Disorder

A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities. a mood disorder in which a person feels sad and hopeless for weeks or months a mood disorder in which a person, for no apparent reason, experiences two or more weeks of depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminishes interest or pleasure in most activities

bipolar disorder

A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. mood disorder in one experiences both manic and depressed episodes severe mood swings between major depressive episodes and manic episodes • Manic-Depressive Illness

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction. also a neurotransmitter chemical released at the ends of nerve cells

relative refractory period

A period after firing when a neuron is returning to its normal polarized state and will fire again only if the incoming message is much stronger than usual

extraversion

A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive dimension of personality referring to one's need to be with other people The tendency to experience positive emotions and moods and to feel good about oneself and the rest of the world.

nativism

A policy of favoring native-born individuals over foreign-born ones the policy of protecting the interests of native-born or established inhabitants against those of immigrants. favoring the interests of native-born people over foreign-born people. • (Descartes) - Innate Knowledge • Independent of Sensory Experience

Rational Choice Theory

A popular theory in political science to explain the actions of voters as well as politicians. It assumes that individuals act in their own best interest, carefully weighing the costs and benefits of possible alternatives. the classical view that we make decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two A theory that states that individuals act in their own best interest. Expected Value of a Choice - Outcome x Probability • Program A: Certain that 200 Will Be Saved - Value = 1 x 200 = 200 • Program B: Chance that All Will Be Saved - Value = 1/3 x 600 = 200 Viewed Rationally, the Outcomes are Identical Expected Value of a Choice - Outcome x Probability • Program C: Certain that 400 Will Die - Value = 1 x 400 = 400 • Program D: Chance that All Will Die - Value = 2/3 x 600 = 400 Viewed Rationally, the Outcomes are Identical

negative feedback

A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial fluctuation. a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that reduce the stimulus A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will counteract the change. Maintains a steady state. Lower-Limit Control Behaviors - Upper-Limit Control Behavior

stevens law

A principle describing the relationship between stimulus magnitude and resulting sensation magnitude, such that the magnitude of subjective sensation is proportional to the stimulus magnitude raised to an exponent power function a proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and its perceived intensity or strength. A principle describing the relationship between stimulus magnitude and resulting sensation magnitude, such that the magnitude of subjective sensation is proportional to the stimulus magnitude raised to an exponent power function

Psychosocial Law

A principle in social impact theory that specifies the nature of the relation between the size of a group and its social influence. The principle predicts that as the number of social forces increases, overall social influence also increases, but at a declining rate. Latane (1981), after Stevens (1961) SI = sNt , where t < 1 • Social Impact of "Many on One" - Grows More Slowly than the Number of Sources • Social Impact of "One on Many" - Total Impact is Diffused Across Many Targets

immune system

A system (including the thymus and bone marrow and lymphoid tissues) that protects the body from foreign substances and pathogenic organisms by producing the immune response The cells and tissues that recognize and attack foreign substances in the body a complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances

dissociative identity disorder

A rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Also called multiple personality disorder. disorder occurring when a person seems to have two or more distinct personalities within one body multiple personality disorder

conversion disorder

A rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found changing emotional difficulties into a loss of a specific voluntary body function Functional Blindness, Deafness, Anesthesia • Functional Paralysis

Psychological Androgyny

A state characterized by possession of both stereotypical masculine traits and stereotypical feminine traits possessing high levels of masculine and feminine traits Involves the individual's gender identity

Complex System

A system composed of many interconnected parts, such that when the parts self-organize into a single system, the resulting system exhibits one or more properties not obvious from the properties of the individual parts. Components Interact - Bidirectional Causation

homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment relatively constant internal physical and chemical conditions that organisms maintain

cued recall

A test of long-term memory that involves remembering an item of information in response to a retrieval cue. receive significant hints about the material a testing condition in which people are given an explicit retrieval cue to help them remember - Query Adds Information About Target • What were the color words on that list?

Modal Model of Memory

A theoretical approach to the study of memory that emphasizes the existence of different memory stores (for example, sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term me The model proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin that describes memory as a mechanism that involves processing information through a series of stages, including short-term memory and long-term memory. It is called the modal model because of the great influence it has had on memory research. sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory mory). Alternative Terminologies in the _______ ________ _____ _____________Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968); Waugh & Norman (1965), after James (1890) • Sensory Registers - Sensory Memory, Sensory Store • Short-Term Memory - Primary Memory - Working Memory • Long-Term Memory - Secondary Memory

corpus callosum

A thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them. the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them. A thick band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and acts as a communication link between them.

false belief task

A type of task used in theory-of-mind studies, in which the child must infer that another person does not possess knowledge that he or she possesses (that is, that other person holds a belief that is false). A research paradigm used to assess an important aspect of a theory of mind, mainly the understanding that people can hold incorrect beliefs and be influenced by them. a technique used to assess children's theory of mind; children are tested on their understanding either of stories in which a character is fooled into believing something that is not true or of situations in which they themselves have been tricked into a false belief After Wimmer & Perner (1983) • Experimenter, Child, and Puppet • Puppet Hides Ball in Oatmeal Container • Puppet Put Away • Experimenter, Child Switch Ball to Box • Puppet Brought Back • Where will it look? - 3 to 4-Year-Olds: "In the Box" • "Because that's where it is" - 4 to 5-Year-Olds: "In the Oatmeal Container" • "Because that's where he thinks it is"

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

A version of self-determination theory which holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling suggests that events affect motivation through the individual's perception of the events as controlling behavior or providing information How rewards are perceived is critical in determining whether intrinsic motivation increases or decreases Events Elicits Emotional Arousal - Undifferentiated - Unexplained • Arousal Interpreted by Actor - Shaped by Current Situational Context '[P]recisely the same state of physiological arousal could be labeled "joy" or "fury" or "jealousy" or any of a great diversity of emotional labels depending on the cognitive aspects of the situation.'

Achievement of conservation

Ability to recognize even though shape changes the amount stays the same - Take Account of Transformations

Hopelessness Theory of Depression

Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale (1978); Abramson, Metalsky & Alloy (1989) • Depression as Hopelessness - Uncontrollable Aversive Events - "Depressogenic" Causal Attributions • Internal, Stable, Global • "Illusion of Control" - Depressive Realism • "Hopelessness" Subtype of Depression - Attributional Style as Risk Factor - Other Subtypes Have Other Causes

Revising the Helplessness Theory of Depression

Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale (1978); Abramson, Metalsky & Alloy (1989) • Exposure to Uncontrollable Aversive Events - But Often Angry, Not Depressed • Dimensions of Causal Attribution - Internal vs. External - Stable vs. Variable - Global vs. Specific

Doctrine of Traits

After Allport (1937) Behavior varies as a function of internal dispositions that render it coherent, stable, consistent, and predictable. Traits Attitudes Moods Motives Values Beliefs Weak Version (aka the Biosocial View) - Traits summarize the coherence, stability, consistency, and predictability of individual behavior • Strong Version (aka the Biophysical View) - Traits cause the coherence, stability, consistency, and predictability of individual behavior

Doctrine of Reciprocal Determinism

After Bandura (1978) The person, the environment, and behavior constitute a dynamic, complex system in which each element is both a cause and an effect of the others.

doctrine of interactionism

After Bowers (1973) Neither traits nor situations are the primary determinants of behavior, because... Situations are as much a function of the person as the person's behavior is a function of the situation.

the word problem

After Kahneman & Tversky (1973) • Estimate the Number of Words in English... - Beginning with the Letter "K" - With "K" as Their Third Letter • Repeat Estimates for Other Letters - L, N, R, V

Explicit and Implicit Perception

After Kihlstrom, Barnhardt, & Tataryn (1992) • Explicit Perception - Conscious Perception • Detection, Distance, Motion, Form • Identification, Categorization • Any Effect of a Current Event on Experience, Thought, or Action - Absence of Conscious Perception

Explicit and Implicit Emotion

After Kihlstrom, Mulvaney, Tobias, & Tobis (1996) • Explicit Emotion - Subjective Mood, Affect, or Feeling • Any Effect of an Emotional Response on Experience, Thought, or Action - Overt Motor Response • Facial Expressions - Covert Physiological Response • Autonomic Nervous System

Explicit and Implicit Motivation

After McClelland, Koestner, & Wenberger (1989) • Explicit Motivation - Conscious Drive, Need, or Goal • nAchievement, nPower, nAffiliation/Intimacy • Any Effect of a Drive or Goal on Experience, Thought, or Action - Absence of Conscious Awareness of Motive Assessing: After Jackson (1965); McClelland, Koestner, & Wenberger (1989) • Personality Research Form - Questionnaire Measure • "I enjoy doing things which challenge me" • "I will keep working on a problem after others have given up" • "I often set goals that are very difficult to reach" • Thematic Apperception Test - "Picture-Story Exercise" • Outperforming Someone else • Meeting or Surpassing a Self-Imposed Standard of Excellence • Unique Accomplishment • Involvement in Advancing One's Career

Explicit and Implicit Learning

After Reber (1967, 1993) • Explicit Learning - Conscious Access to Knowledge • Semantic, Procedural - Acquired Through Experience • Not Merely Incidental Learning • Any Effect of New Knowledge on Experience, Thought, or Action - No Conscious Awareness of Knowledge

Adolescent Conduct Disorder

Aggression, Antisocial Behavior

The Genain Quadruplets

All developed schizophrenia (most kids have a 2% chance if bot parenrs have it, 48% concordance with twins) 4 MZ twins, all developed different forms of schizophrenia with different severity female quadruplets who ALL developed schizophrenia, although each had different symptoms and severity (the odds of any 4 randomly selected people having schizophrenia is 1 in 100 million

The Problem of Trait-Names

Allport & Odbert (1936) 17,953 (or 17,954) different words Describe psychological differences between people Absent-minded Bashful Calculating Dainty Eager Facetious Gallant Haughty Idealistic Jaunty Kind Laconic Majestic Narcissistic Outgoing Picky Quarrelsome Rash Sagacious Taciturn Urbane Vainglorious Wanton Xenophobic Yappish Zealous

doctrine of traits

Allport (1937) [A trait is] a generalized and focalized neuropsychic system... with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior." • Biosocial View - Traits Have Nominal Existence • Biophysical View - Traits Have Actual Existence

Stimulus Response Theory of learning

Also called conditioning theory. Some stimulus triggers a consumer's need or want, and this in turn creates a need to respond. The psychological school of thought stating that all complex forms of behavior, including emotions, thoughts, and habits, are complex muscular and glandular responses that can be observed and measured some stimulus triggers a consumer's need or want, and this in turn creates a need to respond Also called conditioning theory. Some stimulus triggers a consumer's need or want, and this in turn creates a need to respond. The psychological school of thought stating that all complex forms of behavior, including emotions, thoughts, and habits, are complex muscular and glandular responses that can be observed and measured Assumptions of S-R Learning Theory • Association by Contiguity - Co-Occurrence in Space, Time • Arbitrariness (Equipotentiality) - Any Stimulus, Any Response • Empty Organism - Organism as "Black Box" Collecting Ss, Rs • Passive Organism - Metaphor of "Conditioning Implications for S-R Learning Theory • Arbitrariness - Taste-Nausea, Sight/Sound-Shock • Empty Organism - Internal Structure Shaped by Evolution • Association by Contiguity - CS, CR Distant in Space, Time • Law of Exercise - One-Trial Taste-Aversion Learning Conditioning Only Occurs When the US Surprises the Organism • Organism Searches Environment for Predictors of US • Irrelevant, Redundant Stimuli are Ignored • Classical Conditioning Involves the Formation of Expectations - CS predicts US

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

American Psychiatric Association - "Official" List of Syndromes, Features • Used for Classifying Mental Illnesses

Dissociations Between Explicit and Implicit Memory

Amnesic Syndrome • Electroconvulsive Therapy • General Anesthesia (?) - Conscious Sedation • Dementia (Early Stages) - Alzheimer's Disease • Dissociative Disorders - Psychogenic Amnesia - Psychogenic Fugue - Multiple Personality Disorder • Posthypnotic Amnesia Normal Forgetting • Aging Memory • Memory Development in Infants and Children (?) • Levels of Processing - Elaboration Principle Subliminal" Perception - Intensity, Duration • Masking • General Anesthesia • Neurological Disorders - Blindsight, Visual Neglect - Prosopagnosia • Conversion Disorders ("Hysteria") - Blindness, Deafness, Tactile Anesthesia • Hypnotic Suggestion - Blindness, Deafness - Analgesia/Anesthesia Normal Perception • Preattentive Processing - Parafoveal Vision - Dichotic Listening • "Cognitive Blindness" - Inattentional Blindness • Selective Looking - Attentional "Blindness" in Rapid Serial Visual Presentation (RSVP) • Repetition Blindness • Attentional Blink • Change Blindness Artificial Grammar Learning • Categorization • Covariation Detection • Sequence Learning • Control of Complex Systems

motivation

An internal mental state that causes an organism to initiate, choose, or persist in approach or avoidance behavior. • The Conative Lexicon - Drive - Need - Want - Goal Not Just Homeostasis • Social Factors • Cognitive Factors • Emotional Factors Beyond Homeostasis • Aggression - External Threats - Testosterone Levels • Mating - Regulation by Sex Hormones • Estrogen, Testosterone - Estrus Cycle - Courtship Behavior, Copulation • Testosterone, Progesterone - The Human Case Two Kinds of Motivation • Extrinsic - A person's desire to engage in some specific activity in order to achieve some goal or satisfy some need • Intrinsic - A person's desire to engage in some specific activity without any promise or prospect of reward.

Friendship Patterns

As Function of Distance - Within Town - Within Living Unit - Within Classroom, Workplace • Functional Rather than Physical Distance - Availability • Availability Means Exposure - Familiarity Breeds Liking, Not Contempt

Multi-Store Model of Memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin The memory model that visualises memory as a system consisting of multiple memory stores through which a stream of data flows for processing.

How People Affect Their Environments

Buss (1987); Kihlstrom & Cantor (1987) • Evocation - Mere Presence, Appearance in Environment • Independent of Any Behavior • Selection - Choose Environments for Some Purpose • Behavioral Manipulation - Overt Behavior • Cognitive Transformation - Covert Mental Activity Buss (1987); Kihlstrom & Cantor (1987) • Evocation - Mere Presence in Environment Alters Environment • Independent of Any Behavior • Physical Appearance - Evoke Behavior from Others • Intentional or Unintentional • Conscious or Unconscious Selection - Choose Environments to Match Personality - Support, Promote Interests, Moods, Beliefs, Desires - Each Choice Preempts Alternatives Behavioral Manipulation - Overt Behavior • Alters Objective Environment - As Publicly Experienced by Everyone - Instrumental/Operant Behavior • Operation Changes Environment Transformation (Cognitive) - Alters Mental Representation of Environment • Environment as Subjectively Experienced by Actor • Not Environment as Publicly Observed by Others

Automatic vs. Controlled Processes

Automatic mental processes are effortless and often below the surface of awareness. Controlled processes are intentional and we are consciously aware of them. Automatic processes are more efficient, but not always more rational. automatic: well practiced, do not require flexibility, little/no attention, person can be busy with another task, controlled: require flexibility in one's approach, require attention, person cannot be busy with another task stereotypes are activated automatically; some people use controlled processes to inhibit them Automatic mental processes are effortless and often below the surface of awareness. Controlled processes are intentional and we are consciously aware of them. Automatic processes are more efficient, but not always more rational. automatic: well practiced, do not require flexibility, little/no attention, person can be busy with another task, controlled: require flexibility in one's approach, require attention, person cannot be busy with another task Features - Inevitable Evocation - Incorrigible Completion (Ballistic) - Efficient Execution - Parallel Processing • Unconscious in the Strict Sense of the Term - Operate outside phenomenal awareness - Operate outside voluntary control

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Automatic vs. Controlled Processes After LaBerge & Samuels (1974); Posner & Snyder (1975); Schneider & Shiffrin (1977); Schiffrin & Schneider (1977) • Inevitable Evocation • Incorrigible Completion (Ballistic) • Efficient Execution • Parallel Processing • Unconscious in the Strict Sense of the Term - Operate Outside Phenomenal Awareness - Operate Outside Voluntary Control

a

Availability vs. Accessibility • Availability of memory - In Storage - Impaired by Decay, Displacement, Consolidation Failure • Accessibility of memory - At Retrieval Attempt - Impaired by Interference Availability vs. Accessibility pt 2, Part 2 Encoded memories, available in storage, may not be accessible when retrieval is attempted

Interruptions of Experimenter

Bargh et al. (1996), Experiment 1 • Cover Task: Scrambled sentences - "Rude" Primes • aggressively, rude, bother, disturb, intrude - "Polite" Primes • respect, honor, considerate, appreciate, patiently - "Neutral" Primes • exercising, flawlessly, occasionally, rapidly, gleefully • Experimenter Engaged with Confederate - Ignores Waiting Subject • Interruptions During 10-Minute Waiting Period

Token Economies

Based on Instrumental Conditioning • Tokens as Secondary Reinforcers • Motivate Adaptive Social Behaviors

Diathesis and Stress in Depression

Biological Stress - Sudden Changes in Hormonal Environment • e.g., Pregnancy, Parturition, Menopause - Behavioral Consequences • Altered Mood State • Reduction in Activity Levels • Psychological Diathesis - Depressogenic Schemata, Attributional Style • Affect Interpretation of Changes in Mood, Activity Hormonal Changes, Interpretation of Effects Can Combine to Cause Episode of Depression

Biological Science

Biological Substrates of Mental Life

Interaction of Diathesis and Stress

Biological and Psychosocial

__________often Biological, and Stress often Psychological, but Stress Can Be Biological

Birth Complications in Schizophrenia - Prenatal • Exposure to Viruses • Malnutrition • Short Gestation, Low Birth Weight - Perinatal • Birth Complications But These Factors Do Not Inevitably Give Rise to Mental Illness Nor Are They Specific to Schizophrenia

Ethology and evolutionary developmental psychology

Both continuous and discontinuous: Children gradually develop a wider range of adaptive behaviors. Sensitive periods occur, in which qualitatively distinct capacities emerge fairly suddenly. One course of development:Adaptive behaviors and sensitive periods apply to all members of a species. Both nature and nurture: Evolution and heredity influence behavior, and learning lends greater flexibility and adaptiveness to it. in sensitive periods, early experiences set the course of later development.

parietal cortex

Brain region that processes information about sensation. Provides higher levels of sensory information, such as map of the external world, that is important for planning and carrying out movements; spatial reasoning and processing sensations

Attentional Deficit in Schizophrenia

Breakdown in Selective Attention • Distractibility • Inability to Filter Out Irrelevant Ideas - Consequences • Language Disorder • Social Withdrawal

Hypothalamic Theory of Emotion

Cannon (1915, 1927, 1929); Bard (1928) • Emotional State - Generated by Hypothalamus • Emotional Behavior - Discharges to Brainstem • Emotional Experience - Discharges to Cortex

Psychiatric Diagnosis as Judgment Under Uncertainty

Cantor et al. (1980), Cantor & Genero (1986) • Balance of Symptoms - Characteristic of Target Category - Characteristic of Alternative Categories • Textbook Cases as Category Prototypes

5-HTT and Depression: Current Status

Caspi et al. (2010); Karg et al. (2011) • Gene x Environment Interaction Controversial - Some Studies Failed to Replicate - Assessment of Stress • 56 Published Studies (N = 40,749) - Overall Confirmation of Interaction (p = .00002) • Short Allele More Sensitive (42/56) • Long Allele More Sensitive (6/56) • No Difference (8/56) - Nature of Stress • Stressful Life Events • Childhood Maltreatment • Life-Threatening/Chronic Medical Conditions

Caster Semenya

Caster Semenya is a South African runner who won the women's 800 meters in the 2009 Track and Field World Championships. The win was questioned because she looked masculine. Many of her competitors thought she had an unfair advantage. Gold Medal, 800m Race World Track and Field Championships, Berlin, 2009 "She can decide to run as a woman, which she is. She can decide to run as a woman, which she is." Makhenkesi Stofile New York Times, 11/20/2009 "[She] is going to compete as a woman and will remain a woman until she dies" Michael Seme New York Times, 11/20/2009

fuzzy sets

Categories are considered to be fuzzy sets of features organised around a prototype. not all groups of observations have clear boundaries reflect the idea that natural categories do not have necessary and sufficient attributes. No Defining Features - Probabilistic Relationship • Central vs. Peripheral • Family Resemblance • Category Based on Similarity to Prototype - Many Features Central to Category Membership - Few Features Central to Membership in Contrasting Categories • Permits Heterogeneity Within Category - Typicality Effects

Conservation Attitudes and Behavior

Chaiken & Baldwin (1981) • Pre-Test of Environmental Attitudes - Classify Subjects as Pro- or Anti-Environment • Weak or Strong Attitudes • Reports of Pro- and Anti-Ecology Behaviors - "I pick up other people's garbage" - "I leave on lights in rooms I'm not using" • Salience Manipulation - "I do this on occasion" (Frequent Endorsement) - "I do this frequently (Infrequent Endorsement) • Post-Test of Environmental Attitudes

Evidence-Based Practices

Chambless & Ollendeck (2001) • Scientific Revolution in Medicine - Louis Pasteur (Rabies) - Robert Koch (Tuberculosis) • Scientific Revolution in Mental Health - Empirically Supported Treatments • Evidence-Based Treatments - Extensions • Assessment, Diagnosis • Prevention

Amnesic syndrome

Characteristic of the amnesic syndrome patient is specific impairment of encoding new information into both episodic and semantic memory, while most other cognitive functions remain intact. specific impairment of encoding new information into both episodic and semantic memory while most other cognitive functions remain intact *difficulty with recent memory *can register in memory but only able minimal recall *may confuse time sequence of events

Depressogenic Schemata

Characterized by the tendency to see and experience the world in a negative fashion. depression arises in individuals who have a particular (and maladaptive) way of evaluating themselves and their experiences

Bobo doll experiment

Children model the behavior of adults nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively experiment done by Albert Bandura Children model the behavior of adults nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively

Thought without language

Classical and Instrumental Conditioning - Expectations, Prediction, and Control • Natural Concepts in Pigeons • Curiosity in Rhesus Monkeys • Problem-Solving in Primates • Learning in Infants

Classical and Instrumental Conditioning Compared

Classical • Reinforcement Not Contingent on Behavior • Behavior Elicited by US • Involuntary Response (Reflex) • Few Conditionable Behaviors Instrumental • Reinforcement Contingent on Behavior • Behavior Emitted by Organism • Voluntary Responses ("Spontaneous") • Many Conditionable Behaviors

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Common Violations of Rational Choice Hastie & Dawes (2001) • Choosing out of Habit • Choosing on the Basis of Conformity • Choosing on the Basis of Authorities

judgement heuristics

Common ______ _______ Kahneman & Tversky (1973); Tversky & Kahneman (1974) • Representativeness - Categorization - Other Judgments of Similarity - Probability, Causality • Availability - Frequency, Probability • Simulation - Probability, Causality • Anchoring and Adjustment - Estimation

Schizophrenia

Components of Emotion in ___________ Kring & Neale (1998) • Anhedonia - Flat/Blunted Affect - Inappropriate Affect • Emotional Films - Positive, Negative, Neutral • Components of Emotion - Subjective: Self-Rating - Overt Behavior: Facial Expressions - Covert Physiological: Skin Conductance

theory view

Concepts are organized by theories • To decide if something is a member: • Not match of features, but rather • Ask if it "fits" knowledge over similarity Concept : Instance :: Theory : Data • Instances Not Bound Together by Similarity - At Very Least, "Similarity" is Flexible - Categorization Explains Similarity Judgments • Concepts Organized by Theory of Domain - "Explanatory Relationship" Between Concept, Instance • Categorization Based on Knowledge, Not Similarity

Problems for Ecological Perception

Conceptual Problem - Availability vs. Utilization • Empirical Problems - Organization - Pattern Recognition - Perceptual Constancies - Ambiguous (Reversible) Figures - Perceptual Illusions - Cultural Differences - Perceptual Problem-Solving

conditioning

Conditioning Only Occurs When the US Surprises the Organism • Organism Searches Environment for Predictors of US • Irrelevant, Redundant Stimuli are Ignored • Classical Conditioning Involves the Formation of Expectations - CS predicts US Conditioning Only Occurs When the US Surprises the Organism • Organism Searches Environment for Predictors of US • Irrelevant, Redundant Stimuli are Ignored • Classical Conditioning Involves the Formation of Expectations - CS predicts US

Explicit thought

Conscious Cognitive Activity • Reasoning, Problem-Solving • Judgment, Decision-Making

Explicit perception

Conscious Perception • Detection, Distance, Motion, Form • Identification, Categorization

explicit memory

Conscious Recollection • Free Recall, Cued Recall, Recognition

unified view of perception, memory

Constructive Activity in Conscious Cognition - Perceptual Construction • Builds Up Representation of Present Experience - Memory Reconstruction • Builds Up a Representation of Past Experience • Unconscious Cognition - Implicit Perception • "Subliminal" Perception - Implicit Memory • Priming Effects in Amnesia - and "Subliminal" Perception

Ideation in Delay of Gratification

Consummatory • Look at the marshmallows. They are sweet and chewy and soft. When you look at marshmallows, think about how sweet they are when you eat them.... When you look at marshmallows, think about how soft and sticky they are in your mouth when you eat them.... • Look at the pretzels; they are crunchy and salty. When you look at pretzels, think about how crunchy they are. When you look at pretzels, think about how salty they taste when you lick them or chew them... Transformative • When you look at marshmallows, think about how white and puffy they are. Clouds are white and puffy too -- when you look at marshmallows, think about clouds.... The moon is round and white. When you look at marshmallows, think about the moon.... • When you look at pretzels you can think about how long and brown they are. A log is long and brown. When you look at pretzels, think about logs and tree trunks. Or you can think about how round and tall they are. A pole is round and tall....

Contiguity vs. Contingency in conditioning

Contiguity: CS co-occurs with the US: they are contiguous, or close together, in space and time.Contingency: the CS predicts the US: the occurrence of the US is contingent on the prior occurrence of the CS. Contiguity - CS Co-Occurs with US • Contingency - CS Predicts US • Standard Paradigm - CS, US both Contingent and Contiguous • Delay, Trace Conditioning - CS, US Contingent but Not Contiguous • Simultaneous Conditioning - CS, US Contiguous but not Contingent • Backwards Conditioning, Extinction (Below Zero) - CS Predicts Absence of US Informational Value of the CS • When the US is Contingent on the CS, then the CS Provides Information About the US • Conditioning Occurs Because the CS Provides Information about US • Conditioning Does Not Occur When the CS is Not Informative

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Contrasting Views of Perception • Ecological View - Perception given by information in stimulus - Perceive the world, as it is, directly • Constructivist View - Perception "goes beyond the information given" - Actively construct mental representation of world

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

extrapolation problem

Dangerous and strongly discouraged because the relationship between x and y may be different outside the range of observed x's Quickly Estimate the Following Product: 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1 or 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8

Big Five Personality Traits

Costa & McCrae (1992), after Norman (1968) also Goldberg (1990); Wiggins (1990); John (1990) • Extraversion - Sociable, Forceful, Energetic, Adventurous, Enthusiastic, Outgoing • Neuroticism - Tense, Irritable, Discontented, Shy, Moody, Un-Self-Confident • Agreeableness - Forgiving, Undemanding, Warm, Not Stubborn, Not a Show-Off, Sympathetic • Conscientiousness - Efficient, Organized, Not Careless, Thorough, Not Lazy, Not Impulsive • Openness to Experience - Curious, Imaginative, Artistic, Wide Interests, Excitable, Unconventional A Universally Applicable Structure of Personality Is s/he Outgoing? Is s/he Crazy? Is s/he Friendly? Is s/he Reliable? Is s/he Interesting? • Extraversion • Neuroticism • Agreeableness • Conscientiousness • Openness to Experience Extraversion • Neuroticism - Emotional Stability • Agreeableness • Conscientiousness • Openness to Experience - Intellectance, Culturedness NEO Personality Inventory NEO Five-Factor Inventory Costa & McCrae (1985, 1992, 1999)

Altruism experiment

Darley & Latane (1968); Latane & Darley (1970) • Subjects Recruited for Experiment • Sit in Room, Fill Out Questionnaires - Seated Alone or With Others • Experimenter Departs • Staged Emergency - Smoke through Ventilator - Fall in Next Room

categories as proper sets

Defining Features • Vertical Arrangement into Hierarchies - Perfect Nesting • Superordinate (Supersets) • Subordinate (Subsets) Horizontal Relations - "All or None" - Sharp Boundaries Homogeneous Internal Structure - All Instances Are Equally Good • All Share Same Set of Defining Features Problems with Classical View of _______ _________ _______ _______• Disjunctive Categories - Baseball Strike • Swing and Miss • Pitch in Strike Zone • Foul Ball • Called Strike - Jazz • Blues • Swing (Standards) Disjunctive Categories • Unclear Category Membership - Is a Rug an Article of Furniture? - Is a Pickle a Vegetable? Difficult to Specify Defining Features - Required to Define Category - Required to Assign Category Membership Imperfect Nesting - "Tangled Hierarchy" Variations in Typicality - Birds: Sparrow vs. Chicken

deviance

Defining Psychological __________From (Presumed) Normality Bootzin et. al. (1980) • From Statistical Norms - Frequency Criterion - Positive Deviations? • IQ and Intellectual Disability - All Negative Deviations? • Extraversion and Shyness From Social Norms - Compliance Criterion - Variance Across Cultures • Political dissidents in Soviet Union, China - Variance Across Time within Cultures • Homosexuality Personal Distress - Subjective Criterion - The Problem of Self-Perception • Schizophrenia, Personality Disorders - Ego-Syntonic vs. Ego-Dystonic Symptoms Maladaptiveness - Harmfulness Criterion - Criminal Behavior • The Insanity Defense

normality

Defining Psychological ___________(A Prototype) Bootzin et al. (1980) • Accurate, Efficient Mental Function - Cognition, Emotion, Motivation, Behavior • Self-Awareness • Self-Control • Self-Esteem • Social Relations Based on Affection • Productivity, Creativity

law of mass action

Degree of Memory Impairment is Correlated with the Extent of Cortical Damage • - Exact Site of Damage Does Not Matter • Specific Items of Knowledge are Distributed Widely within Cerebral Cortex - Involve Large Ensembles of Neurons • Knowledge Preserved So Long as Critical Mass of Neural Tissue is Preserved

Vulnerability

Depressogenic Schemata - Depressogenic Attributional Style

"Cogito, Ergo Sum" "I Think, Therefore I Am

Descartes, Discourse on Method (1637)

types of statistics

Descriptive • Central Tendency - Mean - Average (M) - Median - Midpoint (Mdn) - Mode - Most Frequent (Mo) • Variability (Dispersion) - Standard Deviation (SD) • Variance (Var) - Standard Error of the Mean (SEM) Inferential • t-test (t) • Correlation Coefficient (r) • Analysis of Variance (F) • Multi

Diagnosis as Categorization

Diagnosis Classifies Patient - Symptoms are Features - Syndromes are Categories • Diagnosis as Feature-Matching - Match Patient's Symptoms to Syndrome • Diagnostic & Statistical Manual (DSM) - American Psychiatric Association - "Official" List of Syndromes, Features • Used for Classifying Mental Illnesses

Expectancy Confirmation Effects

Diagnosis as Expectancy - Behavioral Confirmation - Perceptual Confirmation - Effects on Self-Construa

Diathesis and Stress as Person-Situation Interaction

Diatheses are Internal, Personal Factors - Origins in Genetic Endowment - Origins in History of Social Learning • Stressors are Features of the Environment - Biological in Nature - Psychosocial in Nature Episodes of Mental Illness Emerge from the Interaction of the Person and the Environment

sensory modalities

Different forms of sensation (e.g., touch, pain, pressure, heat, cold, vision, taste, hearing, and smell). different forms of sensation different forms of sensation (touch, pain, pressure, heat, cold, vision, taste, hearing, and smell) The Sensory Modalities Sherrington (1906) Exteroception • Distance Senses - Vision - Audition • Chemical Senses - Gustation - Olfaction • Skin (Cutaneous) Senses - Touch (Tactile) - Temperature (Thermal) - Pain (Nociception) Proprioception • Kinesthesis • Equilibrium (Vestibular) • (Skin Senses) - Touch - Temperature - Pain Interoception Defining the Sensory Modalities • Proximal Stimulus • Receptor Organ • Sensory Tract • Projection Area Distance Senses - Vision - Audition • Chemical Senses - Gustation - Olfaction • Skin Senses - Touch (Tactile) - Temperature (Thermal) - Pain (Nociception) • Proprioception - Kinesthesis - Equilibrium (Vestibular Recap: Defining the Modality of Sensation • Proximal Stimulus • Receptor Organ • Afferent Tract • Projection Area Defining a Sensory Modality by Proximal Stimulation • Vision Rods, Cones in Retina • Audition Hair Cells in Cochlea • Olfaction Olfactory Epithelium • Gustation Taste Buds • Touch Cutaneous Receptors • Temperature Krause bulbs, Ruffini organs • Pain A-delta, C fibers • Kinesthesis Spindles, Golgi Organs • Equilibrium Hair Cells in Inner Ear Defining a Sensory Modality by Projection Area • Vision Primary Visual Area • Audition Primary Auditory Area • Olfaction Primary Olfactory Cortex • Gustation Primary Gustatory Cortex • Touch Primary Somatosensory Cortex • Temperature Somatosensory Cortex • Pain Somatosensory Cortex • Kinesthesis Somatosensory Cortex • Equilibrium Cerebellum

Discrimination, Loss of Status

Direct - Structural - Self-concept

Stereotyping and Stigma

Dominance of First Impressions - Diagnoses as Labels • Tend to "Stick"

Diathesis and Stress in Adolescent Conduct Disorder

Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study Caspi et al. (2002) • Adolescent Conduct Disorder in Boys - Aggression, Antisocial Behavior • Diathesis: MAOA Gene - Promotes Monoamine Oxidase - A • Located on X Chromosome • Metabolizes Many Neurotransmitters • Linked to Aggression in Mice, Humans • Stress: History of Maltreatment - Initiates "Cycle of Violence"

Diathesis and Stress in Depression

Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study Caspi et al. (2003) • Major Depressive Illness • Diathesis: 5-HTT Gene - Located on Chromosome 17 • 2 Alleles, "Short" and "Long" - 4 Genotypes: SS, SL or LS, and LL - Serotonin Transporter • Serotonin Linked to Depression in Humans • Efficacy of SSRIs like Prozac, Zoloft • Stress: Stressful Life Events - Occurring Between Age 21-26

Diathesis and Stress in Psychosis

Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study Caspi et al. (2005) • "Psychotic" Symptoms at Age 26 - "Schizophreniform" Hallucinations/Delusions • Diathesis: COMT Gene - Located on Chromosome 22 • 2 Alleles, "MET" (Methionine) and "Val" (Valine) - 4 Genotypes: MetMet, MetVal or ValMet, ValVal - Involved in Metabolism of Dopamine • MetMet, Fastest Breakdown; ValVal, Slowest Breakdown - Linked to Schizophrenia • Stress: Adolescent Marijuana Use - At Least Once Per Month Prior to Age 18

Group Therapy

Economic Advantage - Efficiency • Modeling • Social Support • Social Context • "Safe Place" for Practice

Escapable vs. Inescapable Shock

Escapable vs. Inescapable Shock

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Every Child Is... Born to Different Parents Raised in a Different Family Lives in a Different Neighborhood Attends a Different School and Worships in a Different Church

psychophysical principle

Every Psychological Quality of a Sensory Experience is Related to Some Physical Property of the Corresponding Stimulus

People Create Their Own Environments

Evocation - Selection - Behavioral Manipulation - Cognitive Transformation

Preparedness Argument

Evolved Predisposition as Diathesis • Fear Dark, Heights, Open Spaces, Certain Animals

evocation

Examples of __________• "Mere Presence" Effects - Social Facilitation - Social Inhibition • Gender-Role Socialization - Male/Female External Genitalia - Sociocultural Standards for Gender Role • Masculinity • Femininity

Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia

Excess Activity of Dopamine - Neurotransmitter • Active in Dorso-Lateral Prefrontal Cortex - Causes Attentional Deficit, Symptoms • Phenothiazine Treatment of Schizophrenia - Blocks Neural Receptors for Dopamine • Impairs Uptake by Post-Synaptic Neurons • Post-Mortem Data, Brain-Imaging - Increased Brain Dopamine? - Increased Dopamine Receptors?

Explicit and Implicit Memory

Explicit Memory - Conscious Recollection • Free Recall, Cued Recall, Recognition • Any Effect of a Past Event on Experience, Thought, or Action - Absence of Conscious Recollection Dissociation: Implicit Memory Preserved in the Absence of Explicit Memory

Recovery chizophrenia

Expressed Emotion - Developed vs. Developing Societies

Perceptual-Motor Theory of Emotion

Expressive-Motor Processing - Subjective Feelings - Expressive Reactions • Schematic/Perceptual Memory - Records Emotional Episodes - Automatic Activation - Rapid Evaluation • Conceptual/Abstract Memory - Declarative Knowledge About Emotion - Nonverbal Codes for Recognition, Enactment

facial expressions of emotion

Facial movements that express emotions including surprise, fear, disgust, anger, happiness, and sadness. Men and women students watched film clips that were sad, happy, or frightening. Measures taken during their viewing of films showed that the genders differed the most in their: anger, happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, and sadness Darwin, The Expression of the Emotions in Men and Animals (1872) Ekman & Friesen (1975) • Verbal vs. Nonverbal Communication expressions follow emotions

Etiology of Mental Illness

Factors include complex issues, social factors, psychological factors, chemical factors

Response to Aversive Stimulation

Failure of Avoidance Learning - No Response to Punishment

Pseudohermaphroditism in Genetic Males (XY)

Failure of Mullerian-Inhibiting Substance - Male and Female Internal Reproductive System • Masculine External Genitalia - Raised as Boys • Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome - Failure to Masculinize External Genitalia - Surgical Correction - Typically Raised as Girls • Natural Estrogen Feminizes Physique • Do Not Menstruate; Infertile • Klinefelter's Syndrome: 47XXY - Feminized Physique, Infertility - Hormone Therapy to Replace Testosterone • Guevodoces - 5-α-Reductase Deficiency Syndrome - Apparently Female External Genitalia • Raised as Girls - Masculinization at Puberty • Recognized as Boys

Open Systems Model

Family Organization Triggers Child's Symptoms - Child's Symptoms Maintain Family Organization

positive feedback

Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output. A type of regulation that responds to a change in conditions by initiating responses that will amplify the change. Takes organism away from a steady state. A physiological control mechanism in which a change in some variable triggers mechanisms that amplify the change. - Vicious (and Virtuous) Cycles

Psychosocial Consequences of Pseudohermaphroditism in Genetic Females (XX)

Female Adrenogenital Syndrome Progestin-Induced Pseudohermaphroditism • Identified, Raised as Girls - Surgical Correction of External Genitalia • Develop Feminine Physical Features - Cortisone Therapy Needed in FAS • Adopt Feminine Gender Identity, Role

Theory-Formation as Learning

Forms of Learning - Learning from Conditional Probabilities • Classical Conditioning - Learning from Interventions • Instrumental Conditioning - Observational Learning • Precept • Example

time dependency

Four Hypotheses Concerning _______ ______ • Decay - Memories "Fade" with Time • Displacement - Loss from Storage • Consolidation - Encoding Takes Time • Interference - Failure of Retrieval Four Factors in ________ ________ • Decay - Sensory Registers • Displacement - Sensory Registers • Masking in "Subliminal" Perception - Short-Term Memory • Consolidation - Traumatic Retrograde Amnesia • Interference - Long-Term Memory (Episodic or Semantic)

psychologys most telling contributions to date

Francis Galton - Hereditary Genius (1869) - Anthropometrics • Correlation Coefficient - Eugenics Movement • Alfred Binet - Binet-Simon Test (1905) • Theodule Simon

War of the Ghosts

Frederic Bartlett's most famous study which demonstrated the constructive nature of memory, and how it can be influenced by the subject's own schema. Native American Folktale Collected by Franz Boas Bartlett (1932) One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals, and while they were there it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war-cries, and they thought: "Maybe this is a war-party". They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles, and saw one canoe coming up to them. There were five men in the canoe, and they said: "What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people". One of the young men said: "I have no arrows". "Arrows are in the canoe", they said. "I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you", he said, turning to the other, "may go with them". So one of the young men went, but the other returned home.And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water, and they began to fight, and many were killed. But presently the young man heard one of the warriors say: "Quick, let us go home: that Indian has been hit". Now he thought: "Oh, they are ghosts". He did not feel sick, but they said he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went ashore to his house, and made a fire. And he told everybody and said: "Behold I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed, and many of those who attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, and I did not feel sick". He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose he fell down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead. Memory Errors in The ____ ____ _____ ______ Bartlett (1932) • Errors of Omission - Progressive Forgetting • Gist vs. Minor Details - Unexpected Details • Errors of Commission - Rationalization - Transformation of Detail - Transformation of Orde

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight. A method of studying how the mind works and treating mental disorders

Nature and Nurture in Development

Galton (1874), inspired by Shakespeare's The Tempest Prospero on Caliban: "A devil, a born devil, on whose nature Nurture can never stick." "...a convenient jingle of words, for it separates under two distinct heads the innumerable elements of which personality is composed..."

theory of multiple intelligences

Gardner's intelligence theory that proposes that there are eight distinct spheres of intelligence Gardner's theory that each person has several distinct forms of intelligence Theory that everyone has a variety of intelligences that are used in combination to solve problems and perform tasks (Gardner). Multiple Intelligences • Linguistic • Logical-Mathematical • Spatial • Musical • Bodily-Kinesthetic • Intrapersonal • Interpersonal Evidence • Isolation by Brain Damage • Exceptional Cases • Identifiable Core Operations • Psychometric Tests • Experimental Tasks

"Counting Principles" in Pre-Operational Children

Gelman & Gallistel (1978) • One-to-One Correspondence • Stable Order • Cardinality

Gender Dimorphism Beyond Reproductive Anatomy

Gender Identity - Male, Female - Transgendered • Gender Role - Masculine - Feminine • Erotic Orientation - Heterosexual, Homosexual - Bisexual, Asexual

COMT Gene

Gene which has a variation which results in higher levels of dopamine and this variation is more common in patients with OCD Involved in the production of Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), which regulates dopamine. One mutation of the COMT gene is common in those with OCD, as it produces less COMT and more dopamine (Tukel et al). Regulates the production of dopamine

Objective and Subjective Environments

General Tendencies are Not Strong Predictors of Actual Behavior in Specific Situations - Actual Behavior is also Determined by Specific Details of the Evoking Situation • The Situation is Not Independent of the Person - People can Manipulate the Objective Situation Through Their Overt Behavior - People can Transform the Subjective Situation Through Mental Operations • Cognitive, Emotional, Motivational Strategies

Schizophrenia and Unipolar Affective Disorder

Genetic Component - Nonshared Environment - Communication Deviance

expected value theory

Get the highest expected value (Probability obtain) X (value) Value = Outcome x Probability • Gamble A: 1/3 chance of winning $75 - Expected Value = $75 x 1/3 = $25 • Gamble B: 1/2 chance of winning $40 - Expected Value = $40 x 1/2 = $20 Violations: Lottery - 1 in 1,000,000 Chance of Winning $1,000,000 • Expected Value: $1 • But People Buy Lottery Tickets Anyway • Choice Between Gambles - 1/3 Chance of $75 vs. 1/2 Chance of $40 - Choose Gamble with Highest Odds - Choose the Gamble with the Highest Utility • Surplus Value

ecological view of perception

Gibson; using information from the environment to support actions (i.e. driving) the stimuli in the environment provide all that we need for perception the view that perception functions to bring organisms in contact with the environment and to increase adaptation James J. Gibson (1950, 1966, 1979) Eleanor J. Gibson (1967) • Stimulus provides information • Perception involves extracting this information • Direct Perception (Direct Realism) - All information needed for perception is supplied by the stimulus - No need for "higher" cognitive activity - Learn to extract relevant information • Exploration of object • All information is available "in the light" applications: Motion Perception - Is the Object Stable or Moving? • Depth Perception - Is the Object Near or Far? • Perception of Plasticity - Is the Object Rigid or Flexible? The stimulus: Distal Stimulus - Object of Regard • Surrounding Stimulus Field - Environmental Context • Exteroceptive Stimuli - Information from Perceiver's Body • Proprioceptive Stimuli

committee problem

Given a Group of 10 People... - How Many Different Committees of 2 People Can You Create? - How Many Different Committees of 8 People? The number of committees of k people that can be formed from a group of N people is given by the binomial coefficient (N k) For committees of 2: (10 2) = 45 For committees of 8: (10 8) = 45 • From a group of 10 people, the creation of every committee of 2 automatically creates another committee of 8 (10-2)!

Stability Across Time

Greatest Over Short Intervals • Greatest at Superordinate Levels of Analysis • Tertiary Traits • Secondary Traits • Primary Traits • Habitual Actions • Specific Actions

Mental

Illness Analogous to Physical Illness • Abnormalities in Mental Structure, Function - Cognition • Alzheimer's Disease, Dementia • Schizophrenia - Emotion • Anxiety Disorders • Affective Disorders (Mania, Depression) - Motivation • Psychopathy (Antisocial Personality Disorder) • Results in Abnormal, Maladaptive Behavior

Patient K.F suffered:

Impaired working memory, but intact longterm memory. Also known as retrograde amnesia Left Parieto-Occipital Area • Impaired Digit Span - Impaired Short-Term Memory • Normal Free Recall of 10-Item Lists - Normal Long-Term Memory

aquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Learning has taken place once the animals respond to the CS without presentation of the US. process of developing a learned response CR to CS Reinforced by US - Response Gains Strength • Magnitude of CR • Probability of CR

The Origins of Uniqueness

Individual Creates Unique Environment - Evocation - Selection - Behavioral Manipulation - Cognitive Transformation • Unique Environment Reciprocally Creates Unique Individual Widely Shared General Processes Produce Uniqueness in Human Personality

Murray's Needs

Interaction - Personal Need (n) - Environmental Press (p) • Three Great Social Motives - Achievement - Power - Affiliation (Intimacy)

Interaction in Mental Illness

Interaction of Diathesis and Stress - Biological and Psychosocial • Genotypes not Decisive for Phenotypes - Importance of Nonshared Environment • Drugs Useful, but Far from Cures - Magnified, Complemented by Psychotherapy • Cognitive-Behavioral Psychotherapy - Focus on "Here and Now" - Acquire New, More Adaptive Knowledge, Beliefs • Behavior Change Flows from Cognitive Change

Interaction in Development

Interaction of Genes and Environments - Genotypes not Decisive for Phenotypes • Interaction of Child with Environment - Child as Agent of His/Her Own Development - Across the Lifespan, from Birth to Death • Importance of Non-Shared Environment - Key to Uniqueness of the Individual

a

Interactions Between Encoding and Retrieval Processes • Retrieval Cues Can Compensate for Poor Encoding - Cued Recall, Recognition • "Deep" Encoding Can Compensate for Impoverished Retrieval Cues - Elaboration, Organization • Encoding Sets the Stage for Retrieval - Encoding Constrains Retrieval

Personal Determinants of Behavior

Internal States and Dispositions • Traits (Behavioral Dispositions) • Attitudes (Evaluative Dispositions) • Emotions (Feeling States) • Motives (Drive States) • Values (Priorities) • Beliefs (Personal Convictions) measuring the _______ ________ __ __________: Self-Reports - Questionnaires - Rating Scales • Objective Behavioral Observations - Record Behavioral Frequencies - Rate Behaviors

taxes

Involve entire body. the movement of an organism in response to a stimulus such as light or the presence of food. Taxes are innate behavioural responses. Gross Orientation Responses - Entire Skeletal Musculature • Positive vs. Negative • Phototaxes • Geotaxes

a

Is a Tomato a Fruit or a Vegetable? Nix v. Hedden (1893) • Tariff Act of 1883 - Duty on Vegetables "In Natural State" - No Duty on Fruits • Customs Collector for Port of New York - Declared Tomatoes to be Vegetables • International Tomato Cartel - Sued, Took Case to US Supreme Court • Justice Gray, for a Unanimous Court

Tabula Rasa

John Locke's concept of the mind as a blank sheet ultimately bombarded by sense impressions that, aided by human reasoning, formulate ideas.

The Word Letter Phenomenon

Johnston & McClelland (1974), after Reicher (1969), Wheeler (1970) • Word Superiority Effect - COIN vs. JOIN > C vs. J • Detect Letter in 4-Letter String - Words (COIN) vs. Random Strings (CPRD) • Instructional Conditions - "Try to see the whole word" - "Fixate on particular letter position"

Dimensions of Social Stigma

Jones et al. (1984) • Concealable - Can the Person "Pass" for "Normal"? • Course of the Mark - Stigma Becomes More Apparent Over Time • Disruptiveness - Does Stigma Impair Social Interactions? • Aesthetics - Other People's Reactions to the Stigma • Origin - Congenital or Acquired? • Peril - Danger to Other People

doctrine of specific fiber energies

Just as Every Modality of Sensation is Mediated by a Specific Neural System, so... Within each Modality, Every Quality of Sensation is Mediated by a Specific Neural System Helmholtz (1863, 1866), after Muller (1826)

Hypnosis and "Hysteria"

Kihlstrom (1979) • Suggested Alterations in Consciousness - Perception • Hypnotic Blindness, Deafness, Analgesia - Parallel Symptoms of Conversion Disorders - Memory • Posthypnotic Amnesia - Parallels Symptoms of Dissociative Disorders • Dissociations in Hypnosis and "Hysteria" - Explicit and Implicit Perception, Memory • Parallel Findings in Dissociative, Conversion Disorders

Academic Motivation

Kindermann (1993) • Cliques in 4th and 5th grade - "Brains" vs. "Slackers" • Instability in Clique Membership • Children's Attitudes Changed After They Changed Cliques - IQ Remained Constant - Parental Influence Remained Constant

Psychopathy

Linking Laboratory Models to Psychological Deficits Gorenstein & Newman (1980) • Response to Aversive Stimulation - Failure of Avoidance Learning - No Response to Punishment • Septal Lesions in Rats - Freezing When Punished - Passive Avoidance - Delay of Gratification

Cognition as an Active Process

Learning - Information about Prediction, Control • Sensation - Signal-Detection as Judgment • Perception - Constructive Problem-Solving • Memory - Reconstructive Problem-Solving • Thought - Judgment Under Uncertainty

explicit learning

Learning that involves conscious awareness of what has been learned. being consciously aware of learning something Conscious Access to Knowledge • Semantic, Procedural - Acquired Through Experience • Not Merely Incidental Learning

Social Learning

Learning through observing others. process of altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others a theory that suggests we learn social behaviors by watching and imitating others

thinking

Learning, Perception, and Memory Rely on _______• Learning - Classical Conditioning • How can I predict some event? - Instrumental Conditioning • How can I control that event? • Perception - What is out there? Where is it? What is it doing? • Memory - What happened in the past?

neuron, nerves, ganglia, nunclei, brain, spinal cord, brainstem, nervous system, person

Levels of Neural Organization: Cell ____ Tissue: ______, _________, _________ organ: ________, _______ _______, _________ system: ___________ organism: __________

How Language Shapes Thought

Linguistic Relativity, Framing, and Semantic Slanting A hallmark feature of human intelligence is its adaptability, the ability to invent and rearrange conceptions of the world to suit changing goals and environments. One consequence of this flexibility is the great diversity of languages that have emerged around the globe. Each provides its own cognitive toolkit and encapsulates the knowledge and worldview developed over thousands of years within a culture. Each contains a way of perceiving, categorizing, and making meaning in the world...."

Components of the Stigma of Mental Illness

Link & Phelan (2001) • Social Selection - Identifies, Labels Differences • Stereotyping • "Us" vs. "Them" • Discrimination, Loss of Status - Direct - Structural - Self-concept • Exercise of Power

Cerebellum

Located in the hind brain. A large structure of the hindbrain that controls fine motor skills. coordinates sensation, action

pons

Located in the hindbrain, sleep and arousal, regulates cortical arousal

medulla

Located in the hindbrain. controls heartbeat and breathing, vegitative functions

Thalamus

Located in the the forebrain. the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla. It is the sensory relay station. Alerting and interruption

5-HTT Gene

Located on Chromosome 17 • 2 Alleles, "Short" and "Long" - 4 Genotypes: SS, SL or LS, and LL - Serotonin Transporter • Serotonin Linked to Depression in Humans • Efficacy of SSRIs like Prozac, Zoloft

COMT Gene

Located on Chromosome 22 • 2 Alleles, "MET" (Methionine) and "Val" (Valine) - 4 Genotypes: MetMet, MetVal or ValMet, ValVal - Involved in Metabolism of Dopamine • MetMet, Fastest Breakdown; ValVal, Slowest Breakdown - Linked to Schizophrenia

Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Variance

MZ = 1.00 DZ = 0.50 T = G + E G = 2 * (MZ - DZ) G = 2 * (1.00 - 0.50) G = 2 * (0.50) G = 1.00 E = ES + ENS ENS = 1 - MZ ENS = 1 - 1.00 ENS = 0.00 ES = 1 - G - ENS ES = 1 - 1.00 - 0.00 ES = 0.00 MZ = 0.50 DZ = 0.40 T = G + E G = 2 * (MZ - DZ) G = 2 * (0.50 - 0.40) G = 2 * (0.10) G = 0.20 E = ES + ENS ENS = 1 - MZ ENS = 1 - 0.50 ENS = 0.50 ES = 1 - G - ENS ES = 1 - 0.20 - 0.50 ES = 0.30 MZ = 0.80 DZ = 0.70 T = G + E G = 2 * (MZ - DZ) G = 2 * (0.80 - 0.70) G = 2 * (0.10) G = 0.20 E = ES + ENS ENS = 1 - MZ ENS = 1 - 0.80 ENS = 0.20 ES = 1 - G - ENS ES = 1 - 0.20 - 0.20 ES = 0.60 MZ = 0.50 DZ = 0.25 T = G + E G = 2 * (MZ - DZ) G = 2 * (0.50 - 0.25) G = 2 * (0.25) G = 0.50 E = ES + ENS ENS = 1 - MZ ENS = 1 - 0.50 ENS = 0.50 ES = 1 - G - ENS ES = 1 - 0.50 - 0.50 ES = 0.00

Recognition of Gender

Maccoby & Jacklin (1974); Maccoby (1998) • Age 2 - Recognize Others - Gender Typing - Pronouns - Own Photograph - Positive Valence - Modeling • Age 3 - Object Preference

Connecting the Clinic to the Lab

Maher (1966); Kihlstrom & McGlynn (1991) • Beyond Symptoms to Pathology - Underlying Causes - Correlated Biological Processes • New Ways of Formulating Theory - Working Laboratory Simulations • New Diagnostic Tools - Laboratory Tests, Not Symptom Checklists

Working Memory in Schizophrenia

Maintains Information in an Active State - Permits Further Information Processing - Critical for Selective Attention • Focusing on Task-Relevant Information • Inhibition of Task-Irrelevant Information • Critical for "Higher" Cognitive Functions - Memory Encoding and Retrieval - Reasoning and Problem-solving - Language Sternberg Paradigm - Memorize Study Set • Varies from 2-8 Letters - Find Target • Accuracy, Response Latency Schizophrenics vs. Normals - Matched for Demographic Variables - Patients Taking Medication Components - Modality-Specific Buffers • Support Rehearsal - Hold Information in Active State • Inferior/Posterior Prefrontal Cortex - Central Executive • Guides Information-Processing - Manipulation/Transformation of Information • Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex - Supported by Dopamine System? • Represent, Maintain Contextual Information - Relevant to Current Tasks

elaboration principle

Memory is a function of the degree to which an event is related to pre-existing knowledge.

perception as Effort after meaning

Making sense of something unfamiliar after it has happened Constructive Activity - "Build Up" Mental Representation of World - Test a Hypothesis About the World • Goes "Beyond the Information Given" - Draws on Memory - Invokes Judgment, Reasoning, Inference

Outcome of Fetal Gender Differentiation

Male Reproductive Anatomy: • Internal - Testes - Vas Deferens - Seminal Vesicles - Ejaculatory Ducts • External - Penis - Scrotum Female Reproductive Anatomy: • Internal - Ovaries - Uterus - Fallopian Tubes • External - Clitoris - Vagina

birdsong

Males Sing Characteristic Song - Territorial dialects • "Learned" Through Exposure • Critical Period • Female Response to Song - Testosterone • Template Refined Through Experience Parallels Between _____ and Human Speech:Universal • No Reinforcement • Critical Period - Isolation Until Puberty • Second-Language Accent

cognitive theory of arousal

Mandler (1975, 1984) • Arousal as Response to Discrepancy - Expectations - Intentions - Habits • Arousal Elicits Attention • Emotion Determined by Cognitive Evaluation - Source of Discrepancy - Context of Arousal

Beyond Symptoms to Underlying Pathology

Medicine: • Anatomical Lesions • Physiological Malfunction • Infection - Virus, Bacteria, Fungi Psychopathology : • Psychological Deficits - Mental Structures - Mental Processes - Neural Substrates? • Maladaptive Mental Contents - Thoughts, Beliefs, Expectations - Feelings, Desires - Product of Social Learning

Validity

Meehl (1945); Cronbach & Meehl (1955); Loevinger (1957) • Content - Universe of Content • Face - Intuitive • Empirical - External • Construct - Theory

Diathesis-Stress Model of the Etiology of Mental Illness

Meehl (1962); Rosenthal (1963) Monroe & Simons (1991); Belsky & Pleuss (2009) • Diathesis - Predisposition - Vulnerability ("At Risk") - Adaptation • "Good" vs. "Poor" Premorbid Adjustment • Stress - Challenge to Current Level of Adaptation - Precipitates Acute Episode • But Only in Vulnerable Individuals

nonsense syllable paradigm

Memorize List of Nonsense Syllables - Consonant-Vowel-Consonant (e.g., TUL) - Memorized in Strict Serial Order DAJ - GEX - MUB - TEV - WOL • Associations by contiguity - Each CVC serves as stimulus for next one - Each CVC is a response to the previous one • Vary number of repetitions • Savings in Relearning after 24 hours

time-dependency principle

Memory diminishes as a function of the length of the retention interval. restated:Memory diminishes with time, mostly by virtue of interference among competing memories. Retroactive Proactive

Schematic Processing Principle

Memory for a specific event is a function of the relationship between that event and pre-existing schemata (knowledge, expectations, beliefs) Memory is a function of the relationship between an event and pre-existing schemata. • Schema-relevant events are remembered better than schema-irrelevant events. • Among schema-relevant events, schemaincongruent events are remembered better than schema-congruent events

Sternberg Experiment

Memory-Scanning - Memorize Study Set(1-7 items, probe) Search Process - Serial versus Parallel • Response Latency to Say "Yes" - Function of Set Size - "Yes" < "No Results (1966), Exp. 1 • Independent Variable - Set Size • Dependent Variable - Response Latency ● "Yes" ○ "No"

Mental Health Parity

Mental Health Parity Act (1996) • Annual/Lifetime Dollar Limits - Medical/Surgical - Mental Health • Deductibles, Co-Payments • Exemptions - Substance Abuse, Chemical Dependency

Facial Image Preference

Mita et al. (1977) • Facial Photographs of Women Original Mirror-Reversed • Acquaintance Should Prefer Original - As S/he Usually Sees Her • Person Should Prefer Mirror Reversal - As She Sees Herself in Mirror

scales of measurement

Nominal or Categorical - Numbers are Labels • Ordinal - Numbers Represent Rank Order • Interval - Identical Intervals are Equivalent Differences • Ratio - Identical Ratios are Equivalent Proportions - True Zero

bounded rationality

Normative Rationality as Idealization - Unrealistic • Real World is Uncertain - Problems Not Well Defined - Information Available but Uneconomical - Algorithm Available but Uneconomical • Limited Information-Processing Capacity - Cannot Attend to All Relevant Information - Cannot Perform Complex Computations

Calculating the Deviation IQ

Norms for Age Groups - Age 16-75 • Z-Score: Standard Deviations from Mean - Produces "Normal" (Gaussian) Distribution 7 Assume M = 40, SD = 12 Transform to M = 100, SD = 15 Test Score Deviation IQ 40 100 28 85 52 115 16 70 64 130

Selection of Environment

Not Darwinian Selection by Environment • Selection of Environment is Ubiquitous - Every Choice Changes Environment • Social Roles - Change Environment in Which Role is Played • Source of Choice - Choices Made by Individual for Him/Herself - Choices Made for Individual by Others

controlling rewards

Not linked to competence (money, gifts) Parents will give a child $5 for every A on their report card then the child's extrinsic motivation makes them think "as long as they pay, I'll study" may cause intrinsic motivation to decrease, particularly if the reward is removed

Formal Operations

One of Piaget's stages; includes the ability to use abstract thinking philosophical thinking in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Age 12 and Up • Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning - From General Principles to Specific Instances - The Child as "Naïve Scientist" • Inductive Reasoning - From Specific Instances to General Principles • Reflective Abstraction - Reflect on Own Thoughts • Propositional Logic - If P Then Q

Diathesis and Stress in Psychosomatic Ulcers

Overmier & Murison (2000) contra Mashall & Warren (1982, 1983) • Diathesis - Bacterial Infection • helicobacter pylori • Stress - Prolonged Emotional Stress • Autonomic Nervous System activation • Laboratory Model in Rats - h. pylori Infection - Unpredictable, Uncontrollable Shock

Behavioral Manipulation

Overt Behavior • Alters Objective Environment - As Publicly Experienced by Everyone - Instrumental/Operant Behavior • Operation Changes Environment

people are stupid school of psychology

People are Fundamentally Irrational - Don't Follow Logical Principles - Don't Think Very Hard About Anything - Let Feelings, Desires Get In the Way of Thinking • People Usually Operate on "Automatic Pilot" - Swayed by First Impressions, Immediate Responses - Don't Pay Too Much Attention to Anything • People Usually Don't Know What They Are Doing - Behavior is Mostly Unconscious - "Reasons" are Post-Hoc Rationalizations - Consciousness Gets in the Way of Adaptive Behavior

a

People are Risk-Averse - Prefer "Sure Thing" to Any Risk • But People are Not Necessarily Risk-Averse - Will Accept Risks Under Certain Circumstances Risky Prospects (2) Tversky & Kahneman (1981) • Certainty: If C is Adopted - 400 People Will Die • Risky Prospects: If D is Adopted - 1/3 Probability that None Will Die - 2/3 Probability that All Will Die Which Program Do You Choose?

perceptual hypothesis testing

Perceptual Cycle Begins - Mismatch between object and schema • ... Continues - Assimilation of object to schema - Accommodation of schema to object • ... Completed - Object identified, categorized • ... Begins Anew - New surprising event If Stimulus Information Rich, Structured - Perception is Automatic • If Stimulus Information Vague, Fragmentary - Perception Requires Active Problem-Solving • Percept as Compromise - Between Expectations, Reality • Constructive Alternativism - Different Perceptions of Same Object, Event

relationship-driven effects

Person-By-Situation Interaction "Selection" • Temperamental "Fit" Between Child, Parent - Expectations, Preferences • Extraverted Child - Extraverted vs. Introverted Adult • Introverted Child - Introverted vs. Extraverted Adult

Measuring Similarity in Personality

Personality Questionnaires - Assess Individual Differences in Traits • Similarity Measured by Correlation - Strength, Direction of Relationship • Concordance Rate - % Sharing a Trait • If a Trait is Wholly Inherited - MZ twins, r = 1.00 (Concordance = 100%) - DZ twins, r = 0.50 (Concordance = 50%) - Unrelated Individuals, r = 0.00 (Concordance = 0%)

Concrete Operations

Piaget's stage in which children learn such concepts as conservation and mathematical transformations; about 7 - 11 years of age Age 7-12 • Achievement of Conservation - Take Account of Transformations • Loss of Egocentrism - Take Another's Point of View • Attention - Not Controlled by Salience • Classification by Shared Properties - Hierarchical Structure

Sensory-Motor Intelligence

Piaget's stage of development from birth to 2 years old where infants think exclusively with their senses and motor skills. Piaget's term for the way infants think by using their senses and motor skills during the first period of cognitive development (birth-2) creation of object permanence Birth to Age 2 • Unrelated Sensory Experiences "A Blooming, Buzzing Confusion" William James • Reflex-Like Motor Responses • Sensory-Motor Schemata • Failure of Object Permanence

Decalage

Piaget's term for inconsistencies in a child's cognitive development across different domains unevenness in development in any area irregular development within a Piagetian stage and/or partial advancement to the next stage; irregularity among children of the same chronological age

nonshared environment

Plomin & Daniels (1987) Why are Children From the Same Family So Different From Each Other? • Each Has a Different Genetic Heritage • Environment Beyond the Family Variability Within Families is Almost As Great as Variability Between Families

What the frog's eye tells the frog's brain

Present Visual Stimulus • Record Activity in Optic Nerve - Single Fiber (or Very Small Bundle) • Detector Types - Sustained Contrast - Net Convexity - Moving Edge - Net Dimming • "Grandmother Cells"?

library metaphor of memory

Principles of Memory • Encoding - Elaboration - Organization • Storage - Time-Dependency • Interference • Retrieval - Cue-Dependency • Availability vs. Accessibility - Encoding Specificity - Schematic Processing The Library Metaphor • Encoding - Purchase a Book - Catalog a Book • Storage - Book on Shelf • Retrieval - Look up Book in Catalog - Get Book from Shelf • Dewey Decimal System • Library of Congress - Read Contents

means-end analysis of problem-solving

Problem solving method where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems, and reduce differences between the problem and goal heuristic in which the difference between the starting situation and the goal is determined and then steps are taken to reduce that difference a process of searching for the means or steps to reduce differences between the current situation and the desired goal Elements of Problems - Givens - Goals - Transformations - Obstacles • Means-End Analysis - Represent Current State, Goal - Calculate Difference - Reduce Difference - Repeat The Tower of Hanoi • Represent Current State, Goal • Calculate Difference • Reduce Difference • Repeat

Thermoregulation

Process of maintaining an internal temperature within a tolerable range. the process by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range the maintenance of body temperature within a range that enables cells to function efficiently. Internal Body Temperature (98.6o) • Too High - Vasodilation - Sweating - Panting • Too Low - Vasoconstriction

elaboration

Processing individual items - Secondary/Long-Term Memory linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding addition of details; intricacy the formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of memory encoding not the only process that occurs during encoding item-Specific (Intra-Item) Processing Relational (Inter-Item) Processing

Cutaneous pain

Processing of pain signals in the brain that gives rise to the feeling of pain. Proximal Stimulus - Injury/Destruction of Tissue • Inflammation • Receptor Organs - Free Nerve Endings • A-delta fibers, C fibers • Sensory Tract - Neospinothalamic Tract - Paleospinothalamic Tract • Primary Somatosensory Cortex - Brodmann's Areas 1, 2, 3

olfaction

Proximal Stimulus - Chemical Molecules in Air • Dissolved in Mucous • Receptor Organ - Olfactory Epithelium • Sensory Tract - Olfactory Bulb - Olfactory Nerve (I) • Primary Olfactory Cortex - Prepyriform Cortex - Periamygdaloid Complex - Flavor, Odor

vision

Proximal Stimulus - Electromagnetic Radiation • 380-780 Nanometers - Retinal Image • Receptor Organ - Rods and Cones in Retina • Sensory Tract - Optic Nerve (II) - Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (Thalamus) • Primary Visual Cortex (V1) - Brodmann's Area 17 (Occipital Lobe) Brightness, Hue, Saturation Hue - Wavelength 465 nm 495 nm 570 nm • Saturation - Amount of Gray The Problem of Color Vision Newton (1704); Young (1802) • 7 Million Shades of Color - Hue, Brightness, Saturation • Pantone: 3,039 Specific Colors - 300 Shades of Blue The Search for Primary Colors Young (1802); Maxwell (1855) • 7 Primaries? - 4 Primaries? - 3 Primaries! • Additive Mixture Adds Colors to Black - Subtractive Mixture Eliminates Colors from White

The Genain Quadruplets

Rosenthal (1963) • "Dire Birth" - Nora - Iris - Myra - Hester

sources of Within-Family Environmental Differences

S Harris (1995, 1998, 2006), after McCartney et al. (1991) Child-Driven Effects Relationship-Driven Effects Parent-Driven Effects Family Context Effects Person-by-Situation Interaction Evocation • Gender-Role Socialization - "Baby X" Studies • Other Aspects of Physical Appearance - Pretty/Cute vs. Homely vs. "Disfigured" - Healthy vs. Ill

Multiple Personality Disorder

See Dissociative identity disorder. Psychological disorder that occurs when a person has two or more distinct, well-developed personalities. Typically the personalities are dramatically different from each other, and there is a distinct unawareness of the other personalities. Currently known as dissociative identity disorder. dissociative identity disorder

Propinquity and Classroom Friendships

Segal (1974) • Police Academy Students - Housed, Seated Alphabetically • Survey After Training - 3 Closest Friends on Force • Reciprocation Rate - Neighbor, 74% - Non-Neighbor, 42% "Propinquity Contributes to Positive Affect."

information processing view of perception

Selfridge (1957); Lindsay & Norman (1977) • Feature Detection - Analyze Stimulus - Extract Elementary Features • Pattern Recognition - Synthesize Mental Representation - Familiar, Meaningful Configurations

exteroception

Sensory information arising primarily from outside the body sensory information that comes primarily from sources outside a person's body, primarily vision and smell by which one perceives the outside world Distance Senses - Vision - Audition • Chemical Senses - Gustation - Olfaction • Skin (Cutaneous) Senses - Touch (Tactile) - Temperature (Thermal) - Pain (Nociception)

Complexity in Personality and Social Interaction

Simple System - Components are Independent - Unidirectional Causation • Complex System - Components Interact - Bidirectional Causation

intelligence beyond cognition

Social Intelligence (Thorndike, 1920) "The ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls - to act wisely in human relations" (p. 228) • Emotional Intelligence (Salovey & Mayer, 1990) "The ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one's thinking and action" (p. 189)

Social Influence in Mental Illness

Social Learning - Phobias, Obsessions, Compulsions • Social Environment - Unpredictable Anxiety - Uncontrollable Depression • Vulnerability - Depressogenic Schemata - Depressogenic Attributional Style • Relapse and Recovery in Schizophrenia - Expressed Emotion - Developed vs. Developing Societies

Social Science

Sociocultural Context of Mental Life

Environmental Contributions to Schizophrenia

Socioeconomic Status - Social Drift, not Sociogenesis • Coping Failures - Loss, Frustration • Family Maladjustment - Adoption of "At Risk" Probands

conversion disorders

Somatoform disorders in which a dramatic specific disability has no physical cause but instead seems related to psychological problems Somatoform disorders in which individuals experience serious somatomic symptoms such as fuctional blindness, deafness, and paralysis A rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. Blindness, Deafness, Tactile Anesthesia

Origins of Mental Illness

Somatogenic - "Plagues and Tangles" in Alzheimer's Disease - Dopamine Hypothesis of Schizophrenia - Monoamine Hypothesis of Depression • Norepinephrine, Serotonin • Psychogenic - Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder - Phobias as Acquired Fear - Compulsions as Avoidance Learning - Learned Helplessness in Depression

secondary reinforcement

Something that you have learned to value, like money. anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer i.e. money Any reinforcer that becomes reinforcering after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars

Matching Law

The allocations of responses to choices available on concurrent schedules of reinforcement Rates of responding across choices are distributed in proportions that match the rates of reinforcement received for each choice-alternative Concurrent VI Schedules - Give Organism a Choice • Key A: VI3 • Key B: VI1 • Response Rate is Proportional to the Frequency of Reinforcement - Also Magnitude, Delay of Reinforcement • Basic Principle of Microeconomics - Supply and Demand • Relative Value of Reinforcers

law of regression

The hypothesis, proposed by Ribot, that the likelihood that a particular memory will be lost due to injury is inversely related to the time elapsed between the event to be remembered and the injury. Where a property is "over improved" relative to other surrounding properties in the area that are of lesser value. Ribot (1882) • Path of Dissolution of Memory - Recent Events - General Ideas - Feelings - Acts

re-acquisition

The process by which a conditioned stimulus re-acquires the ability to elicit a previously extinguished response. CS Reinforced by US - Savings in Relearning

Depolarization

The process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive.

expected utility theory

The idea that people are basically rational, so if they have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the most beneficial result. people make decisions by considering the possible alternatives and choosing the most desirable one A normative model of decision making in which the decision maker weights the personal importance and the probabilities of different outcomes in choosing among alternatives in order to maximize overall satisfaction of personal goals. Determinants of Utility - Value = Outcome x Probability - Risk Aversion - Assets and Preferences • Problems - Preference Reversals • Utilities Depend on Probability - Framing Effects Subjective Expected Utility Theory

the Embodied Mind

The mind as created by the brain along with the rest of the body -mind is not separate from our body-->our cognition depends on our way of being in the world -mind is not separate from our environment-->response to challenges, creativity Niedenthal (2007); Niedenthal et al. (2005); Proffitt (2006) • Mind Not Separate from the Body - Descartes Was Wrong • Mental Architecture Not "Amodal" • Mental Representations and Processes Are Grounded in their Physical Context • Embodied Emotion - Emotional States Derived from Bodily States - Emotional States Expressed in Bodily States

perceptual cycle

The process whereby our schemas guide our exploration of the world and in turn are shaped by what we find there. The process whereby our schema not only guides exploration of the world, but also is shaped by what it finds there The process whereby our schemata guide our exploration of the world and in turn are shaped by what we find there "Perception is where cognition and reality meet"

The Program for Gender Dimorphism

The program for gender dimorphism passes from the genes and the hormones to the child's autobiographical history and thereafter is continually exchanged between the biological and the social environment

the flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years A worldwide increase in IQ scores over the last several decades, at a rate of about 3 points per decade

Temperature

The thermal sense Proximal Stimulus - Temperature Differential • Receptor Organ - Krause End-Bulbs - Ruffini End-Organs • Sensory Tract - Spinal Nerves - (Afferent) Cranial Nerves • Primary Somatosensory Cortex - Brodmann's Areas 1, 2, 3

Hopelessness Theory of Depression

The view that whether a person becomes hopeless and depressed depends upon a person making a stable and global attribution for negative life events and the severity of those negative life events Proposed that having a pessimistic attributional style in conjunction with one or more negative life events was not sufficient to produce depression unless one first experienced a state of hopelessness. The view that depression-prone individuals make internal, stable, and global attributions to explain the cause of negative events, and external, unstable, and specific attributions about positive events. This attributional style results in the individual taking personal blame for negative events in his or her life and leads to helplessness, avoidance, and hopelessness about the future, which promotes further depression

Hopelessness Theory of Depression

The view that whether a person becomes hopeless and depressed depends upon a person making a stable and global attribution for negative life events and the severity of those negative life events Proposed that having a pessimistic attributional style in conjunction with one or more negative life events was not sufficient to produce depression unless one first experienced a state of hopelessness. The view that whether a person becomes hopeless and depressed depends upon a person making a stable and global attribution for negative life events and the severity of those negative life events Proposed that having a pessimistic attributional style in conjunction with one or more negative life events was not sufficient to produce depression unless one first experienced a state of hopelessness.

a

To Err is Human" Alexander Pope, An Essay on Criticism (1711) • Categorization Proper Sets vs. Prototypes and Exemplars • Judgment and Decision-Making Algorithms vs. Heuristics • Hypothesis-Testing Disconfirmatory vs. Confirmatory Strategies • Conditional Reasoning Denying the Antecedent, Affirming the Consequent Prescription vs. Description

schema

Unitary Impression as _________Bartlett (1932) • Organized Knowledge Structure - Knowledge, Beliefs - Expectations • Generalized, Abstract • Cognitive Basis for Perception and Memory • Basis for "Effort after meaning"

informational rewards

To inform a person that he or she has done well at the end of a task. Rewards designed to convey information about an individual's competence at a task

Conditioned Emotional Responses

Tone CS Footshock US • CR: Heart Rate Acceleration • Paradigmatic Variations - Standard Paradigm - Delay, Trace Paradigms - Simultaneous Paradigm - Backwards Paradigm • Safety Signal

Coherence of Personality

Topographically Different Behaviors • Semantically Different Traits • Hierarchical Structure of Personality - Superordinate Traits - Basic-Level Traits - Behavioral Regularities (Habits) - Specific Behaviors

Components of Population Variance

Total Variance in Phenotypes - The "Bell Curve" • Genetic Variance - Individual Differences in Genotypes • Environmental Variance - Individual Differences in Environments - Shared vs. Non-Shared Calculating ________ ______ __________ __________ T = G + E G = 2 * (MZ - DZ) E = ES + ENS ENS = 1 - MZ ES = 1 - G - ENS T = Total Variance G = Genetic Variance E = Environmental Variance ENS = Variance due to the Nonshared Environment ES = Variance due to the Shared Environment

Birth Order Effects

Traditional View: No Systematic Effects - Schooler (1966) - Ernst & Young (1983) • Potential Confounds - Age - Family Size - Socio-Economic Status

strong version/biophysical view

Traits cause the coherence, stability, consistency, and predictability of individual behavior

weak version/biosocial view of the doctrine of traits

Traits summarize the coherence, stability, consistency, and predictability of individual behavior

Mind as the Basis of Human Freedom

Transcend the Past • Transform the Present • Make the Future

Statistical, Social Standards for Abnormality

Unusual, Nonconforming Behavior as "Sick" - Inappropriate Diagnoses

three mountains task

Used to investigate egocentrism in the preoperational stage. A child is allowed to view a model of three mountains from all sides. The child is then seated with a view of the mountains and a doll is placed in a different position. The child is asked to choose a picture that shows how the mountains would look to the doll. Preoperational children typically choose a picture of what the mountains look like from their own perspective rather than the doll's perspective. how to measure egocentrism, more times than not the child picks the view that they see a task invented by Piaget and Inhelder, in which children are asked to look at a model of a landscape marked by hills and mountains and tell how it looks from a perspective different from their own

Person memory paradigm

Variant on Verbal-Learning Paradigm - List Items are Behaviors, Experiences • Rather than Words, Pictures • Knowledge of a Person - Generic (Semantic) Knowledge • Traits, Attitudes - Episodic Knowledge • Specific Behaviors and Experiences

aristotles five senses

Vision Audition Olfaction Gustation Touch

The Symptoms Are Not the Disease

Vocabulary of the Medical Model - Symptoms • Superficial Manifestations of Underlying Pathology - Syndromes • Clusters of Symptoms that Tend to Co-Occur - Disease • Syndrome Whose Underlying Pathology is Known • Underlying Pathology - Revealed by Laboratory Research Scientific Medicine Treats Pathology, Not Symptoms

Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia

Wahlberg, Wynn, et al. (1997) • 167 Women Hospitalized for Schizophrenia - 183 Probands Given Up for Adoption • 202 Women Hospitalized for Other Illnesses - 204 Probands Given Up for Adoption • Psychological Testing of Adoptive Families - "Communication Deviance" • Psychological Testing of Adoptees - Index of Thought Disorder

birth order and IQ

Zajonc & Markus (1975), after Belmont & Marolla (1973) • Sequelae of Dutch Famine of 1944 • Every Dutch Male Aged 19 - 1963-1966 (N = 386,114) • Nonverbal Intelligence - Raven's Progressive Matrices • Family Size • Birth Order Zajonc & Markus (1975) • Family Size • Birth Order • Last-Born Child • Rate of Decline • Only Child

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake and to be effective - A person's desire to engage in some specific activity without any promise or prospect of reward Undermining _______ ________ Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett (1973), after Deci (1971) • Preschool Children - Drawing with Magic Markers • High Level of Initial Interest in Activity • Reward Condition - No Reward - Promised "Good Player Award" Beforehand - Received Unexpected "Good Player Award" • Free-Choice Period Undermining and Enhancing _______ ________ Harackiewicz, Manderlink, & Sansone (1984) Experiment 1 • Control - Feedback Only • No Evaluation • No Reward • Expected Reward - Controlling • Unexpected Reward - Informational Experiment 2 • Control - Feedback Only • No Evaluation • No Reward • Evaluation - No Reward • Unexpected Reward - Informational Experiment 3 • Control - Feedback Only • No Evaluation • No Reward • Evaluation - No Reward • Information and Reward - Informational

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired; a response that is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone. a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning. Basic Vocabulary of Classical Conditioning • Unconditioned Stimulus US • Unconditioned Response UR • Conditioned Stimulus CS • Conditioned Response CR Acquisition - CR to CS Reinforced by US - Response Gains Strength • Magnitude of CR • Probability of CR Extinction - No Reinforcement - Response Loses Strength Spontaneous Recovery - Rest After Extinction - Retest CS alone Vocabulary - Unconditioned Stimulus - Unconditioned Response - Conditioned Stimulus - Conditioned Response • Phenomena - Acquisition • Reinforcement - Extinction - Spontaneous Recovery - Savings in Relearning - Generalization • Generalization Gradient - Discrimination Significance of Classical Conditioning • Extends Control of Reflexes to Other Environmental Events - Associations between Events • Ubiquitous (Nervous System) • Pavlov: All Learning is Classical Conditioning (?) • Laws of Classical Conditioning are the Laws of Emotional Life •Learning to Predict Environmental Events - Conditional Probability: p(Event | Signal)

Equipotentiality

all parts of the cortex contribute equally to complex behaviors such as learning, and any part of the cortex can substitute for any other. the idea that memory is distributed throughout the brain rather than confined to any specific location

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. Cognition • Basis of Intelligent Behavior - Beyond Reflex, Taxis, and Instinct - Beyond Conditioned Response • Acquire Knowledge About World - Integrate with Prior Knowledge - Store Knowledge in Memory • Use Knowledge in Action - Cope, Achieve • Language as a Tool - Thought, Communication

cognitive unconscious

all the mental processes that give rise to a person's thoughts, choices, emotions, and behavior even though they are not experienced by the person the mental processes that give rise to a person's thoughts, choices, emotions, and behavior even though they are not experienced by the person the mental support processes outside our awareness that make our perception, memory, and thinking possible Kihlstrom (1987) • Automatic Processing • Explicit-Implicit Dissociations - Perception - Memory - Learning - Thought

Aspects of Gender Dimorphism

biological sex, gender identity, gender role, sexual orientation

motion cues

as you move your head, images of close things change position more quickly on the retina than images of distant ones Motion Parallax( depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene the apparent movement of stationary objects relative to one another that occurs when the observer changes position the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away) • Optic Flow(the complex motion of points in the visual field caused by relative movement between the observer and environment; provides information about the relative distance of objects from the observer and of the relative direction of movement the changing angular position of points in a perspective image that we experience as we move through the world the changing angular positions of points in a perspective image that we experience as we move through the world)

curiosity in rhesus monkeys

baby monkeys removed from mothers; given choice of cloth or wire mother, preferred cloth- "CONTACT COMFORT" study that showed that you can provide someone with food, water, and everything that they need for survival, but without nurturing there will be problems. gave wire mother and cloth mother --> monkeys spent 1 hour on wire and the rest of the time on cloth mother shows need for affection "Puzzle Lock" • Food Reward • Hunger • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation Thorndike: Laws of Readiness, Effect • Tolman: Latent Learning • Berlyne: Epistemic Curiosity • Kruglanski: Need for Closure

availibility heuristic

basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind estimating the likelihood of events based on their availibility in memory estimating the likelihood of events based on their availiablity in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common applications: Judgments of Frequency • Judgments of Probability • Judgments are based on the ease with which instances can be brought to mind • Frequency Affects Availability • Problem - Ignores factors other than frequency that can affect availability

Cognitive Theory of Depression

beck theory assumes that individuals with a tendency to be depressed think about the world differently than non-depressed persons and that these individuals are more negative and believe that bad things will happen to them due to their own personal shortcomings. tend to have low self esteem and pessimistic perceptions, seem hopeless Links the development of depression to the adoption early in life of a negatively biased or distorted way of thinking negative thoughts, generated by dysfunctional beliefs are typically the primary cause of depressive symptoms

set point theory

belief that brain mechanisms regulate body weight around a genetically predetermined 'set point' The idea that the body monitors fat-cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable. Theory that proposes that humans and other animals have a natural or optimal body weight, called the set-point weight, that the body defends from becoming higher or lower by regulating feelings of hunger and body metabolism. Calories - Body Weight/Body Mass

diathesis

biological predisposition a vulnerability or predisposition to developing a disorder predisposition toward developing a disorder

two-factor theory of avoidance learning

both classical and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance learning Maintains that avoidance learning first involves the classical conditioning of fear, followed by learning operant responses that avoid an anticipated aversive stimulus and thus are reinforced by anxiety reduction. classical and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance learning Tone CS ==> Shock US - Respond During Shock ==> Escape - Respond Prior to Shock ==> Avoidance • Classical Conditioning - Fear Conditioned to Tone • Instrumental Conditioning - Escape Reinforced by Offset of Shock • Reduction in Pain - Avoidance Reinforced by Offset of Tone • Reduction in Fear

Two-Factor Theory of Avoidance Learning

both classical and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance learning Maintains that avoidance learning first involves the classical conditioning of fear, followed by learning operant responses that avoid an anticipated aversive stimulus and thus are reinforced by anxiety reduction. classical and operant conditioning are involved in avoidance learning • Light ==> Shock - Respond During Shock ==> Escape - Respond Prior to Shock ==> Avoidance • Classical Conditioning - Anticipatory Fear Conditioned to Light • Instrumental Conditioning - Reinforce Escape/Avoidance • Cessation of Shock US • Cessation of Light CS

Depressive Attributional Style

characteristic way of explaining negative events in terms of internal, stable, and global causes internal, stable, global involves making internal, global, and stable attributions for disappointments and failures

excitatory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that excite the next neuron into firing

inhibitory neurotransmitters

chemicals released from the terminal buttons of a neuron that prevent the next neuron from firing

satisficing

choosing a "good enough" alternative Choosing an option that is acceptable, although not necessarily the best or perfect. Searching for and choosing an acceptable, or satisfactory, response to problems and opportunities, rather than trying to make the best decision. Decision-Makers Do Not Optimize - Maximize Gains, Minimize Losses • Rather, Satisfice - Evaluate Alternatives - Identify Those Whose Outcomes are Satisfactory • Among Satisfactory Outcomes - Choose First Available (or Cheapest) - Choose Arbitrarily - Choose on Basis of Other (Noneconomic) Policy

rational choice

choosing the alternative that has the greatest value from among comparable-quality products a choice that uses the available resources to best achieve the objective of the person making the choice Approach that assumes that individuals weigh the costs and benefits and make choices to maximize their benefits • Based on Current Assets • Based on Possible Consequences • Uncertain Consequences Evaluated by Probability Theory • Adaptive within Constraints of Probabilities and Values Associated with Each Possible Consequence

contiguity theory

classical conditioning is based on the association in time of the CS prior to the UCS. contiguity: the tendency to perceive two things that happen close together in time as being related

vicarious conditioning

classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person classical conditioning of an involuntary response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action Vicarious Conditioning of Snake Fear Mineka et al. (1984) • Wild-Reared Adults - Already Afraid of Snakes • Lab-Reared Adolescent Offspring - No Snake Fear • Posttest After Observing Parent

lateralization

cognitive function that relies more on one side of the brain than the other. specialization of function in one hemisphere of the cerebral cortex or the other. advantages: Motor Control - Speech - Fine Motor Control - Gesture

Facets of Conscientiousness

competence, order, dutifulness, achievement striving, self-discipline, deliberation self-efficacy, orderliness, dutifulness, achievement-striving, self-discipline, cautiousness competent, orderly, dutiful, achievement-oriented, self-disciplined Costa & McCrae (1985, 1992) • Competence - I am a productive person who always gets the job done • Order - I keep my belongings neat and clean • Dutifulness - I try to perform all the tasks assigned to me conscientiously • Achievement Striving - I work hard to accomplish my goals • Self-Discipline - I'm pretty good about pacing myself so as to get things done on time • Deliberation - I try to do jobs carefully, so they won't have to be done again

Pseudohermaphroditism

condition of having gonads of one sex but the physical characteristics of both sexes presence of male and female structures at different stages of life an autosomal genetic condition that causes XY individuals to develop the phenotypic sex of females Chromosomal XX - Female Adrenogenital Syndrome - Progestin-Induced Pseudohermaphroditism • Chromosomal XY - Failure of Mullerian-Inhibiting Substance - Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome - Klinefelter's Syndrome: 47XXY - Guevodoces • 5-α-Reductase Deficiency Syndrome ________in Genetic Females (XX) • Female Adrenogenital Syndrome - Circulation of Androgen to Fetus - Masculinization of External Genitalia • No Effects on Internal Genitalia - Surgical Correction, Cortisone Therapy • Progestin-Induced Pseudohermaphroditism - Synthetic Hormones to Prevent Miscarriage - Masculinization of External Genitalia • No Effects on Internal Genitalia - Surgical Correction, No Need for Cortisone _________in Genetic Males (XY) • Failure of Mullerian-Inhibiting Substance - Male and Female Internal Reproductive System • Masculine External Genitalia - Raised as Boys • Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome - Failure to Masculinize External Genitalia - Surgical Correction - Typically Raised as Girls • Natural Estrogen Feminizes Physique • Do Not Menstruate; Infertile

Explicit Motivation

consciously stated goals your stated goals, desires, or needs that may affect your behavior reflects primary a person's self-awareness of his or her own conscious motives Conscious Drive, Need, or Goal • nAchievement, nPower, nAffiliation/Intimacy

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

right hemisphere

controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial This half of the brain specializes in perception of physical environment, art, nonverbal communication, music & spiritual aspects. It receives information from and controls the opposite side of the body. - Simple "Left-Hemisphere" Functions - Spatial Analysis - Pattern Recognition

left hemisphere

controls the right side of the body; analytical, language, math. - Language • Broca's, Wernicke's Areas - Sequential Analyses - Mathematical Computation - Fine Motor Control

Thorndike's Puzzle Box

created a puzzle box for cats in which they learned tricks to get out of the box and get food Food was placed just outside the door of the puzzle box, where the cat could see it. If the cat triggered the appropriate lever, it would open the door and let the cat out. In Thorndike's original experiments, food was placed just outside the door of the puzzle box, where the cat could see it. If the cat triggered the appropriate lever, it would open the door and let the cat out.

Standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group The uniform procedures used in the administration and scoring of a test. - Procedure for Administering the Test - Procedure for Scoring the Test

a

defining the Terms Galton (1874) • "Nature is all that a man brings with himself into the world..." - Genetic, Hormonal Endowment - Constitution, Temperament • "...Nurture is every influence that affects him after his birth." - Physical and Social Environment - Social Learning, Socialization - Experiential History

Unipolar Disorder

depression clinical depression a disorder causing periodic disturbances in mood that affect concentration, sleep, activity, appetite, and social behavior; characterized by feelings of worthlessness, fatigue, and loss of interest • Mania • Depression

image-retina system

detects shifts in the relative position of parts of the visual image over time

place theory of pitch perception

different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies the specific point in the cochlea where the fluid wave peaks and most strongly bends the hair cells serves as a frequency coding cue suggesting that the specific point in the cochlea where the fluid wave peaks and most strongly bends the hair cells serves as a frequency coding cue

The doctrine of modularity

distinct and separate mental modules are dedicated to the different privileged domains. views each domain of reasoning as a distinct and separate set of mental processes that has evolved to handle domain-specific information and that changes very little over the course of development

facial feedback hypothesis

emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them Basic Emotions and The ________ ____________ __________ Tomkins (1962); Adelman & Zajonc (989) • Weak Version (Darwin, 1872) - Expression Modulates Emotion Already Present • Strong Version (Laird, 1974) - Expression is Sufficient to Create Emotion

The Facial-Feedback Hypothesis

emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify The hypothesis that emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify the idea that facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect them James-Lange Redux _________ _____________: • Dimensions of Facial Expression - Pleasantness vs. Unpleasantness - Rejection vs. Attention - Activation vs. Tension Relaxation • Primary Emotions - Innate Neural Programs • Automatic Activation Facial Display • Communicates Emotion to Others • Feedback Generates Emotional Experience

confluence model

environmental influences on intelligence, which assumes that each child is born into an intellectual environment related to birth order and to the number and differences in age of her or his siblings Robert Zajonc's model of environmental influences on intelligence, which assumes that each child is born into an intellectual environment related to birth order and to the number and differences in age of her or his siblings each additional newborn reduces the average intelligence level of the family Zajonc & Markus (1974) • Individual is Part of His or Her Own Environment • Environment is Dynamically Changing • Individual Constantly Influenced by Environment • Individual Reciprocally Influences Environment • Individual as Active Agent of Own Development

Pluralistic Ignorance

error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do a false impression of what most other people are thinking or feeling, or how they are responding the case in which people think that everyone else is interpreting a situation in a certain way, when in fact they are not Darley & Latane (1968); Latane & Darley (1970) • Diffusion of Responsibility • Situation Ambiguous - Natural to Wait for Clarification - Look to Others to Resolve Ambiguity • Others' Lack of Action - Defines Situation as Non-Emergency for Subject • Subject's Lack of Action - Defines Situation as Non-Emergency for Others

Facets of Openness

fantasy, aesthetics, feelings, actions, ideas, values fantasy prone, open to feelings, open to diverse behaviors, open to new ideas, open to new beliefs imagination, artistic interests, emotionality, adventurousness, intellect, liberalism Costa & McCrae (1985, 1992) • Fantasy - I have a very active imagination • Esthetics - I am sometimes completely absorbed in music I am listening to • Feelings - Without strong emotions, life would e uninteresting to me • Ideas - I often enjoy playing with theories or abstract ideas • Actions - I think it's interesting to learn and develop new hobbies • Values - I believe that laws and social policies should change to reflect the needs of a changing world

observational fear conditioning

fear of potentially harmful stimuli is learned through social transmission Social forces play an important role in the learning of fear. The social learning of fear likely relies on the amygdala. Similar mechanisms are involved in conditioned and observational fear learning. fear of potentially harmful stimuli is learned through social transmission Test of Snake Fear • Wisconsin General Test Apparatus • Obstacle Between Animal and Food Reward - Must Reach Past Object to Obtain Food • Measure of Fear - Latency to Reach Past Object

affect circumplex

figure in which opposite emotions appear directly across from each other in the circle Opposite emotions appear directly across from each other in the circle.

semantic memory

general knowledge a type of long-term memory involving the capacity to recall words, concepts, or numbers, which is essential for the use and understanding of language.a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world memory for knowledge about the world Generic Knowledge, Beliefs • Abstract

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding). inability to speak loss of speech Expressive (Broca's) - Receptive (Wernicke's)

conversational rules

implicit rules that guide the conduct of participants in a conversation rules that govern our conversational interactions with others behaviors that are established, preferred, or prohibited during social exchanges Could you pass the salt? • Common Ground • The Cooperative Principle • Conversational Maxims - Quantity - Quality - Relevance - Manner "Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged"

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group. CS+ (Reinforced) - CS- (Unreinforced)

Ontogenetic view of development

individual species members. development across the life span. developmental psychology- cognitive development, social/personality development • Individual Species Members • Development Across the Life Span - Infancy - Childhood - Adolescence - Adulthood - Old Age • Developmental Psychology - Cognitive Development - Social/Personality Development

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a unified whole a progression from the whole to the elements Conceptually Driven • Hypothesis-Driven • Expectation Driven - Input: Higher-Level Representation - Output: Lower-Level Representation

Genes and Environments

interact dynamically throughout development Genotype - Biological Potential • Different Genotype, Same Phenotype • Phenotype - Actualized Potential • Same Genotype, Different Phenotype • Types of Environment - Prenatal - Perinatal - Postnatal

Interactions in Development

interactions Nature and Nurture Person and Environment The Person is Part of His/Her Environment The Child is an Agent of His/Her Own Socialization

ganglia

interneurons outside brain and spinal cord

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas the social process of absorbing one cultural group into harmony with another

eye-head system

interprets motion created by eye and head movements

Baby X Studies

investigations of the behavior of adults with babies as a function of their belief about the sex of the baby Schemas and perceptual sets can lead to stereotyping which can mislead our perception. Studies were done where a baby's gender was either unknown, or changed by giving it a boy's or girl's name and then dressing it in the named gender. Participants were asked to play with the baby and the "boys" were given more physical play and toys like toy hammers and footballs, while the "girls" were treated more gently and were given dolls. These studies show that there is a gender role stereotype from a very early age Seavey et al. (1975) • Nonparent Adults - Study of Infants' Responses to Strangers • Interact with 3-Month-Old Girl • Identification by Gender and Name - Boy - Girl - Neutral Revisited Sidorowicz & Lunney (1980) • Nonparent Undergraduates - Study of Infants' Responses to Strangers • Interact with 3-Month-Old Child - Used Infants of Both Sexes • Identification by Gender and Name - Boy - Girl - Neutral

declarative knowledge

knowledge of information that can be expressed in words cognitive components that represent facts Knowledge related to "what is"—that is, to the nature of how things are, were, or will be. Factual Statements - About World, Past • Sentence Format - Propositions • Subject - Verb - Object • Types of Representations - Meaning-Based • Verbal Description - Perception-Based • Mental Image A bicycle is a twowheeled vehicle with seat and handles, propelled by pedaling. A bicycle looks like this types: Episodic - Autobiographical Memory - Factual Knowledge About Personal Experiences • Spatio-Temporal Context • Self-Reference • Semantic - Mental "Dictionary" or "Encyclopedia" - Abstract, Conceptual Knowledge about the World

need for closure

kruglanski The desire to come to a decision that will resolve ambiguity and conclude an issue. the desire to reduce cognitive uncertainty, which heightens the importance of first impressions not concerned about the quality of the decision

observational learning

learning by observing others learning by observing others; also called social learning learning by watching others Direct versus Vicarious(experienced in the imagination through the feelings or actions of another person) experience - Conditioned Stimuli - Unconditioned Stimuli - Reinforcements Variants on Observational Learning • Unrelated Adult as Model • Immunization through Extensive Prior Exposure to Snakes • Snake vs. Flower - Mirrors, Video to Control Exposure - Model Sees Snake - Observer Sees Snake or Flower Examples of Observational Learning by Animals in the Wild • Chickadees and Milk Bottles • Red Squirrels and Hickory Nuts • Israeli Roof Rats and Pine Cones • Chimpanzees and Panda Nuts Observational Learning and Language Acquisition • Native or Secondary Language • Exposure to Language - Aural or Gestural - Critical Period before Puberty • Detect Sounds of language - Separate into Words • Recognize Words • Grammatical Rules • Prosody, Nonverbal Communication

conditioned inhibition

learning that an event signals the absence of the unconditioned stimulus learning that an event signals the absence of the US You learn that an event signals absence of an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned Inhibition in Backwards Conditioning • Fear Conditioning - Tone ==> Shock - CR = Heart Rate Acceleration • Physiological Index of Fear • Standard Paradigm - HR Acceleration During Tone • Conditioned Fear Response • Backward Paradigm - HR Deceleration During Tone • Inhibition of Fear Response

Tolman and Latent Learning

learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful Rats ran around a maze for 10 days, given food on the 11th, run fast on the 12th when they learn food is at the end learning that remains hidden until it becomes useful

Discrimination Learning

learning to tell the difference between one event or object and another; the reverse of generalization the process by which animals or people learn to respond differently to different stimuli the cognitive process whereby two or more stimuli are distinguished

accomodation of lens

lenses change shape to focus on objects near or far Lens bulges to focus on near objects - Lens flattens to focus on distant objects

Interpersonal Attraction

liking or having the desire for a relationship with another person positive feelings toward another the force that draws people together Berscheid & Walster (1978) • "Liking Someone" as an Attitude - Internal Mental State • Target Characteristics - Physical Attractiveness - Competence - Similarity • Situational Influences - Proximity

attention

links perception and memory Every one knows what ____is. It is the taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration, of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others...."

displacement

loss of memory from storage • Masking in "Subliminal" Perception - Short-Term Memory

Psychogenic Amnesia

loss of memory resulting from repression of psychological, emotional trauma or damage loss of all or part of memory; does not have a physical cause loss of memory in the absence of any brain injury or disease and thought to have psychological causes

Psychosomatic disorders

medical problems caused by the interaction of psychological, emotional, and physical difficulties illnesses in which psychological factors contribute to bodily damage or to damaging changes in bodily functioning emotional states that influence the physical body's functioning Organ Damage or Malfunction Actual Damage to Internal Organs • "Psychosomatic" Ulcers • Coronary Heart Disease - "Type A" Behavior

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences the system underlying conscious memories Conscious Recollection of Past Event • Recall, Recognition

reminiscence

memory or act of recalling the past recollection a memory, the act of recalling the past

Implications of Attention and Automaticity

mental Processes can be Unconscious - Especially Preattentive or Automatic • Helmholtz: 'Unconscious Inferences" • Mental States are Conscious - Beliefs, Feelings, Desires • Percepts, Memories, Images, Thoughts • Role of Conscious Mental States - Evoke Unconscious, Automatic Processes - Created by Unconscious, Automatic Processes

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations the mental potential to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations The Structure of Intelligence • Spearman (1904): General Intelligence - Two-factor Theory • General Intelligence (g) • Specific Factors (sn) • Thurstone (1941): Primary Mental Abilities - Factor Analysis •Number •Word Fluency •Verbal Meaning •Memory •Reasoning •Space •Perceptual Speed

Schemata

mental representations of how we expect the world to be Mental models of the world that we use to guide and interpret our experiences

Judgment Heuristics

mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently cognitive shortcuts or biases that are used to simplify the process of making decisions largely automatic process of mental shortcuts that people use to make various judgments Kahneman & Tversky (1973) Tversky & Kahneman (1974) • Shortcuts, "Rules of Thumb" - Bypass Logical Rules • Permit Judgments Under Uncertainty • Also Permit Judgments Under Certainty - Use Increases Probability of Error • Infer Heuristics From Judgment Errors Common ______ _______ Kahneman & Tversky (1973); Tversky & Kahneman (1974) • Representativeness - Categorization - Other Judgments of Similarity - Probability, Causality • Availability - Frequency, Probability • Simulation - Probability, Causality • Anchoring and Adjustment - Estimation

Absolute threshold of sensation

minimum intensity of stimulus needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time the minimum stimulation needed to register a particular stimulus fifty percent of the time the intensity of a stimulus that allows an organism to just barely detect it weakest detectable stimulus

filter model of attention

model of attention that proposes a filter that lets attended stimuli through and blocks some or all of the unattended stimuli According to the filter model, attention is a filter on incoming sensory information. Only sensory signals that pass through the filter go on to be processed further. A model of attention that proposes that selective attention is achieved by a filtering out of unattended messages. The first filter model of attention was proposed by Donald Broadbent. problems: Moray (1952) - Attention to One's Own Name • Treisman (1960) - Shift Shadowed Message Between Ears • Preattentive Semantic Analysis - Can Go Beyond Physical Structure

interposition

monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away

trilogy of mind

motivation, emotion and cognition "There are three absolutely irreducible faculties of mind: knowledge, feeling, and desire." •Cognition •Knowledge and Beliefs •Emotion •Affect, Moods, Feelings •Motivation •Drives, Needs, Desires, Goals, Purposes here are three absolutely irreducible faculties of mind: knowledge, feeling, and desire." •Cognitive Psychology •Sensation, Perception, Learning, Memory, Reasoning, Problem-Solving, Judgment and Decision-Making, Language •Affective Psychology •Emotion, Moods, Feelings •Conative Psychology •Motives, Drives, Needs, Desires, Goals, Purposes

distributed view

multiple parts of our brain work together in conjunction in order to create a representation of the object. - Reverberating Pattern of Neural Activity - Distributed Widely over Cerebral Cortex

Psychometric Properties of Personality Tests

nastasi (1969); Nunnally (1969) • Standardization • Norms • Reliability - Inter-Rater - Test-Retest - Internal Consistency • Item-to-Total • Validity - Content - Face - Empirical • External - Construct • Utility - Efficiency - Cost-Benefit Ratio

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement neurons that respond selectively to very specific features of more complex stimuli cells in the cortex that specialize in extracting certain features of a stimulus __________ __________ in Visual Cortex Hubel & Wiesel (1959, 1962) • Present Stimuli in Visual Field • Record Activity in Visual Cortex - Single Neurons (or Small Bundle) • Stimulus Features - Points of Light/Darkness - Edges - Bars - Angle of Orientation - Movement vs. Stability - Direction of Movement Hierarchical Organization of _______ _________ Hubel & Wiesel (1959, 1962) • Simple - Location of Feature • Complex - Presence of Feature • "Hypercomplex" - Combinations of Features

efferent neurons

neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body. They go down the descending tract of the spinal cord. "motor"

afferent neurons

neurons that take information from the senses to the brain. They go up the ascending tract of the spinal cord. "sensory"

internuerons

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. "central"

The Child is Not a Tabula Rasa

nnate Theoretical Capacity - Form, Test, Revise Understanding • "Starting-State" Nativism - "Substantive Innate Theories" of Various Domains • Actively Engaged in Theory-Testing - Understanding Surprising Events - Generalize from Examples • Induce Categories from Instances - Test and Revise Understanding

Abnormal Development Since Birth

ntellectual Disability ("Mental Retardation") - Goddard: Moron, Idiot, Imbecile - APA: Mild, Moderate, Severe, Profound • Conceptual, Social, and Practical Domains - AAIDD: Need for Environmental Support • Intermittent, Limited, Extensive, Pervasive • Autism Spectrum Disorder - Autism - Asperger's Syndrome • Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

The Nature of Psychopathology

o Psychological deficits ♣ Schizophrenia ♣ Childhood autism ♣ Depression ♣ Attention-deficit disorder o Maladaptive social learning ♣ Phobias ♣ OCD ♣ Depression ♣ Psychophysiological disorders

Patterns of Diathesis and Stress

o Substantial diathesis: high risk ♣ Little stress required for acute episode ♣ Poor premorbid personality o Catastrophic stress ♣ Acute episode even in low risk individuals ♣ Good premorbid personality o Diathesis within normal limits ♣ Episode a function of stress o Stress within normal limits ♣ Episode a function of diathesis

The Contradiction of the Unconscious

o To have ideas, and yet not be conscious of them o There seems to be a contradiction in that for how can we know that we have them if we are not conscious of them Kant, Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View (1798) To have ideas, and yet not be conscious of them, -- there seems to be a contradiction in that; for how can we know that we have them, if we are not conscious of them? Nevertheless, we may become aware indirectly that we have an idea, although we be not directly cognizant of the same.

Gesell Developmental Schedules

observationally gathered behavioral data. Normed assessments in the areas of motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social development (devised prototypical normative assessments of infants and young children) Gesell (1940) • Motor • Adaptive • Language • Personal-Social 2.0y: Runs Well, No Falling Walks Up and Down Stairs 2.5y: Tries to Stand on 1 Foot 3.0y: Walks on Tiptoe, >2 Steps 3.5y: Stands on 1 Foot >2 secs Jumps, Both Feet Leave Floor 4.0y Stands on 1 Foot 2-7 secs Walks Down Stairs 4.5y: Hops on 1 Foot 5.0y: Stands on 1 Foot >9 secs 5.5y: Stands on 1 Foot 12 secs 6.0y: Stands on 1 Foot Alternately

instrumental conditioning (operant conditioning)

occurs when we learn to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and avoid those that yield negative outcomes the individual learns to perform behaviors that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes A learning procedure whereby the effects of a particular behavior in a particular situation increase (reinforce) or decrease (punish) the probability of the behavior • Learn Adaptive Behavior - Through Experience of Success, Failure • Organism Operates on Environment - Behavior Changes Environment • Behavior Instrumental - Obtains Desired State of Affairs • Associations between Behaviors and Outcomes Instrumental Conditioning Procedure • Phase 1: Baseline Behavior • Phase 2: Acquisition Phase • Phase 3: Discrimination Learning • Phase 4: Extinction Vocabulary of Instrumental Conditioning • Conditioned Response (No URs) • Conditioned Stimulus (No USs) • Reinforcement - Positive - Negative (Not Punishment) • Acquisition • Extinction • Generalization • Discrimination Significance of Instrumental Conditioning • Voluntary Behaviors Come Under Control of Environmental Events - Behavior-Outcome Associations • Ubiquitous (Vertebrates) • Thorndike, Skinner: All Learning is Instrumental/Operant Conditioning (?) • Laws of Instrumental Conditioning Are the Laws of Adaptive Behavior - Habits - Incentives - Learning to Control Environmental Events - Conditional Probability: p(Event | Behavior) Organism Learning to Control Environment

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood the ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences General Ability to Perceive Relationships - Neurological Connections - Assessed by "Culture Fair" Tests

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience Product of Experience • Education, Environment - Assessed by Standard Intelligence Tests

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list Single-Trial Free Recall • Retention as a Function of Serial Position - Bowed Curve • Primacy Effect - Retrieval from LTM • Recency Effect - Retrieval from STM

Undifferentiated Gonadal Tissue

outer cortex: ovaries, inner medulla: testes, mullerian ducts: female internal organs, wolffian ducts: male internal organs, external genitalia: penis, vagina Primordial Structure (Anlagen) Money & Ehrhardt (1972) Outer Cortex: Ovaries Inner Medulla: Testes Mullerian Ducts: Female Internal Organs Uterus, Fallopian Tubes, Inner Vagina Wolffian Ducts: Male Internal Organs Vas Deferens, Seminal Vesicles, Ejaculatory Ducts External Genitalia Genital Tubercle, Urogenital Slit, Urethral Folds, Labio-Scrotal Swellings Clitoris/Vagina, Penis/Scrotum

Alzheimer's disease and brain tumors

pathology involving glia cells

prospect theory

people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains theory that suggests that a decision, or argument, can be framed in different ways and that the framing affects risk assessments consumers make risk differs when we face gains versus losses Framing as Perception • People Base Decisions on Subjective Utilities - Not Objective Values • Anomalies of Expected-Utility Theory - Losses Loom Larger than Gains - First Impressions Shape Final Judgments • Anchoring and Adjustment - Vivid Examples Overshadow Statistical Summaries • Representativeness People Base Decisions on Subjective Utilities - Not Objective Values • Don't Multiply Utilities by Objective Probability - Rather, Psychological (Subjective) Probability • Overweight Very High, Very Low Risks • Don't Evaluate Utilities in Absolute Sense - Rather, Against Background or Reference Point - Framing Alters Reference Point • Makes Prospects Appear Better or Worse Than They Really Are

reconstruction principle

people redefine situations by altering the characteristics of the people present in the encounter whenever deflections are too large for repair memory reflects a blend of information contained in memory traces and knowledge, expectations, and beliefs derived from other sources implications of the _______ _________: Memory reflects a blend of information contained in memory traces and knowledge, expectations, and beliefs derived from other sources. Memories are Not Records Of the Past. Memories are Beliefs About the Past.

The Theory of Mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict. ability to reason about what other people know or believe an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Premack & Woodruff (1978) Wellman (1990) Baron-Cohen (1991, 1995) The Ability to Impute Mental States to Ourselves and Other People • Knowledge of Our Own Minds - Mental States Separate from Outside World - Can Control Beliefs, Feelings, Desires - Introspection • Knowledge of Other Minds - Others' Mental States May Differ from Ours - Others Have Different Experiences - Infer Others' Beliefs, Feelings, Desires

Law of Pragnanz

perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible The most general Gestalt principle, which states that the simplest organization, requiring the least cognitive effort, will emerge as the figure. says that perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetric as possible (The Minimum Principle) Hochberg (1974, 1978) Perception will be as good as stimulus conditions allow. We perceive the simplest or most homogeneous organization that will fit the sensory pattern

imperatives of gender

phyletic imprimatur, social imprimatur, procreative imperatives- menstruation, gestation, lactation, impregnation Money & Ehrhardt (1972) • Phyletic Imprimatur • Social Imprimatur • Procreative Imperatives - Menstruation - Gestation - Lactation - Impregnation

memory trace

physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed the physical record in the nervous system that preserves a memory mental path by which some thought becomes active

affective disorders

psychological disturbances of mood mood disorders Emotional disorders that are characterized by changes in mood. Bipolar Disorder • Manic-Depressive Illness - Unipolar Disorder • Mania • Depression

extrastriate cortex

the region of cortex bordering the primary visual cortex and containing multiple areas involved in visual processing. •Brodmann's Areas 18, 19

maintence rehearsal

repition that keeps information in STM about 20 seconds repeating information over and over repeating something over and over again to store it in memory - Rote rehearsal - Maintains representation in highly active state - Maintains representation in short-term primary/working) memory

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called procedural memory.) - Change in Experience, Thought, Action • Attributable to Past Event Priming as ________ _________ • Performance of One Task - Studying a List of Words • Facilitates Performance of Another Task - Word-Stem, Word-Fragment Completion

task-contingent rewards

rewards that are given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done rewards given for performing a task, regardless of how well the task is done rewards that are given for preforming a task, regardless of how well the task is done

primary motor cortex

the region of the posterior frontal lobe that contains neurons that control movements of skeletal muscles •Precentral Gyrus •Brodmann Area 4

conventional morality

second level of Kohlberg's stages of moral development in which the child's behavior is governed by conforming to the society's norms of behavior uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order By early adolescence, social rules and laws are upheld for their own sake. interpersonal Accord and Conformity - Authority and Obedience

primary auditory cortex

the region of the superior temporal lobe whose primary input is from the auditory system Superior Temporal Gyrus •Heschl's Gyrus (AI) •Brodmann Areas 41, 42 • "Tonotopic" Organization

Parallels Between Learned Helplessness and Depression

seligman (1975) • Symptoms - Passivity, Negative Expectations - Lack of Aggression - Loss of Appetite, Sexual Interest • Life history • Treatment - Change Expectations - Antidepressant Drugs • Prevention - Mastery Experiences • Biological Substrates - Norepinephrine Depletion

gustation

sense of taste • Proximal Stimulus - Chemical Molecules in Food, Drink • Dissolved in Saliva • Receptor Organ - Papillae (Taste Buds) • Sensory Tract - Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) - Facial Nerve (VII), Vagus Nerve (X) • Primary Gustatory Cortex - Frontal Lobe • Anterior Insula, Frontal Operculum - Somatosensory Cortex - Flavor, Odor

Piagetian Stages

sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, formal operations 1.Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete operational 4. Formal operational critique: Decalage - Not a Quantum Shift? "Lower Boundaries" of Stages - How Low Can you Go?

interoception

sensory information arising from within the body, such as hunger and thirst Physical sensations arising from inside the body such as pain, temperature, hunger, etc. the sense of the physiological condition of the body

Psychopathology

sickness or disorder of the mind scientific study of psychological disorders the study of abnormal behavior Psych(o) - from Greek psyche, Soul or Mind - Mental Processes and Activities • Includes Behavior - Doctrine of Mentalism • Pathology - from Greek pathos, Suffering - Deviations from Normal Structure, Function • Medical Illnesses - Deviations from Normal Anatomical Structure - Deviations from Normal Physiological Function

generative grammar

system of grammatical rules that allow speakers to create possible sentences in a language set of rules that could be used to produce language a set of rules defining the possible sentences in a language evolution: Standard Theory - Extended • Revised • What Makes Us Unique - Language Module - "Universal Grammar" - "Language Acquisition Device"

Homeostatic Regulation

the adjustment of physiological systems to preserve homeostasis physiological adjustment to preserve homeostasis in variable environments adjustments in physiological systems that preserve homeostasis Bernard (1878); Cannon (1932) • "The Wisdom of the Body" - Maintains Constant Internal Environment • Despite Changing External Environment • Feedback - Negative • Stops or Reverses Change - Positive • Magnifies Change • Autonomic Nervous System - Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Branches

relative threshold

the amount of something you need to change in able to detect it the amount that a stimulus of standard intensity must be changed in order for a difference to be noticed the ability to perceive a stimulus is related to the stimuli surrounding the stimulus Smallest Detectable Change • "Just-Noticeable Difference" - Absolute Threshold a Special Case

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage the process of keeping information in short-term memory by mentally repeating it conscious repetition of information role: Present List of Familiar Words • Report Most Recent Word Meeting Criterion - Begin with Letter P - "Critical" - Ignore All Other Words - "Neutral" • Vary Amount of Rehearsal Given to Each Word • Then Test Recall of All Critical Words types: Maintenance Rehearsal - Rote rehearsal - Maintains representation in highly active state - Maintains representation in short-term primary/working) memory • Elaborative Rehearsal - Links representation to other knowledge - Encodes representation in long-term (secondary) memory known as rote Recirculating/Refreshing items - Primary/Short-Term Memory

pictorial cues for depth

the depth cues that operate not only when viewing real scenes but also when viewing pictures: occlusion, relative image size for familiar objects, linear perspective, texture gradient, position relative to the horizon, differential lighting of surfaces Relative Size • Linear Perspective • Elevation • Superposition • Texture Gradients • Aerial Perspective • Shadowing

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. the diminishing of a conditioned response No Reinforcement - Response Loses Strength Extinction Below Zero • Extinction Trials Continued After CR Disappears Entirely • Reduced Spontaneous Recovery • Less Savings in Relearning - Slower Reacquisition

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old info

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new info

post-event misinformation effect

the distorting effect on eyewitness memory of misleading information provided after the crime or other event In eyewitness testimony, when people first view an event and then are given misleading information about the event. Later on, they mistakenly recall the misleading information, rather than the event they actually saw. people view an event, are given misleading information about the event, mistakenly recall the misleading information rather than the event itself Staged Traffic Accident • Critical Question - Nonleading • Did you see another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the yield sign? - Leading • Did you see another car pass the red Datsun while it was stopped at the stop sign? • Recognition Tests - Car at Yield Sign or Stop Sign Leading Questions Can Influence Eyewitness Report - Memory Not "Pure" • Misinformation Gleaned from Leading Questions Can Be Incorporated into Memory for Event Structure of the Study Question Stimulus Yield Sign Stop Sign Yield Sign Nonleading Misleading Stop Sign Misleading Nonleading

proximal stimulus

the energies from the outside world that directly reach our sense organs In perception, it is the information our sensory receptors receive about the object. stimulus registered by sensory receptors

Social Environment

the entire human environment, including interaction with others the entire human environment, including direct contact with others trends and forces in society at large

prefrontal cortex

the frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality. Frontal Gyri • Superior, Middle, Inferior - Frontal Sulci • Superior, Inferior

capacity theory of attention

the idea that attention is a resource distributed among tasks and that the ability to focus attention varies with the number and complexity of tasks Attention is a resource distributed among tasks. Our ability to focus attention varies with the number and complexity of the tasks and how mentally energized we are at the same time. our ability to focus attention varies with the number and complexity of the tasks and how mentally energized we are at the time Attention = Mental Effort - Arousal • Cognitive Resources are Limited • Attention and Task Demands - Demanding: Controlled Processing • Require Allocation of Attentional Resources - Undemanding: Automatic Processing • Require No Attentive Effort • Result of Extensive Practice

classical view of categorization

the idea that categories are defined by necessary and sufficient features The view that concepts are represented as lists of necessary and sufficient properties. features in a category are necessary (certain features must be present) and sufficient (additional features are irrelevant), limited model Categories are Proper Sets • Defining Features - Singly Necessary - Jointly Sufficient Implications of Problems with ______ ________ _________ ________ • These problems would not occur if categories were represented as proper sets • Therefore, people must do something else when they induce concepts or deduce category membership • Apparently, concepts are not structured like proper sets after all! Problems with the _______ _______ ______ _______ Solved by the Prototype View Rosch & Mervis (1975); Rosch et al. (1976) • Disjunctive Categories • Unclear Category Membership • Difficult to Specify Defining Features • Imperfect Nesting • Variations in Typicality

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it the idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory for the experience the idea that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which information was initially encoded Memory is best when the cue information processed at the time of retrieval matches the cue information processed at the time of encoding.

transfer-appropriate processing

the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding and retrieval contexts of the situations match memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding context of the situations match occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention

interactionism

the idea that situations and personality interact to determine behavior An important perspective in social psychology that emphasizes the combined effects of both the person and the situation on human behavior The principle that aspects of personality and of situations work together to determine behavior; neither has an effect by itself, nor is one more important than the other.

recognition

the identification of a stimulus that was encountered earlier some hints an ability to correctly identify previously learned information - Query Contains a Copy of the Target • Was orange one of the words on that list ?

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment properties: After Bandura (1978) • Triadic Reciprocality • Not Necessarily Symmetry - Bidirectional Influences Not Necessarily Co-Equal • Not Necessary Simultaneity - Bidirectional Influences Unfold Over Time Analytic Decomposition of ________ ___________:

controlled processes

the most alert states of human consciousness, during which individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal Mental activities requiring focused attention that generally interfere with other ongoing activities the most alert states of human consciousness, individuals actively focus their efforts toward a goal

Fechner's Law

the observation that the strength of a sensation is proportional to the logarithm of physical stimulus intensity A principle describing the relationship between stimulus and resulting sensation that says the magnitude of subjective sensation increases proportionally to the logarithm of the stimulus intensity. larger and larger increases in physical energy are required to produce equal increases in perception Sensation Grows More Slowly Than Stimulation - Sensory Receptors Compress Stimuli • Exceptions - Perceived Length - Perceived Pain

doctrine of specific nerve energies

the principle that different sensory modalities exist because signals received by the sense organs stimulate different nerve pathways leading to different areas of the brain Muller's conclusion that because all nerve fibers carry the same type of message, sensory information must be specified by the particular nerve fibers that are active the discovery that stimulation of a particular sensory nerve provides codes for that sense, no matter how the stimulation takes place The Modality of Sensation is not Determined by the Proximal Stimulus. • Each Sensory Nerve Reacts Differently to Stimulation. • The Modality of Sensation is Determined by the Specific Nerve Activated by the Stimulus Modality of sensation not determined by the proximal stimulus or the sensory receptor. • Each sensory nerve reacts differently to stimulation. - Muller: Modality of sensation is determined by the activation of modality-specific nerves - Sperry: Modality of sensation is determined by the projection area to which the sensory impulse is delivered

Weber's Law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) the just noticeable difference of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage

Accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. the processing of information into the memory system the processing of information so that it can be stored creating a memory trace(perception leaves representation in memory) The _______ Phase of Memory Processing • Assume that a Subject has Just Experienced an Event • How Does a Mental Representation of that Event get Stored in Memory? The Role of Rehearsal in ________Long-Term Memory • Memory as a Product of Perception • Traditional Associationism - Thorndike (1898) • Law of Exercise - Stimulus-Response Associations Strengthened by Use - Ebbinghaus (1885) • Law of Repetition - Retention a Function of Repetition

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred Rest After Extinction - Retest CS alone Implications of Savings and Spontaneous Recovery • Conditioned Response Not "Lost" • Rather, Inhibited or Suppressed - In Line with Changing Circumstances • Conditioned Stimulus No Longer Reinforced • CR Can be Disinhibited - In Line with Changing Circumstances • CS Reinforced Once Again

recovery of function

the recovery of behavioral capacity following brain damage from stroke or injury. Redundancy. recoverable: • In Aphagia - Lesions in Lateral Hypothalamus • In Aphasia - Lesions in Broca's and Wernicke's Areas • In Paraplegia - Severing of Spinal Cord

subliminal perception

the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness the processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness thought or behavior that is influenced by stimuli that a person cannot consciously report perceiving the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness the processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness the registration of sensory input without conscious awareness the processing of information by sensory systems without conscious awareness

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. the relatively permanent storage of information a type of storage that holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years properties of _________ ___________: Passive Repository of Knowledge - Enables Pattern Recognition • Essentially Unlimited • Retrieval - Copies information into short-term store

adjustment heuristic

the rule of thumb that contends that individuals make estimates or choices based on a certain starting point Contends that individuals make estimates or choices based on a certain starting point Individuals make estimates or choices based on a certain starting point - first impression. application: estimates • Final estimates are overwhelmingly influenced by initial estimates - Estimates Begin with Initial Value - Initial Value Serves as Anchor • Problems - Formulation, Partial Computation Misleading - Insufficient Adjustment

all or none law

the rule that neurons are either on or off principle that the action potential in a neuron does not vary in strength; the neuron either fires at full strength or it does not fire at all the principle that once an action potential is triggered in an axon, it is propagated, without decrement, to the end of the fiber

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance a sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head sense of balance equilibrium the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance a sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head

auditon

the sense or act of hearing Proximal Stimulus - Mechanical Vibration • 20-20,000 cycles per second • Receptor Organ - Cochlea • Basilar Membrane • Hair Cells • Sensory Tract - Vestibulo-Cochlear Nerve (VIII) • Auditory Component - Medial Geniculate Nucleus (Thalamus) • Primary Auditory Cortex A1 - Brodmann's Area 41 (Temporal Lobe) - Loudness, Pitch, Timbre Pitch - Frequency • Timbre - Shape of Wave • Fundamental Frequency • Distribution of Harmonics - Flute, sine wave » Pure fundamental - Oboe, square wave » Fundamental + Odd harmonics

defining features

the set of features necessary to make objects acceptable members of a category the necessary features that are essential to a category. qualities that are essential, or necessarily present, in order to classify an object as a member of a category • Geometrical Figures - Triangles • 2 Dimensions, 3 Sides, and 3 Angles - Quadrilaterals • 2 Dimensions, 4 Sides, and 4 Angles • Animals - Birds • Vertebrate, Warm-Blooded, Feathers, Wings - Fish • Vertebrate, Cold-Blooded, Scales, Fins Implications of Problems with Classical View of Categories • These problems would not occur if categories were represented as proper sets • Therefore, people must do something else when they induce concepts or deduce category membership • Apparently, concepts are not structured like proper sets after all!

The "Foot-in-the-Door" Effect

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request the tendency to be more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one People are much more likely to agree to a large request if they first agree to a smaller one Freedman & Fraser (1966) • Safe-Driving Campaign in California • Canvass Neighborhoods • Ask 1/2 of Households to Sign Petition - Virtually All Agree • Later Return to All Households - Ask to Post Large, Ugly "Drive Carefully" Sign • How Many Will Agree?

shape constancy

the tendency to interpret the shape of an object as being constant, even when its shape changes on the retina a tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from perceiving the same shape for objects, even if retinal image changes

simulation heuristic

the tendency to judge the frequency or likelihood of an event by the ease with which you can imagine (or mentally simulate) it judging the likelihood of an outcome based on how easy it is to imagine a plausible series of events leading to that outcome. A process for explaining the past or predicting the future through the mental construction of scenarios that produce different outcomes. applications: estimates of probability judgments of causality Judgment is Based on the Ease with which a Plausible Scenario can be Constructed • Similar to Availability - But Ease of Imagination - Not Ease of Retrieval from Memory • Problem - No Guarantee that Imagined Scenario Might Have Occurred Simulation and the "Counterfactual Emotions" • Compare Actual Outcome with "What Might Have Been" Frustration Regret Grief Indignation

situationism

the theory that behavior is determined more by situations than by personality traits The view that environmental conditions influence people's behavior as much as or more than their personal dispositions do. describes a perspective that behavior and actions are determined by the immediate environment and surroundings; a view promoted by social psychologists

The James-Lange theory of emotion

the theory that emotions arise from the perception of body changes theory proposing that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion External Event Elicits Bodily Response - James: Whole Body - Lange: Visceral • Perception of Efferent Activity Experienced as Emotion critique: Emotion is Preserved when Spinal Cord is Severed • No Differential Pattern of Response • Nonspecific Perception of Visceral Response • Autonomic Responses Too Slow • Manipulation of Autonomic Responses Has No Effect on Emotion

The Opponent-Processes Theory of Acquired Motivation

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green the theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision opposing retinal processes enable color vision "A" State - Recruits Rapidly - Dissipates Rapidly • "B" State as Slave to A - Recruits Slowly - Dissipates Slowly - Strengthens with Repetition applcation:Drug Addiction - Withdrawal - Tolerance with Repeated Doses - Repeated Doses Strengthen B State - Vicious Cycle - Addiction as Avoidance of B State • "Salted-Nut Phenomenon" • "Runner's High"

opponent process theory of color vision

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green the theory that receptor cells for color are linked in pairs, working in opposition to each other The theory that color vision is the product of opposing pairs of color receptors, red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white; when one member of a color pair is stimulated, the other member is inhibited. Hurvich & Jameson (1957), after Hering (1878) • On the Retina - Three Types of Cones • "Blue", "Green", "Red" - One Type of Rod • Light • Antagonistic Pairs - Red-Green - Yellow-Blue - Black-White

social learing theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Observational Learning and Language Acquisition • Native or Secondary Language • Exposure to Language - Aural or Gestural - Critical Period before Puberty • Detect Sounds of language - Separate into Words • Recognize Words • Grammatical Rules • Prosody, Nonverbal Communication Social Learning and Culture • Culture: Customary Beliefs, Social Forms, and Material Traits of a Racial, Ethnic, or Social group - Transmitted through Informal Learning and Formal Training from One Generation to the Next • Observational Learning is the Cognitive Basis of Culture and Cultural Transmission • Thinking is the Cognitive Basis of Cultural Evolution

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

the use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation the belief that accurate knowledge can be acquired through observation the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment. (Locke) - Knowledge Acquired Through Experience - Reflections on Experience

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. the way an issue is posed the power of the media to influence how events and issues are interpreted Framing in the Disease Problem Tversky & Kahneman (1981) • Imagine that You are a Public Health Official Facing the Impending Outbreak of a Deadly Disease • Based on Past Experience, the Disease is Expected to Kill 600 People • Two Alternative Programs Available... Programs A and B Focus on Gains - People's Lives to be Saved - Prefer Sure Gain, Averse to Risk • Programs C and D Focus on Losses - People's Lives to be Lost - Avoid Sure Loss, Seek Risk

gestalt principles of perception

the whole is more than the sum of its parts Figure and ground; similarity; proximity; congruity; continuity; closure; area; symmetry the whole is greater than the sum of its parts Critique of Structuralism - Atomism and the Chemical Analogy • Holism - Emergent Properties "The whole is something else than the sum of its parts" Koffka (1935) Classical _________ ________ ___ ________ • Proximity • Similarity - Color, Size, Orientation • Common Fate • Symmetry • Parallelism • Good Continuation • Closure New _________ _________ _______ __________: Palmer (1999) • Synchrony • Common Region • Connectedness

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

theory proposing that emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion the theory that emotions arise from the perception of body changes James (1884); Lange (1887) • Traditional View: Emotion Behavior - Stimulus Elicits Emotional State - Emotional State Causes Behavior • Coping • Expression • Revisionist View: Behavior Emotion - Stimulus Elicits Response - Perception of Response Causes Emotional State • Reverses Usual Direction of Causality

Group Therapy

therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction treating a group of people who have similar problems and who meet regularly with a trained counselor A form of psychotherapy that involves one or more therapists working simultaneously with a small group of clients.

Metacognition

thinking about thinking "Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. Gleitman, Gleitman, & Shipley (1972); Flavell (1979) Cognition About Cognition • Monitoring What You Know • Appreciation of Cognitive Processes - Metalanguage - Metamemory Aspects of Metacognition Flavell (1979) • Goals or Tasks - Objectives of Cognition • Actions or Strategies - What Works for a Given Task • Metacognitive Knowledge - Understanding of Influences on Cognition • Metacognitive Experiences - Thoughts and Feelings About Cognition

Facets of Agreeableness

trust, straightforwardness, altruism, compliance, modesty, tender-mindedness trust, morality, altruism, cooperation, modesty, sympathy trusting, straightforward, compliant, modest, tender-minded Trust - I think most people I deal with are honest and trustworthy • Straight-Forwardness - I would hate to be thought of as a hypocrite • Altruism - I go out of my way to help others if I can • Compliance - I would rather cooperate with others than compete with them • Modesty - I try to be courteous to everyone I meet • Tender-Mindedness - I believe that most people are basically well-intentioned

cerebral hemispheres

two halves of the cerebral cortex(brain), each of which serve distinct yet highly integrated functions

ambiguous sentences

two sentences that have identical surface structures but very different deep structures two sentences may have identical surface structures but very different deep structures Sentences that have identical surface structures but very different deep structures. Someone stepped on his trunk. • Harvey saw a man eating fish. • They are visiting firemen. • Visiting relatives can be boring. • Smoking volcanoes can be dangerous. • Make me a milkshake.

afferent, efferent, internuerons

types of neurons

linguistic relativity

view that characteristics of language shape our thought processes the hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thought Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think Whorf (1940) and Sapir (1941); after Boas (1911) • "Eskimo Words for Snow" - Aput - "Snow on the Ground" - Qana - "Falling Snow" - Piqsirpoq - "Drifting Snow" - Qimuqsuq - "A Snow Drift" • Linguistic syntax and semantics provide a "program and guide for an individual's mental activity".... The relativity of all conceptual systems... and their dependence upon language stand revealed." - Structural differences between two languages are paralleled by non-linguistic cognitive differences between native speakers of those languages.

Learned Helplessness Theory of depresion

view that exposure to uncontrollable negative events leads to a belief in one's inability to control important outcomes and a subsequent loss of motivation, indecisiveness, and failure of action holds that depression occurs when people expect that bad events will occur and that there is nothing they can do to prevent them or cope with them suggests that the type of stressful event most likely to lead to depression is an uncontrollable negative event

Delay of Gratification

waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act declining a pleasant activity now in order to get greater pleasure later the ability to wait for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act Funder, Block, & Block (1983) • Ratings by Teachers at Age 4 • Ego Control (Conscientiousness) - Impulse Control • Delay of Gratification • Inhibition of Aggression • Planfulness • Ego Resiliency (Neuroticism) - Ability to Adapt to Environmental Demands • Security • Competence Funder et al. (1983) • Gift-Delay Situation - Offered Gift-Wrapped Package - Must Wait To Open Gift • Resistance-to-Temptation Situation - Presented with Attractive and Unattractive Toys - Forbidden to Play with Attractive Set

Facets of Extraversion

warmth, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, positive emotions gregarious, warm, assertive, active, excitement-seeking, positive emotionally friendliness, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity level, excitement-seeking, cheerfulness Self-Reported Behavioral Tendencies NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae (1985, 1992) • Interpersonal Warmth - I really like most people I meet. • Gregariousness - I like to have a lot of people around me. • Assertiveness - I have often been a leader of the groups I've belonged to. • Activity - I often feel as if I'm bursting with energy • Excitement-Seeking - I have sometimes done things just for "kicks" or "thrills". • Positive Emotions - I am a cheerful, high-spirited person.

framing effects

when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased (or framed) a decision bias influenced by the way in which a problem or decision alternative is phrased or presented The influence, on the respondent, of how a polling question is asked; changes in wording can significantly alter many people's answers Judgment is Not Invariant Over Different Descriptions of a Problem - Depends on How Problem is Framed • Violates Normative Rationality - Rational Choice Determined by Abstract Representation of Problem • Values, Utilities are a Matter of Algebra - Judgment Should Not Depend on Wording of Problem

Principles of memory

• Encoding - Elaboration - Organization • Storage - Time-Dependency • Interference • Retrieval - Cue-Dependency • Availability vs. Accessibility - Encoding Specificity - Schematic Processing

Psychosocial Consequences of Pseudohermaphroditism in Genetic Males (XY)

• Failure of the Mullerian-Inhibiting Substance - Male External Genitalia • Female Internal Reproductive Anatomy Surgically Removed - Identified and Raised as Boys • Identify Selves as Boys • Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome - No Masculinization of Reproductive Anatomy • Testes Surgically Removed - Raised as Girls, Identify Themselves as Girls • No Menstruation at Puberty Klinefelter's Syndrome (47, XXY) - Male External Genitalia • Feminized Physique - Identified and Raised as Boys • Identify Selves as Boys • Guevodoces - Initially Identified and Raised as Girls - Shift Gender Identity at Puberty - Masculine Gender Role in Adolescence/Adulthood • Heterosexual Erotic Orientation

Masculinization of the Brain

• Female Adrenogenital Syndrome (XX) Also Progestin-Induced Pseudohermaphroditism - Genetic Females Raised as Girls - More "Tomboyish" Than Average Girl • Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (XY) - Genetic Males Raised as Girls - Behavior the Same as "Normal" Girls • Exogenous Estrogen, Progesterone (XY) - No Effects on Reproductive Anatomy - Less Aggressive, Competitive than Controls? • Artifact of Illness in Family?

memory tests

• Free Recall - Query Specifies Spatiotemporal Context • What were the words on the last list studied in class? • Cued Recall - Query Adds Information About Target • What were the color words on that list? • Recognition - Query Contains a Copy of the Target • Was orange one of the words on that list ?

Predictability

• Greatest Between Adjacent Levels • But What About Predicting Specific Actions in Specific Situations? • Tertiary Traits • Secondary Traits • Primary Traits • Habitual Actions • Specific Actions The Problem of __________: To what extent can we predict a person's behavior in some specific situation from knowledge of his or her generalized personality traits?

Questions for Psychology

• How Does the Mind Work? • How Do We Use Our Minds to... - Solve Problems? - Create New Things? - Negotiate Our Relations with Other People? • How Is the Mind Related to the Body?

thirst

• Intracellular Fluid - Dehydration • Concentration of Salt - Overhydration • Kidneys • Double-Depletion Hypothesis - Intracellular Fluids - Extracellular Fluids (Blood Plasma)

biological taxonomy

• Kingdom • Phylum • Class • Order • Family • Genus • Species • Subspecies • Animalia • Chordata • Mammalia • Primates • Hominidae • Homo • Sapiens • Sapiens

Controllability and Instrumental Conditioning

• Learned Helplessness - Shock is Inescapable, Unavoidable - Negative Expectations of Control • Generalize to New Learning Environment • Instrumental Conditioning - Organism Learning to Control Environment • Develops Expectations Concerning Control

Algorithm reasoning

• Logical, Systematic Rules • Application Inevitably Solves Problem • Guaranteed to Reach Correct Answer • "Recipe" for Problem-Solving - Specifies Necessary Ingredients - Amounts - Order of Combination

Problems with Diagnoses as Proper Sets

• Partial Expression - Schizoid Personality Disorder - Schizotypal Personality Disorder - Paranoid Personality Disorder • Combined Expression - Pseudoneurotic Schizophrenia - Pseudopsychopathic Schizophrenia - Schizoaffective Disorder - Borderline Personality Disorder

Duplex Theory of Pitch Perception

• Place Principle - Above 500-20,000 cps • Pure Frequency Principle - Below 1,000 cps • Volley Principle - 1,000 - 4,000 cps

the united nations problem

• Please Estimate the Percentage of Countries in the United Nations that are From the Continent of Africa - Some People Say 10% • What Do You Say? - Some People Say 65% • What Do You Say?

normative model of judgment and reasoning

• Principles of Logic, Probability • Self-Interest • Optimality • Utility (Efficiency)

Post-Natal Hormonal Influences

• Puberty - Menarche • Arenarche - Nocturnal Emissions - Secondary Sex Characteristics • Middle - Old Age - Menopause - Andropause? • Partial Androgen Deficiency in Aging Men ("Low T")

The Social Imprimatur in Gender Dimorphism

• Recognition of Child's Biological Sex - Identification, Categorization - Self-Identification • Gender Socialization by Parents - Model Behavior - Communicate Expectations - Reward Performance • Gender Socialization by Others - Peers, Teachers - Media

perception as problem solving

• Sources of Information - Proximal Stimulus ("Bottom-Up") • figure, ground • primary, secondary modalities - Schemata ("Top-Down") • world knowledge • expectations, beliefs • Inferential Rules - Unconscious inferences - Conscious problem-solving

cues for the perception of memory

• Successive Covering, Uncovering

Cues for the Perception of Motion

• Successive Covering, Uncovering • Movement of Image Across Retina - Holding Head and Eyes Steady • Egomotion - Head/Eye Movements • Alter placement of retinal image

Symptoms

• Superficial Manifestations of Underlying Pathology

Disease

• Syndrome Whose Underlying Pathology is Known

The Trait-Situation Debate

• The effect of the personality variable is the same, regardless of the situation the person is in. • The effect of the situational variable is the same, regardless of the person in it. Which effect is more powerful -- the person or the situation?

the birth problem

• The probability of any particular newborn being a boy is 1/2 • Probabilities are independent of each other • Therefore: p(GBGBBG) = (1/2)6 = .0156 p(BBBGGG) = (1/2)6 = .0156 p(BGBBBB) = (1/2)6 = .0156