Psych Quiz 2

extinction in positively vs negatively reinforced behavior

- Extinction of positively reinforced behavior is when the positive reinforcer is no longer delivered following the behavior. - Extinction of negatively reinforced behavior is when the aversive stimulus is no longer removed following the behavior.

characteristics of the consequences

- Reward value: The degree to which a consequence will change a behavior because it matters to the participant. - The intensity level of the reinforcer can affect the degree of reinforcement. - Reinforcers are more effective if they are minimally disruptive of the learned behavior. - Avoid reinforcers that are difficult to withhold.

positive reinforcement

1. The occurrence of a behavior 2. is followed by the addition of a stimulus (a reinforcer) or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus, 3. which results in the strengthening of the behavior. a) With positive reinforcement, a behavior is followed by the presentation of a stimulus (the reinforcer) and the behavior is strengthened. b) Positive refers to the fact that something is given.

negative reinforcement

1. The occurrence of a behavior 2. is followed by the removal of a stimulus (an aversive stimulus) or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus, 3. which results in the strengthening of the behavior. a) With negative reinforcement, a behavior is followed by the removal of a stimulus (that is aversive or unpleasant) and the behavior is strengthened. b) Negative refers to the fact that something is taken away. c) Escape and avoidance behaviors may be involved in negative reinforcement. - With escape, the behavior results in the termination of (or escape from) the aversive stimulus and the behavior is strengthened. With avoidance, the behavior results in the prevention of (or avoidance of) the aversive stimulus and the behavior is strengthened

operant behavior

A behavior that is strengthened through the process of reinforcement. acts on the environment to produce a consequence and, in turn, is controlled by or occurs again in the future as a result of, its immediate consequence a) Operant behavior is behavior that is guided by its consequences. b) It is strengthened through the process of reinforcement. c) It is behavior that is controlled by its reinforcers

stimulus class

A group of stimuli that share specified common elements along formal, temporal, and/or functional dimensions. ex) dog group

Factors That Influence the Effectiveness of Reinforcement

Immediacy - A stimulus is more effective as a reinforcer when it is delivered immediately after the behavior. Contingency - A stimulus is more effective as a reinforcer when it is delivered contingent on the behavior. Motivating operations - Establishing operations make a stimulus more effective as a reinforcer at a particular time. Abolishing operations make a stimulus less potent as a reinforcer at a particular time. Individual differences - Reinforcers vary from person to person. Magnitude - Generally, a more intense stimulus is a more effective reinforcer.

generalized conditioned reinforcer

Money is a generalized conditioned reinforcer because it is paired with (exchanged for) an almost unlimited variety of reinforcers. As a result, money is a powerful reinforcer that is less likely to diminish in value (to become satiated) when it is accumulated. That is, satiation (losing value as a reinforcer) is less likely to occur for generalized reinforcers such as money a) Examples: - Money - Praise - Tokens

Premack Principle

One type of positive reinforcement involves the opportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior (a preferred behavior) as a consequence for a low probability behavior (a less-preferred behavior), to increase the low-probability behavior.

reinforcer

The consequence that strengthens an operant behavior a) A reinforcer is a stimulus or event that strengthens the operant behavior b) There are two types of reinforcers: - Unconditioned reinforcers - Conditioned reinforcers

contingency

When a contingency exists, the consequence is more likely to reinforce the response (e.g., see Borrero, Vollmer & Wright, 2002). Consider the example of turning the key in your ignition to start your car. This is an example of contingency: Every time you turn the key, the car starts. The behavior of turning the key is reinforced by the engine starting. If the engine started only sometimes when you turned the key, and if it started sometimes when you did not turn the key, the behavior of turning the key in this particular car would not be strengthened very much. A person is more likely to repeat a behavior when it results in a consistent reinforcing consequence. That is, a behavior is strengthened when a reinforcer is contingent on the behavior (when the reinforcer occurs only if the behavior occurs).

stimulus control with extinction

a) The behavior is no longer reinforced in specific circumstances; that is, it is no longer reinforced when a specific antecedent (stimulus occurring before the undesired behavior) is present. b) The behavior will decrease in the future when that stimulus is present.

neutral stimulus/token

a plastic poker chip or a small square piece of colored cardboard can be used as a conditioned reinforcer to modify human behavior in a token reinforcement program. In a token reinforcement program, the token is presented to the person after a desirable behavior, and later the person exchanges the token for other reinforcers (called backup reinforcers). Because the tokens are paired with (exchanged for) the backup reinforcers, the tokens themselves become reinforcers for the desirable behavior

conditioned reinforcers

a stimulus that was once neutral (a neutral stimulus does not currently function as a reinforcer; i.e., it does not influence the behavior that it follows) but became established as a reinforcer by being paired with an unconditioned reinforcer or an already established conditioned reinforcer. For example, a parent's attention is a conditioned reinforcer for most children because attention is paired with the delivery of food, warmth, and other reinforcers many times in the course of a young child's life. Money is perhaps the most common conditioned reinforcer a) Conditioned or secondary reinforcers acquired their value through association with other reinforcers - They were previously neutral stimuli - That got their role from repeated pairing with an established reinforcer b) Examples: - sight, sound, and scent of parents - a parent's smile, tone of voice, attention and praise - toys, TV shows, music, clothes, and activities - grades, positive evaluations - social or physical accomplishments - money

factors influencing extinction

a) A behavior is generally more resistant to extinction when... - the reinforcers maintaining the behavior are not clearly defined - not all reinforcers are withheld; that is, some reinforcement occurs after the initiation of extinction - alternative responses are not reinforced b) A behavior is more resistant to extinction when... - the behavior was reinforced for a long time - the value of reinforcers was high - the behavior was reinforced intermittently - instructions regarding the new contingencies were not provided · extinction of a given behavior may be quicker if it is continuously reinforced a) Intermittent reinforcement may lead to slower extinction. b) Behaviors slow to extinguish are said to be resistant to extinction. · If the reinforcement occurs in the course of extinction, it takes longer for the behavior to decrease because behavior is now under the contingency of intermittent reinforcement.

positive punishment

a) A behavior occurs prior to adding any stimulus. b) Performance of the behavior results immediately in a stimulus (the punisher) being applied or presented. c) Repetition of this process leads to the behavior being less likely to occur in the future

punishment

a) A behavior occurs prior to adding any stimulus. b) Performance of the behavior results immediately in an unpleasant consequence (punisher). c) Repetition of this process leads to the behavior being less likely to occur in the future d) A punisher is an aversive consequence or aversive stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated in the future. e) Consequences are not punishers simply because they appear to be unpleasant. f) Consequences are punishers only when they weaken a behavior. g) Examples: - Spanking - Scolding - Yelling - Criticism h) Punishment can be effective but is often problematic because of its negative side-effects · Types of Punishment: 1. Positive punishment 2. Negative punishment

negative punishment

a) A behavior occurs prior to withdrawing any stimulus. b) Performance of the behavior results immediately in a stimulus (typically a reinforcer) being withdrawn or removed. c) Repetition of this process leads to the behavior being less likely to occur in the future.

fixed ratio schedules

a) A reinforcer is received after X number of responses. The value of X never changes (x = fixed). b) This schedule usually results in a high rate of behavioral responses because the quicker the behaviors are done, the sooner the reinforcement occurs. c) Sometimes there is a post reinforcement pause because the individual realizes that he/she may have to start over again and accumulate behaviors to get reinforcement. d) To make this schedule effective, it's a good idea to increase the ratio of behaviors to reinforcement slowly to avoid reinforcement strain (when the subject decides that it takes too much to get reinforced). e) Examples: - a factory worker who gets paid by the number of pieces completed - a child who gets praised per number of math problems completed

variable ration schedules

a) A reinforcer is received after x number of responses. The value of X changes b) This schedule also results in a high rate of behavioral responses because the quicker the behaviors are done, the sooner the reinforcement occurs c) With a variable ratio schedule, we do not get a post reinforcement pause d) A variable ration schedule is harder to program because it is not consistent e) Ex) - playing a slot machine - Soliciting people by phone

stimulus control with punishment

a) The behavior is punished in specific circumstances; that is, only when a specific antecedent (stimulus occurring before the undesired behavior) is present. b) The behavior will decrease in the future when that stimulus is present.

variable interval schedules

a) A reinforcer is received for the first response after X amount of time has passed. The value of X changes. b) This schedule results in a slow but steady rate of behavioral response. c) Because the rate of response is low, this schedule is rarely used in behavior modification approaches. d) Examples: - Your supervisor checks on you at unpredictable times. - Your mail comes at a different time each day.

fixed interval schedules

a) A reinforcer is received for the first response after X amount of time has passed. The value of X does not change. b) This schedule results in a low rate of behavioral response that increases at the end of the time interval as it becomes apparent when a behavior will most likely be reinforced. c) Since this schedule results in a low rate of response, it is rarely used in behavior modification approaches. d) Examples: - If you know that your supervisor only checks on you every hour, you will increase your work productivity at the end of the hour. - If you know that your mail is delivered every day around the same time, you might check your mailbox only as that time approaches.

key terms

a) Acquisition Phase - Behavior is being conditioned or learned b) Maintenance Phase - Behavior has become well-learned c) It is best to provide continuous reinforcement during acquisition, and then switch to intermittent reinforcement during maintenance

extinction burst

a) Behavior being extinguished might increase before it decreases b) Extinction burst: increase in responding during extinction

stimulus generalization

a) Behavior occurs in the presence of all stimuli that are similar in some way to the SD b) When the behavior is reinforced in the presence of the SD, in the future, the behavior also occurs in the presence of S1, S2, S3, etc.

motivating operations

a) Establishing operation (EO) is an antecedent event that: (rat is already thirsty when you make them run on that wheel- work harder for water) - Makes a reinforcer more potent - Makes a behavior that produces that reinforcer more likely to occur at that time b) Abolishing operation (AO) is an antecedent event that: (ate before coming to class so will not work harder to answer questions to receive candy) - Makes a reinforcer less potent - Makes a behavior that produces that reinforcer less likely to occur at that time

establishing and abolishing operations

a) Events that change the value of a stimulus as a reinforcer ~ deprivation: The stimulus is a more powerful reinforcer if the person has gone without it for a long time. ~ satiation: The stimulus is a less powerful reinforcer if the person has had a large quantity of it recently, decreasing its desirability

what is not extinction?

a) Extinction is just one of several possible causes/processes of decrease in behavior. - Positive punishment - Negative punishment - Forgetting b) Also, a common misconception about extinction is that extinction means ignoring the behavior. Ignoring the behavior functions as extinction only if attention was the reinforcer for that behavior.

spontaneous recovery

a) Extinguished behavior may reappear after a delay - A behavior that has disappeared during an extinction session may reappear at the next opportunity after some time has passed. - The reappearance of an extinguished behavior following a rest is called spontaneous recovery

disadvantages of punishment

a) Generalized suppression of all responses b) Raised arousal c) Increased attempts at escape and avoidance d) Aggressive model e) Model punishment to control others f) Punishment needs to be repeated g) Conditioned aversiveness to punishing person h) Negative reinforcement for the use of punishment i) Undesirable emotional responses j) Ethical issues - Is it okay to harm another person or animal to attain a goal?

factors influencing punishment

a) Immediacy b) Contingency c) Motivating operations - EO ‐ antecedent that makes a stimulus more potent as a punisher - AO ‐ antecedent that makes a stimulus less potent as a punisher d) Intensity e) Individual differences f) Concurrent schedule of reinforcement or punishment

· How is negative punishment different from extinction of positively reinforced behavior

a) In both processes the target behavior decreases because it is followed by a consequence b) However, their consequences are different - Extinction of positively reinforced behavior involves withholding the reinforcer that was maintaining the behavior - Negative punishment involves removing or withdrawing a positive reinforcer after the behavior; reinforcer that is removed is not necessarily the same reinforcer that was maintaining the behavior

abc's of operant behavior

a) It means that we start with an Antecedent that is followed by our operant Behavior, which is followed by a Consequence. b) There is a three-term contingency: C (the reinforcer or punisher) is contingent on the occurrence of B only in the presence of A A three-term contingency involves a discriminative stimulus (SD), a response that occurs in the presence of the SD, and a reinforcing consequence that follows the response in the presence of the SD (SD ! R ! SR

how to use punishment well

a) Punish immediately b) Contingency c) No escape d) Mildest level of punisher that allows achievement of goals e) Provide instructions about the contingencies f) Warning signal g) Negative punishment h) Reinforce an alternate, appropriate response i) Punish early in the sequence of a chain j) Vary forms of punishment

advantages of punishment

a) Results are rapid b) Behavior that may be resistant to other forms of treatment may respond to punishment c) There may be positive side‐effects, such as generalization d) May lead to complete suppression of unwanted behavior

schedules of reinforcement

a) Schedules of reinforcement are systems used to describe the pattern and frequency of delivery of reinforcers. b) These schedules tell us which responses will be followed by a reinforcer

· Stimulus Discrimination Learning and Stimulus Control

a) Target Behavior: Picking up a call b) Suppose you like Dave, but cannot stand Kanye a) With stimulus discrimination training, we reinforce the behavior in the presence of one antecedent, called the discriminative stimulus. b) We do not reinforce the behavior in the presence of other antecedents, called S-deltas. c) SD is the symbol for a discriminative stimulus. d) The SD is the antecedent stimulus that is present when the behavior is reinforced. e) S∆ is the symbol for S-delta. f) The S∆ is the antecedent stimulus that is present when the behavior is not reinforced.

stimulus control with reinforcement

a) The behavior is reinforced in specific circumstances; that is, only when a specific antecedent (stimulus occurring before the desired behavior) is present. b) The behavior will increase in the future when that stimulus is present. c) Responding comes "under the control" of the stimulus present during reinforcement.

generalization gradient

a) The more similar another stimulus is to SD, the more likely it is that the behavior will occur in the presence of that stimulus. As stimuli are less and less similar to SD, the behavior is less and less likely to occur in the presence of these stimuli.

concurrent reinforcement schedules

a) These are schedules of reinforcement that exist at the same time for two or more different behaviors (concurrent operants)

· Stimulus Discrimination Learning and Stimulus Control

a) Think about things you do with or say to your friends, but not with your parents! b) Think about things you do with or say to your partner, but not with your friends! c) How do we learn to do certain things at certain times but not others? d) There are always cues telling when a given behavior is reinforced or not reinforced or punished or not punished.

when to consider using punishment

a) Use only after other less restrictive procedures have failed b) More easily justified when the behavior - Can cause injury - Is highly embarrassing - Is bizarre c) May be necessary when behavior is maintained by strong reinforcers that cannot be controlled by the therapist d) When undesirable behavior happens at such a high rate that there is a little chance to reinforce an alternative behavior

concept formation

a) We reinforce the correct response to a relevant feature b) à we get extinction for responses to irrelevant features c) We then vary irrelevant features d) and practice with many examples

stimulus control

a) With stimulus control, we learn that the effects of reinforcement, extinction, and punishment are relatively situation specific b) The likelihood of a response varies according to the stimuli present at the time

unconditioned punishers

a) events that have biological significance b) require no conditioning to be effective c) examples: - painful stimuli - extreme levels of stimulation (heat, cold, auditory, visual) - removal of unconditioned reinforcers (food, water, human contact, etc.)

operant conditioning

a) process of strengthening a behavior by reinforcing it or weakening it by punishing it · Principles of Operant Conditioning a) Principle of Positive Reinforcement: giving a point for showing up to class; increasing the behavior and adding something b) Principle of Negative reinforcement: taking away something aversive will increase behavior c) Principle of Positive Punishment: adding something to decrease behavior (spanking) d) Principle of Negative Punishment (Response Cost): taking something away to decrease a behavior e) Principle of Extinction

conditioned punishers

a) stimuli that were previously neutral/did not naturally affect humans b) were paired with an established punisher c) the paired stimuli then became punishers d) examples: - the word "no" - reprimands - threats - warnings - facial expressions or disapproval

stimulus

an object or event that can be detected by one of the senses, and thus has the potential to influence the person (stimuli is the plural form of the word stimulus). The object or event may be a feature of the physical environment or the social environment (the behavior of the person or of others).

continuous reinforcement

continuous reinforcement schedule (better for acquisition) - Each behavior is followed by a reinforcer - Each occurrence of response is followed by the reinforcer - à fast learning and fast extinction

sd = ; s + delta =

discriminative stimulus an antecedent stimulus that is present when the behavior is not reinforced

intermittent reinforcement

intermittent reinforcement schedule (better for maintenance) - Not every response is followed by a reinforcer - à slow learning and slow extinction - Not every operant behavior is followed by a reinforcer 1. Fixed ratio schedules 2. Variable ration schedules 3. Fixed interval schedules 4. Variable interval schedules

the effects of reinforcement, extinction and punishment are...

situation specific

response

the instance of a behavior

avoidance behavior

the occurrence of the behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring. That is, the person avoids the aversive stimulus by engaging in a particular behavior, and that behavior is strengthened. a) A contingency in which a response prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring, thereby resulting in an increase in the frequency of that behavior. b) Discriminated avoidance conditioning - Involves a warning stimulus of a forthcoming aversive stimulus for the target behavior

escape behavior

the occurrence of the behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that was already present when the behavior occurred

Reinforcement

the process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate consequence that reliably follows its occurrence. When a behavior is strengthened, it is more likely to occur again in the future. 1. The occurrence of a particular behavior 2. is followed by an immediate consequence 3. that results in the strengthening of the behavior. (The person is more likely to engage in the behavior again in the future.) a) A behavior occurs prior to any stimulus b) Performance of the behavior results immediately in a consequence (some stimulus) c) Repetition of this process leads to increased behavior in the future. The behavior is strengthened by the consequence and is thus, more likely to occur again in similar situations d) With reinforcement, we see increases in the operant behavior's frequency and duration, and a decrease in latency. e) For example, if you reinforce a cat for coming when you call, the cat will - Come more often when you call - Stay longer - And come more quickly upon hearing your call

positive reinforcer

the stimulus that is presented or that appears after the behavior

aversive stimulus

the stimulus that is removed or avoided after the behavior

unconditioned reinforcers

they function as reinforcers the first time they are presented to most human beings; no prior experience with these stimuli is needed for them to function as reinforcers. Unconditioned reinforcers sometimes are called primary reinforcers. These stimuli are unconditioned reinforcers because they have biological importance *primary reinforcers a) An unconditioned or primary reinforcer does not have to be learned. b) It is biologically determined; it is necessary for the survival value of the individual. c) Examples are food, water, human contact (warmth), oxygen, sexual contact, escape from cold, heat, pain, or extreme levels of stimulation.

review of reinforcement and punishment

· Behavior is strengthened by positive and negative reinforcement. · Behavior is weakened by positive and negative punishment. · Stimulus consequence is presented in positive reinforcement and punishment. · Stimulus consequence is removed in negative reinforcement and punishment.

extinction

· There are two types of extinction: a) Operant extinction b) Respondent extinction a) Start with a behavior that has been previously reinforced. b) Then, start eliminating the consequence that had previously reinforced that behavior. c) The result is a weakening of that behavior. The behavior decreases and eventually stops occurring. d) Examples: - turning the key in a broken trunk lock - drinking from an empty soda bottle - telling unfunny jokes trying to turn on a flashlight that has dead batteries a) Extinction may at first increase the behavior (extinction burst), as the subject may 'think' that more behavior is required to get the reinforcement. b) Extinction may increase aggression and other emotional behaviors due to the sudden lack of reinforcement. c) Extinction may also result in the appearance of novel behaviors that are attempts to get reinforcement. d) Extinction will result in gradual or irregular decreases in responding. e) Behavior can also suddenly reappear (spontaneous recovery) after it had appeared to be reduced to zero. f) Spontaneous recovery is less likely to occur when alternative responses are reinforced. g) Extinction bursts and aggression are less likely to occur when alternative responses are reinforced.