Psych test 1
Embryonic Stage
2-8 weeks the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm begin to grow and specialize
Fetal Stage
8 weeks- birth characterized by rapid increase in complexity and differentiation of the organs. The fetus becomes active and most of its systems become operational
What are some of the ethical issues regarding psychological research?
Ethical guidelines for research include the protection of participants from harm, informed consent of participants, limits on the use of deception, and the maintenance of privacy.
Germinal Stage
Fertilization- 2 weeks Rapid cell division and specialization, and the attachment of the zygote to the walls of the urerus
What are the key issues in the field of development?
Four key issues in lifespan development are (1) whether developmental change is continuous or discontinuous; (2) whether development is largely governed by critical periods during which certain influences or experiences must occur for development to be normal; (3) whether to focus on certain particularly important periods in human development or on the entire life span; and (4) the nature nurture controversy, which focuses on the relative importance of genetic versus environmental influences.
Lifespan Development
a scientific approach to questions about growth, change, and stability in the physical, cognitive, social, and personality characteristics at all ages from conception to death.
Which human characteristics are significantly influenced by heredity?
o Virtually all human traits, characteristics, and behaviors are the result of the combination and interaction of nature and nurture. Many physical characteristics show strong genetic influences. Intelligence contains a strong genetic component but can be significantly influenced by environmental factors. o Some personality traits, including neuroticism and extroversion, have been linked to genetic factors, and even attitudes, values, and interests have a genetic component. Some personal behaviors may be genetically influenced through the mediation of inherited personality traits.
What is our basic genetic endowment, and how can human development go off track?
o A child receives 23 chromosomes from each parent. These 46 chromosomes provide the genetic blueprint that will guide cell activity for the rest of the individuals life. oGregor Mendel discovered an important genetic mechanism that governs the interactions of dominant and recessive genes and their expression in alleles. Traits such as hair and eye color and the presence of phenylketonuria (PKU) are alleles and follow this pattern. o Genes may become physically damaged or may spontaneously mutate. If damaged genes are passed on to the child, the result can be a genetic disorder. o Behavioral genetics, which studies the genetic basis of human behavior, focuses on personality characteristics and behaviors, and on psychological disorders such as schizophrenia. Researchers are now discovering how to remedy certain genetic defects through manipulation of a childs genes. o Genetic counselors use data from tests and other sources to identify potential genetic abnormalities in women and men who plan to have children. Recently, they have begun testing individuals for genetically based disorders that may eventually appear in the individuals themselves.
How do the environment and genetics work together to determine human characteristics?
o Behavioral characteristics are often determined by a combination of genetics and environment. Genetically based traits represent a potential, called the genotype, which may be affected by the environment and is ultimately expressed in the phenotype. o To work out the different influences of heredity and environment, researchers use nonhuman studies and human studies, particularly of twins.
What are the threats to the fetal environment, and what can be done about them?
o Factors in the mother that may affect the unborn child include diet, age, illnesses, and drug, alcohol, and tobacco use. The behaviors of fathers and others in the environment may also affect the health and development of the unborn child.
What capabilities does the newborn have?
o Human newborns quickly master breathing through the lungs, and they are equipped with reflexes to help them eat, swallow, find food, and avoid unpleasant stimuli. Their sensory capabilities are also sophisticated. o From birth, infants learn through habituation, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning. Newborns are able to imitate the behavior of others, a capability that helps them form social relationships and facilitates the development of social competence.
What are some of the approaches to childbirth?
o Parents-to-be have a variety of choices regarding the setting for the birth, medical attendants, and whether or not to use pain-reducing medication. Sometimes, medical intervention, such as Cesarean birth, becomes necessary.
What are some of the causes, effects, and treatments of birth complications?
o Postmature babies, who spend extra time in their mothers wombs, are also at risk. However, physicians can artificially induce labor or perform a Cesarean delivery to address this situation. Cesarean deliveries are performed when the fetus is in distress, in the wrong position, or unable to progress through the birth canal. o The infant mortality rate in the United States is higher than the rate in many other countries, and higher for low-income families than higher-income families.
What is postpartum depression?
o Postpartum depression, an enduring, deep feeling of sadness, affects about 10 percent of new mothers. In severe cases, its effects can be harmful to the mother and the child, and aggressive treatment may be employed.
What complications can occur at birth?
o Preterm, or premature, infants, born less than 38 weeks following conception, generally have low birthweight, which can cause chilling, vulnerability to infection, respiratory distress syndrome, and hypersensitivity to environmental stimuli. They may even show adverse effects later in life, including slowed development, learning disabilities, behavior disorders, below-average IQ scores, and problems with physical coordination. o Very-low-birthweight infants are in special danger because of the immaturity of their organ systems. However, medical advances have pushed the age of viability of the infant back to about 24 weeks following conception.
What is the normal process of labor?
o The first stage of labor contractions occur about every 8 to 10 minutes, increasing in frequency, duration, and intensity until the mother’s cervix expands. In the second stage of labor, which lasts about 90 minutes, the baby begins to move through the cervix and birth canal and ultimately leaves the mother’s body. In the third stage of labor, which lasts only a few minutes, the umbilical cord and placenta are expelled from the mother. o After it emerges, the newborn, or neonate, is usually inspected for irregularities, cleaned, and returned to its mother and father.
How are human characteristics affected by the environment?
o The interaction between genetic and environmental effects has been classified into three types: active genotype influences, passive genotype environment influences, and evocative genotype environment influences.
What stages comprise prenatal development?
o The union of a sperm and ovum at the moment of fertilization, which begins the process of prenatal development, can be difficult for some couples. Infertility, which occurs in some 15 percent of couples, can be treated by drugs, surgery, artificial insemination, and in vitro fertilization. o The germinal stage (fertilization to two weeks) is marked by rapid cell division and specialization, and the attachment of the zygote to the wall of the uterus. During the embryonic stage (two to eight weeks), the ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm begin to grow and specialize. The fetal stage (eight weeks to birth) is characterized by a rapid increase in complexity and differentiation of the organs. The fetus becomes active, and most of its systems become operational.
How are developmental research studies conducted?
oCorrelational studies use naturalistic observation, case studies, and survey research to investigate whether certain characteristics of interest are associated with other characteristics. Correlational studies lead to no direct conclusions about cause and effect. oTypically, experimental research studies are conducted on participants in a treatment group who receive the experimental treatment and participants in a control group who do not. Following the treatment, differences between the two groups can help the experimenter to determine the effects of the treatment. Experiments may be conducted in a laboratory or in a real-world setting. oTo measure change across human ages, researchers use longitudinal studies of the same participants over time, cross-sectional studies of different-age participants conducted at one time, and sequential studies of different-age participants at several points in time.
What are some of the basic influences on human development?
oCulture both broad and narrow is an important issue in lifespan development. Many aspects of development are influenced not only by broad cultural differences, but by ethnic, racial, and socioeconomic differences within a particular culture. oEach individual is subject to normative history-graded influences, normative age-graded influences, normative sociocultural-graded influences, and non-normative life events.
Which theoretical perspectives have guided lifespan development?
oSix major theoretical perspectives currently dominate lifespan development: the psychodynamic perspective (which focuses on inner, largely unconscious forces); the behavioral perspective (which focuses on external, observable actions); the cognitive perspective (which focuses on intellectual, cognitive processes); the humanistic perspective (which focuses on the unique qualities of human beings); the contextual perspective (which focuses on the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds); and the evolutionary perspective (which focuses on our genetic inheritance).
What role do theories and hypotheses play in the study of development?
oTheories are broad explanations of facts or phenomena of interest, based on a systematic integration of prior findings and theories. Hypotheses are theory-based predictions that can be tested. The process of posing and answering questions systematically is called the scientific method. oResearchers test hypotheses by correlational research (to determine whether two factors are associated) and experimental research (to discover cause-and-effect relationships).
behavioral perspective
which focuses on external, observable actions. it typically concerns stimulus response learning, exemplified by classical conditioning, the operant conditioning of Skinner, and Bandura social-cognitive learning theory.
psychodynamic perspective
which focuses on inner, largely unconscious forces. it is exemplified by the psychoanalytic theory of Freud and the psychosocial theory of Erikson. Freud focused attention on the unconscious and on stages through which children must pass successfully to avoid harmful fixations. Erikson identified eight distinct stages of development, each characterized by a conflict, or crisis, to work out.
Cognitive perspective
which focuses on intellectual, cognitive processes. it is the most notable theorist is Piaget, who identified developmental stages through which all children are assumed to pass. Each stage involves qualitative differences in thinking. In contrast, information processing approaches attribute cognitive growth to quantitative changes in mental processes and capacities, and cognitive neuroscience approaches focus on biological brain processes.
evolutionary perspective
which focuses on our genetic inheritance. it attributes behavior to genetic inheritance from our ancestors, contending that genes determine not only traits such as skin and eye color, but certain personality traits and social behaviors as well.
contextual perspective
which focuses on the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. it considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds. The bioecological approach stresses the interrelatedness of developmental areas and the importance of broad cultural factors in human development. Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes the central influence on cognitive development exerted by social interactions between members of a culture.
humanistic perspective
which focuses on the unique qualities of human beings. it contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior. The humanistic perspective emphasizes free will and the natural desire of humans to reach their full potential.