psych test #2 readings

In Hock Just how are you intelligent? cross cultural study of the 7 intelligences?

- compared british and iranian students' self-ratings and ratings of their parents' levels of each of Gardner's intelligences -iranian students rated themselves lower in logical-mathematical intelligence but higher in spatial, musical, and intrapersonal intelligence than british students. -Iranians said father's mathematical and spatial intelligence lower but fathers' interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence to be higher that did british students. -Iranian students rated moms' level of intelligence lower than british students did on all but intrapersonal intelligence. -Iranians rated brothers higher than british students on everything but mathematical intelligence.

Chapter 10: girls vs boys in intelligence testing?

-"g" pretty much the same for girls and boys. -girls outplace boys in spelling, verbal fluency, locating objects, detecting emotions, sensitivity to touch taste and color. Boys outpace girls in tests of spatial ability + complex math problems -Pinker- evolutionary psychologist. Argued that biology affects gender differences in life priorities (women=interest in people men=interest in money/things), risk-taking, and math reasoning + spatial abilities. -social influences construct gender: social expectations shape boys and girls interests/abilities, cultural expectations/culturally influenced preferences also construct.

Chapter 10: what is a growth mindset?

-Dweck: believes intelligence is changeable, and fosters growth mindset (focus on learning and growing). Being praised for effort/taking on challenges rather than just being smart and accomplished → links hard work and success. -studies: confirm that ability + opportunity + motivation = success. → extremely high intelligence test scoring 12 yr olds more likely than average person to earn doctorates and hold patents if ability coupled commitment/dedication study: chilean 10th graders. Those from lowest-income families with growth mindset had academic test scores comparable to high-income students w fixed mindset. -growth mindset and discipline enhance achievement.

Chapter 10: Gardner's view on intelligences? what about sternberg?

-Gardner: 8 relatively ind intelligences. Idea that different kinds of intelligence. -savant syndrome ;condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing. -Sternberg: agrees with gardner that more to success than traditional intelligence and that we have multiple intelligences, but proposes different intelligences: Analytical (academic problem-solving intelligence): assessed by intelligence tests (some predict school grades reasonably well and vocational success more modestly) Creative intelligence: demonstrated by innovative smarts, adapting to new situations, generating novel ideas Practical intelligence: required for everyday tasks that may be poorly defined and may have multiple solutions

Chapter 10: how is the environmental influence seen in relation to intelligence (Hunt)? What were the general findings of his study?

-Hunt: observed Iranian orphanage: typical child couldn't sit up unassisted at age 2 or walk at age 4 due to lack of care, children had developed little sense of personal control over their environment. -began training program for Iranian caregivers: taught them to play language-fostering games. By 22 months of age, infants could name 50+ objects and body parts, and most got adopted. -general finding: poor environmental conditions can repress cognitive development. -schools w many poverty-level children → less opportunities, lower achievement scores. -poverty-related stresses impede cognitive performance: Worries and distractions consume cognitive thoughts and diminish thinking capacity. -extreme conditions can slow normal brain development.

In Hock Just how are you intelligent? Gardner's 8 indicators that define an intelligence?

-Potential isolation of the intelligence by brain damage→ If remains intact when other abilities have been destroyed, evidence that ability-separate intelligence Existence of savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals relating to intelligence → exceptional skills of these individuals support considering an ability as a separate intelligence Clear set of information-processing (thinking) operations linked to intelligence A distinctive developmental history of the intelligence and the potential to reach high levels of expertise Evidence that the intelligence has developed through evolutionary time Ability to study intelligence w psychological experiments Ability to measure the intelligence with existing standardized tests → acknowledges potential value of IQ/past IQ tests. Aspects of intelligence may be represented by a system of symbols → any human intelligence should incorporate a system of symbols

Chapter 10:

-Wechsler: decline in mental ability w age. -1920s: colleges began giving intelligence tests to entering students, allowing psychologists to study intelligence longitudinally. Retested same cohort (group of people) over the years and figured out that until late in life, intelligence remained stable. → challenged idea that intelligence declines sharply w age -cognitive differences: mathematicians/scientists produce most creative work in late 20s-30s, when fluid intelligence at its peak. Authors, historians, philosophers tend to produce their best work in 40s-50s-later, after accumulating more knowledge.

Chapter 10: when do performances on intelligence tests start to predict adult scores? why do children and adults who are more "intelligent" tend to live healthier and longer lives?

-age 4: children's performance on intelligence tests begins to predict their adolescent and adult scores. Consistency of scores increases with age of child (age 11, impressive stability → discovered by Ian Deary) -June 1, 1932: every child in scotland born in 1921 took an intelligence test in order to identify working-class children who would benefit from further education. -when intelligence test administered to 11 year old scots in 1932 was administered to 542 survivors as 80 year olds, correlation between two sets of scores (after 70 years of varied life experiences) high. Studies showed stability of intelligence, independent of life circumstances. -why do children and adults who are more intelligent tend to live healthier and longer lives? 1) intelligence facilitates more education, better jobs, and healthier environment. 2) intelligence encourages healthy living: less smoking, better diet, more exercise 3)prenatal events or early childhood illnesses might have influenced both intelligence and health. 4) a "well-wired body" (as evidenced by fast reaction speeds), perhaps fosters both intelligence and longevity.

Chapter 5: alzheimer's disease

-alzheimer's disease: 1st memory deteriorates, then reasoning. After 5-20 yrs, becomes emotionally flat, then disoriented and disinhibited, then inconsistent, and then mentally vacant -loss brain cells and deterioration of neurons that produce neurotransmitter acetylcholine (imp to memory and thinking) → abnormalities seen in alzheimer's=shriveled protein filaments in cell and clumps of free-floating protein fragment (where communication normally occurs) -how to predict? Diminishing sense of smell and slowed/wobbly walking may predict. Brain scans in people at risk show degeneration of critical brain cells and diminished activity in Alzheimer's-related brain areas.

Chapter 10: what do aptitude tests lack?

-aptitude tests biased in sensitivity to performance differences caused by cultural experience. -don't measure rationality, practical intelligence, and emotional intelligence (along w creativity and character) which matter too in success. Can be successful in many different ways. Competence + diligence=accomplishment.

Chapter 5: why do people begin to lose their eyesight more when they get older? how does one's health change as they grow older? how are older people's reaction times? why do older people tend to have blunt comments?

-as grow older, eye's pupil shrinks and lens become less transparent, reducing amount of light reaching retina (65 years- ⅓ as much light as 20-year old retina) -Health: as grow older, immune system weakens (more susceptible to illness/ailments), but the antibodies collected throughout one's life allows 65+ people to suffer fewer short-term ailments (like cold viruses) -older people take more time to react/process information, solve perceptual puzzles, and remember things. -fatal accident rates increases sharply after age 75. focus on road ahead but don't acknowledge other vehicles approaching from side as much -brain regions imp to memory begin to atrophy during aging, and blood-brain barrier begins to break down within hippocampus (cognitive decline). -beginning in early adulthood, gradual net loss of brain cells begin (by age 80, 5% brain-weight reduction) -later adulthood: since frontal lobes begin to atrophy, some impulsiveness recurs (explaining inappropriate comments/blunt ?s)

In Hock to help or not to help? test on ambiguous situations

-believed that even groups in close contact would be less likely than individuals to help in emergency situation. (esp when emergency ambiguous) -tested idea of when emergency ambiguous with groups: students participated in interviews to "discuss some of the problems involved in life at an urban university". Arrived for interview, seated in a room and asked to fill out questionnaire. After few min, smoke began to seep into from through vent. After several min, smoke became thick. Participants timed to see how long they would wait to report the smoke -of participants in alone condition, 55% reported smoke within 2 min. Only 12% in other 2 groups (where more people present) did so. After 4 min, 75% of alone participants reacted, no additional participants reacted in other groups.

In Hock Thoughts of Tune: idea supporting the fact that people may experience cognitive dissonance and change their opinions about an attitude just by observing people they like engaging in attitude-discrepant behavior (vicarious dissonance)?

-college students heard speeches disagreeing w their attitudes on controversial issue of college fee increase. some, speech given by member of own college. others, made my member of another college. Ingroup member=participants experienced cognitive dissonance, decreased negative attitudes. -researchers also learned that participants didn't even have to hear speech- knowing that ingroup member agreed to make speech enough to cause attitude change.

In Hock Obey at any cost? what was the task that the teacher had to teach the learner? who was the teacher? who was the learner? how did the learner begin to react as the voltage increased?

-confederate posed as another participant and an actor played role of experimenter (looked official) -experimenter told each participant that this was a study on effect of "punishment on learning" → participants drew pieces of paper out of hat to determine who was teacher and who was learner (but in reality actor will always be learner, and participant always teacher.) -learner taken into a room next door, and was strapped to a chair and prepper for being connected to electric shock generator as "teacher" watched. -learning task explained to teacher and learner → learner had to memorize connections between various pairs of words ( not easy memory task). -Instructed by experimenter to administer electric shock each time learner responded incorrectly (and for every incorrect response, teacher instructed to move up 1 level of shock voltage on generator) -learner's responses pre-programmed to be correct/incorrect in same sequence for all participants → as V increased, learners reactions got more severe. Teacher instructed to treat lack of response as incorrect and continue

In Hock Thoughts of Tune: what were the results of the study? Did the results support Festinger's theory?

-each participant asks how actually felt about tasks in interview phase. -participants paid $1 for lying about tasks were ones that later reported liking the tasks more (compared to those paid 20 to lie and those who didn't) → more apt to rate enjoyability of task higher and willingness to participate in similar experiences higher. Supported: if display "attitude-discrepant behavior" but have strong justification for doing so (lie vs 20 dollars) only experience small amount dissonance so don't feel motivated to make change in opinion. People w insufficient justification for behavior experience greater levels dissonance (and will alter opinions more to reduce discomfort)

In Hock I can see it all over your face. how do the results of his study in relationship to facial features connect to darwin's theory?

-facial expressions adaptive mechanisms that assisted animals in adapting to environment, enhancing ability to survive → if messages could be communicated within/across species through facial expressions, higher chance of surviving/reproducing. universally recognized within species -fact that expressions universal among us suggest that they have been passed on and have assisted us in reaching present position in evolution.

In Hock I can see it all over your face. What is the facial feedback theory?

-facial feedback theory of emotional expressions: the expression on your face actually feeds info back to your brain to assist you in interpreting emotion you are experiencing → identified exact facial muscles involved in each of 6 basic emotions, and instructed participants to tense these muscles into expressions resembling various emotions. measured physiological responses in participants that corresponded to appropriate emotion resulting from facial expression alone (not from actual emotion) -When allowed to observe entire body, much more successful in detecting lies (body may provide better clues to certain states of mind than face alone)

Chapter 10: what leads to intelligence?

-genes and experience lead to intelligence → analysis found that study motivation and study skills rivaled aptitude and previous grades as predictors of academic achievement. Motivation can also affect intelligence test performance -idea of "head start" programs help predict later income.

Chapter 5: intimacy and marriage?

-intimacy (forming close relationships) and generativity (being productive/supporting future generations) -love- Adult bonds of love most satisfying and enduring when marked by a similarity of interests and values, sharing of emotional and material support, and intimate self-disclosure. -relationships sealed w commitment often endure. -people being better educated and marrying later in western countries may be why american divorce rate has leveled off and even declined in certain areas. -Europe, canada, US: those who live together before marriage have had higher rates of divorce + marital dysfunction that those who didn't. Those who live together initially less committed to ideal of enduring marriage, may become less marriage-supporting while living together, more awkward to break up w cohabiting partner than with dating partner (leading people to marry someone they otherwise wouldn't have. Idea of pressure.) -Marriage predictor of happiness, sexual satisfaction, income, physical and mental health. -50,000 heterosexual americans: 40% of married adults report being "very happy," only 23% of unmarried adults. -Gottoman: observed interactions of 2000 couples, 1 indicator of marital success=at least 5 to 1 ratio of positive to negative interactions. -couples that last learn to "fight fair" - state feelings without insulting -when children begin to absorb time, money, emotional energy, satisfaction with relationship itself may decline.

Chapter 5: what is a "reminiscence bump" in adults? how do young adult's prospective memory compare with older adults?

-many adults when looking back in life tend to name events from teens or 20s. Show "reminiscence bump" when asked to name all-time favorite music, movies, athletes. Early adulthood peak time for types of learning and remembering. -people watched clips as 14 strangers said their names, then strangers reappeared and gave additional details ab themselves. After 2-3 replays of introductions, everyone remembered more names, but younger adults surpassed older adults. When asked to "recall" information without clues, decline for older adults greater. -prospective memory: teens/young adults surpass young children and 70 yr olds in this. -older people's prospective memory remains strong when events help trigger a memory. -time based tasks and habitual tasks challenging for older people, so older adults tend to rely more on time management and reminder clues/notes. -ind differences in capacity to learn and remember regardless of age. These differences more obv at older ages.

Chapter 5: social development; is a "midlife crisis" real? what is a social clock?

-midlife transition: 40s, transitioning to middle adulthood (unhappiness, job dissatisfaction, marital dissatisfaction, divorce, anxiety, suicide do NOT surge during early 40s.) -one study: found no evidence that distress peaks during "midlife crisis" -¼ adults who report a life crisis, trigger is a major event (not age) -social clock- the idea of when is the "right time" to do things. Varies from culture to culture. Culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

In Hock Just how are you intelligent? how were intelligence tests in the past? how did they measure intelligence? vs new idea of intelligence?

-past produce single score (IQ) → idea that person's intelligence thought of as single and general mental ability. Intelligence referred to as "g"=general mental ability. intelligence split into many different mental abilities, each possessing in itself the characteristics of a complete and "free-standing" intelligence. -Gardner: theory of multiple intelligences → Different regions of brain have evolved to carry out specific tasks related to thinking/knowing. Specialization demonstrated when observing what abilities lost/diminished when person experiences damage to particular region of brain. Gardner believed that different parts of brain responsible for different aspects of intelligence/different intelligences. 8 intelligences: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, existential

Chapter 5: how does physical development change over time?

-physical abilities begin to decline in mid-20s. Physical changes in middle adulthood: -physical vigor has less to do with age than with a person's health and exercise habits (in early and middle adulthood) -sexual activity lessens with age. Although less women have intercourse as they age, most still express satisfaction with sex life even later in life. -menopause: time of natural cessation of menstruation, biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

In Hock Thoughts of Tune: Leon Festinger study and theory

-proposed theory of cognitive dissonance (could account for findings) → will experience when simultaneously hold 2+ cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent. Creates discomfort/stress, and discomfort motivates you to change something to reduce dissonance → since can't change behavior, change attitudes. -theorized that when what you publicly state is different from private beliefs, creates discomfort of cognitive dissonance. But, if public statement that opposes opinion/belief clearly justified by pressures, rewards, or threats of punishment, then dissonance reduced/eliminated. -the more you view your inconsistent behavior to be of your own choosing, greater dissonance will be

Chapter 10: racial and ethnic similarities and differences in intelligence testing?

-racial and ethnic groups differ in average intelligence test scores and high-scoring people and groups more likely to attain high levels of education and income -heredity contributes to individual differences in intelligence, but group differences in a heritable trait may be entirely environmental Idea that nurture matters more than race (racial differences extremely small): -when blacks and whites have or receive the same pertinent knowledge, exhibit similar information-processing skill --> differences in intelligence test performance not based on race, based on education, being prepared/fed, etc. -schools and culture matter: countries w economies with large wealth gap between rich and poor also tend to have large rich vs poor intelligence test score gap.

In Hock Obey at any cost? how was the milligram study set up? what did it research?

-research on obedience. -basis for study: humans have tendency to obey other people who are in a position of authority over them even if (in obeying) they violate their own personal codes of moral and ethical behavior. Designed "shock generator" with different switches, starting at 30 volts and increases by 15 V intervals to 450 volts -participants: 40 males, 20-50 yrs. Recruited asking for volunteers to be paid participants in study ab learning and memory @ yale. -each man paid flat rate, and told that payment simply for coming; could keep no matter what happened after they arrived (showing that participants could withdraw at any time

In Hock Obey at any cost? what were the results of his experiment? what were the two main findings?

-results: asked group of yale psychology majors (seniors) and colleagues to to predict what percentage would deliver shocks to highest level? No more than 3/100 people were predicted to deliver max shock. -real results: every participant continued to at least 300 V level. 26/40 participants went to max shock and obeyed orders. Many exhibited signs of extreme stress/concern . 2 main points of his findings: idea that average, normal people had strong tendency to obey (esp to authority) → situation of exp created atmosphere of obedience. 2nd: extreme tension/anxiety manifested by participants

In Hock I can see it all over your face. results of the experiment?

-sex: no differences in ability to correctly identify emotions in photographs found among groups -All differences in emotion statistically significant except when participants asked to distinguish fear from surprise (many errors were made in this situation.) -westernized and non-westernized adults also compared: no significant differences between groups found on # who chose correct photos, and no differences between younger and older children. -results support hypothesis that particular facial behaviors are universally associated with particular emotions. Based on fact that Fore group had no opportunity to learn anything about western expressions and had no way of identifying them unless universal

In Hock Thoughts of Tune: when behavior is different than attitude, will the behavior or attitude change to bring both into alignment? -do larger monetary rewards produce less attitude change or more attitude change? when are changes in attitudes and opinions greatest?

-studies have shown that in some cases, when behavior contrary to attitude, attitude will change to bring it into alignment with your behavior. -larger rewards (ex monetary awards) produced less attitude change than smaller rewards... would experience more dissonance in situation where make less money if offered money to publicly state specific views that opposite of true views (insufficient justification) --> causing shift of private opinion -changes in attitudes/opinions greatest when dissonance large.

In Hock I can see it all over your face. another study that shows that human can recognizing more threatening expressions easier?

-study: if facial expressions could warn of impending danger, then humans should be able to recognize certain expressions (ie anger) more easily than less threatening expressions. Presented participants w photographs of large crowds of people w different facial expressions (some, happy except 1 person angry. Others, all angry except 1 happy.) task to pick out face that was different. Took significantly longer to find happy face in angry crowd over angry face in happy crowd. When crowd size increased, didn't take significantly longer to find angry face, but did to find happy face.

Chapter 5: what is the terminal decline phase? how do brain scans for older adults compare to those of younger?

-terminal decline phase: later life when challenges arise (income shrinks, opportunities go away, body deteriorates, etc.) life satisfaction declines as death approaches -study: age gave no clue as to life satisfaction. self-esteem=stable. positive feelings grow after midlife, negative feelings subside -with age, people become more stable/accepting -brain scans older adults: neural processing center for emotions responds less actively to negative events. Brain-wave reactions to negative images diminish w age. -since bad feelings associated w negative events fade faster than good feelings associated w + events, most older people believe that life in general has been mostly good. -as years continue, one's own feelings mellow (adult moods less extreme/more enduring than teenagers), highs less high, lows less low. Things not felt as deeply -tragic accidents causing death (rather than death by old age) can trigger 1+ years of mourning that eventually subsides into mild depression. -grieving parents who try to "stay strong" for their partners and not discussion child's death may prolong the grieving

In hock to help or not to help? Darley and Latane experiment to look at the diffusion of responsibility. what did they theorize?

-theorized that large number of people who witnessed event decreased the willingness of any 1 individual to step in and help students asked to openly discuss problems of adjusting to college life in NYC with other students, but to avoid any embarrassment they would be in separate rooms and would speak to each other over intercom (told that intercom only allowed 1 student to speak at time... Each student given 2 min to speak, and would switch back and forth.) -students divided into 3 different experimental conditions → group 1 believed that would be talking only w 1 other person, group 2 believed there would be 2 other people talking w, group 3 told that 5 other people talking to. In reality, each participant along and all other voices recorded. Emergency created- as discussions over intercom system between participants and other "students" began, participants heard first student tell his difficulties and that has severe seizures when under a lot of stress. Convo then switched to next student → group 1: participants turn came next. Other groups: participant heard 1+ students speak before his/her turn. After participant spoke, first student's turn again → emergency: first student spoke normally then began to have seizure. -% of participants in each condition who helped student in trouble recorded, and amount of time participants waited to respond to emergency/try to help recorded. Given 4 min to respond until debriefed.

Chapter 10: principles of intelligence test construction (validity, reliability, standardized). what is content validity vs predictive validity? how are aptitude tests with predicting behavior they are built to predict?

-to be widely accepted, psychological test must be standardized, reliable, and valid. Standardization: giving scores meaning by comparing them with others. Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. -constructing bell-shaped, normal curve. Highest point=average score (on intelligence test, average score=100). Moving out from average, find fewer and fewer people. Score indicates if fell above or below average -think of 68 95 99.7 rule → performance higher than all but 2.5% of all scores=score of 130. Performance lower than 97.5% of all scores=score of 70 Reliability: the extent to which a test yields consistent results. To test reliability, researchers test people many times (ex split test in half, test w alternative forms of test, or retest with same test. The higher the correlation between 2 scores, the higher the test's reliability. Validity: the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to/promises. -content validity- the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest. -predictive validity: the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict. -aptitude tests are not as predictive as they are reliable. Predictive power of aptitude tests peak in early school years and weakens later. -predictive power of aptitude scores diminish as students move up educational latter/get older.

In Hock to help or not to help? what did the kitty genovese case bring about in terms of studies in psychology? what is prosocial behavior? bystander intervention? diffusion of responsibility?

1964- young woman (kitty genovese) was returning to her apartment and viciously attacked and stabbed by man with knife. Attack lasted 35 min, 38 people in area had witnessed attack but only 1 had eventually called police. -NY appalled by seeming indifference on part of so many neighbors who failed to try and stop the violence. -psychologists: wanted to understand what psychological forces might have been at work that prevented people from helping victim. prosocial behavior: behavior that produces positive social consequences bystander intervention: behavior of helping others in emergencies diffusion of responsibility- as the number of bystanders in an emergency increases, the greater the belief that "someone else will help" so don't have to.

Chapter 10: are intelligence tests biased?

Are intelligence tests biased? If predictive validity of a test the same for women and men, various races, and rich and poor. -test can be considered biased if it detects differences caused by cultural experiences along with detecting differences in intelligence. 1900s: eastern european immigrants lacked experience to answer questions about new culture, and therefore considered not as intelligent. Biased (measure developed abilities which reflect, in part, education and experiences) -cultural questions can lead to bias for people taking it of other cultures, language test is in can lead to bias (assuming students with different native language to be "less intelligent", etc.) -intelligence researchers recommend creating culture-neutral questions for fair aptitude tests

In Hock to help or not to help? results of Darley and Latane's study?

As number of others that participants believed were part of study increased, percentage who reported seizure quickly (as occurring) decreased dramatically.. For those who eventually helped, amount delay greater. all participants in group 1 reported emergency, and percentage reporting dropped as groups increased. -as # of people in group increased, participants felt less individual responsibility to take action. Feel less potential guilt/blame if don't help when in bigger groups. → if only person present, failing to help carries greater negative consequences than if in bigger group -evaluation apprehension - part of reason fail to help when others present that afraid to be embarrassed or ridiculed.

In Hock Power of Conformity: Asch study and its results? How did it show the power of conformity?

Ash: perceptual conformity (the extent to which humans tend to conform w one another's perceptions of world.) -pairs of cards w 3 different lengths of vertical lines on 1 card and a single standard line the same length as ⅓ of comparison lines on other. -participants asked to participate in "visual perception study." -Experimenter shows pair of cards and asks you to determine which of the 3 comparison lines is the same length as standard line. -Each participant (7) gives correct answer and when your turn comes you give same obv correct answer. This process occurs several times (and card changed) → when card revealed on next trial, however, other participants (who are actually "actors") give answers and all choose same wrong line. How do you respond/answer? Results: 75% of participants went along with group's incorrect consensus at least once. Participants agreed 2 group on incorrect responses about ⅓ of time for all trials combined. Control group- asked to write down correct answers to line comparison questions, correct 98% of time. Shows idea of conformity/group pressures to conform.

In Hock Just how are you intelligent? Bem and his research on androgyny

Bem's research on androgyny. People's estimates of own intelligence linked to gender identity. Asked people/participants to estimate own level on intelligences and complete the test to measure level of masculinity, femininity, and androgyny. Gender differences found for logical-mathematical intelligence (masculine) vs musical intelligence (feminine), males' degree of self-perceived masculinity, femininity, or androgyny significantly influenced estimates of own levels of intelligences.

Chapter 10: cross sectional vs longitudinal study? what is crystallized intelligence? what is a cohort? fluid intelligence?

Cross-sectional study: research that compares people of different ages at same point in time Longitudinal study- research that follows and retests the same people over time Cohort- a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period. Crystallized intelligence- our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills. Tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence- ability to reason speedily and abstractly, tends to decrease with age (esp during late adulthood.) -cross-sectional study: found that mental ability declines w age -longitudinal study: found that intelligence remains stable, and on some tests it even increases.

Chapter 10: what are the consequences of re-standardizing intelligence tests? what are the extremes of intelligence?

Flynn effect w re-standardizing tests: -when re-standardized tests, 2 people at same ability level could be classified differently → more people have become eligible for special education and financial assistance. -fewer americans eligible for execution in US (execution of people w intellectual disability (score below 70) "cruel and unusual punishment"). If get slightly above 70, still cases where can be taken off death row Low: intellectual disability High: 1921: Terman studied schoolchildren with IQ > 135. Healthy, well-adjusted, unusually successful academically. most people in Terman's initial group had attained high levels of education over time. -studies revolving around youths who aced math SAT at age 13 (top 1% of age group) → by 50s, extremely successful compared to others. -labeling some children as "ungifted" and denying them opportunities for enriched education widens achievement gap between ability groups. Related to minority and low-income youth normally placed in lower academic groups

Chapter 10: what was the first intelligence test? binet test? intelligence tests vs achievements tests vs aptitude tests?

Intelligence test- Method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores. -achievement tests- to reflect what you have learned. -Aptitude tests- to predict your ability to learn a new skill in the future/to predict a person's future performance. -Galton: idea of "simple intelligence" failed. Binet: psychologist in france, given task of designing fair test to predict school achievement. -assumed that all children follow same course of intellectual development but that some develop more rapidly. "Dull" child would score like a typical younger child would, "bright" child like an older child. -goal: measuring each child's "mental age" - level of performance typically associated with certain chronological age. -mental aptitude: tested variety of reasoning/problem-solving questions on his daughters, then on "bright" and "backward" schoolchildren. Items answered correctly could predict how well french students could handle schoolwork -didn't make assumptions as to why particular children were slow, just found a measure to see if they were.

Chapter 10: intelligence and Spearman's view on this. How did Thurnstone oppose Spearman?

Intelligence- the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations -Spearman: one general intelligence (g) that controls all of our intelligent behavior (underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.) Thought that people often have special, outstanding abilities, but noted that those who score higher in a certain level of intelligence tend to score higher than average in other areas. Thurnstone: opposed Spearman. Gave 56 different tests to people and identified 7 clusters of "primary mental abilities"- word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, memory -noticed that those who excelled in 1 of the 7 cluster generally scored well on others. So some evidence of spearman's "g" factor -several distinct abilities tend to cluster together and to correlate enough to define general intelligence factor

In Hock Just how are you intelligent? intrapersonal vs interpersonal intelligence

Intrapersonal intelligence: ability to be aware of/understand who you are, your emotions, your motivations, and the sources of your actions. Idea of knowing yourself Interpersonal intelligence: idea of how well you know others. Involves skills that focus on feelings, motivations, desires, and behaviors of others.

In Hock Just how are you intelligent? linguistic, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic

Linguistic intelligence: if strong in linguistic intelligence, can use words in ways that skillful, useful, and creative in comparison to others. Convincing others of opinion easily, memorize/recall detailed/complex info, can explain/teach concepts to others well, enjoy using language. Musical intelligence: gifted abilities involving sound. Logical-mathematical intelligence: allows you to think about, analyze, and compute various relationships among abstract objects, concepts, and ideas. Spatial intelligence: skilled in creating, visualizing, and manipulating mental images (comes naturally) Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence/physical intelligence: aware of own body and bodily movements, skilled in using/controlling your body to achieve various goals/effects

In Hock Obey at any cost? obedient subjects vs defiant subjects? how did people react when continuing to increase the voltage?

Most participants turn to experimenter at some point for guidance on whether to continue the shocks → experimenter ordered participant to continue, orders increased in intensity -measure of obedience based on level of shock at which each participant refused to continue to deliver shocks. -obedient subjects=went to top of scale. defiant=broke off at any lower point.

In Hock Obey at any cost? when he began to alter the exp, what are the two factors that affected the teacher's obedience levels? what were the criticisms and how were they addressed?

Physical and emotional distance of victim from teacher altered amount of obedience. higher st level obedience occurred when learner in another room and couldn't be seen/heard. Rate of obedience lowest when learned in same room with participant and participant required to force learner's hand onto shock plate. -physical distance of authority figure to participant also influenced obedience (closer=greater obedience) unethical, dangerous to put someone in that much stress, obedience in lab didn't represent obedience in real life. -84% participants glad to have participated. Psychiatrist interviewed participants judged to been most uncomfortable in lab and concluded that non suffered any long-term effects

In Hock to help or not to help? 5 steps most people typically pass through before intervening in an emergency?

Potential helper must first notice emergency event is occurring Must interpret situation as one in which help is needed (this is where fear of embarrassment steps in). Most potential emergencies contain some degree or doubt/ambiguity, how interpret situation will influence decision to intervene. Have to assume personal responsibility. Will usually occur if only bystander, but if others are present may push responsibility onto them. If assume responsibility, must decide what action to take. If don't know what to do/don't feel prepared to take appropriate action, less likely to help. (ex: nurse/paramedic may be more likely to intervene in certain situations) After decided what action to take, take it! Weigh costs vs benefits of helping

Chapter 10: social intelligence vs emotional intelligence

Social intelligence- understanding social situations and managing ourselves successfully. Emotional intelligence: part of social intelligence. the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions (socially aware + self aware) 4 abilities=perceiving/recognizing emotions, understanding emotions (predicting them and how they may change and blend,) managing emotions (knowing how to express them in varied situations,) using emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking. emotionally intelligent people: -more often succeed in relationships, career, parenting situations than do academically smarter but less emotionally intelligent people do. -Gardner: includes interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences as 2 of his multiple intelligences, but notes that we should respect emotional sensitivity, creativity, and motivation as important but different.

Chapter 10: How stereotyping affects one's performance on intelligence tests (stereotype threat!)

Spencer: gave difficult math test to equally capable men and women, women didn't do as well unless when they were led to expect that women usually do as well as men on the test -this idea of stereotype threat: self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype -black students performed worse after being reminded of their race just before taking verbal aptitude tests. -negatively stereotyped minorities and women may have unrealized academic and professional potential. self-doubts/monitoring from stereotype threats may impair performance, attention, and learning -explains why blacks performed better when tested by blacks than when tested by whites (idea that whites may have lower expectations for blacks) and gives insight as to why women scored higher on math tests when no male test-takers present -Steele: telling students they probably won't succeed erodes performance, creating disconnect between grades and self-esteem, leading to underachievement.

Chapter 10: how did Terman change the binet test? stanford binet test?

Terman: redeveloped Binet's test for California schoolchildren, changing some of Binet's original questions related to french norms to California norms/establishing new age norms -Stern; intelligence quotient, IQ=mental age/chronological age x 100. Average child IQ of 100 (bc 1/1) -mental age: Level of performance typically associate with children of a certain chronological age. -worked well for children but not adults. -most current intelligence tests don't compute IQ in this way, but assign a score that represents a test-taker's performance relative to the average performance of other the same age. -Terman: promoted widespread use of intelligence testing to take account of inequalities of children in original endowment by assessing vocational fitness. -US gov developed new tests to evaluate newly arriving immigrants and WW1 army recruits (1st mass administration of intelligence tests.) → lead to 1924 immigration law that reduced southern and eastern european immigration quotas to less than ⅕ of those for northern and western europe (idea that test in english!)

Chapter 10: what are genetic and environmental influences on intelligence?

Twin and adoption studies: people who share same genes share mental abilities. -intelligence test scores of identical twins raised together nearly as similar as those of the same person taking the same test twice. -heritability: the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes (50-80%). -identical twins' brains have virtually same areas associated w verbal and spatial intelligence, similar brain activity while doing mental tasks -all of gene variations analyzed accounted for only 2% of differences in educational achievement -intelligence polygenetic - involving many genes. Environmental effects: -where environments vary widely, environmental differences more predictive of intelligence scores -adoption enhances intelligence scores of mistreated/neglected kids and adoption from poverty into middle-class homes enhances as well. -intelligence scores of 2 children who are the same age and are biologically unrelated but adopted as infants and raised together → modest influence on shared environment.

Chapter 10: Weschler adult intelligence score

Weschler Adult intelligence scale: most widely used individual intelligence test now. Latest version has 15 subtests including similarities, vocabulary, block design (visual abstract processing), and letter-number sequencing (on hearing series of numbers and letters, repeating the numbers in ascending order, and then the letters in alphabetical order.) -yields overall intelligence score and individual scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed. -allows for identification of opportunities for improvement and strengths that teachers and others can build upon.

In Hock Obey at any cost? why would the participants continue all the way up to max voltage despite anxiety/tension as obeyed commands?

being sponsored by yale, goals of exp appear to be imp (so should do part to assist in goals), learner voluntarily came here and has obligation to product, by chance that learner became learner and teacher became teacher, getting paid, not being aware of rights of psychologist and participants, and told that shocks painful but not dangerous.

In Hock I can see it all over your face: What did Paul Ekman consider within his study? what was his theory? what did he do before his study?

considered if facial expressions of emotion are universal/the same across all cultures. -before study, Ekman and Friesen conducted research in which showed photographs of faces to college-educated people in argentina, brazil, chile, japan, and US → all participants from every country correctly identified same facial expressions as corresponding to same emotions regardless of nationality of the person in the photo. Findings open to criticism: members of cultures studied had been exposed to international mass media -To prove universality of emotional expression, study culture that had not been exposed to any outside influences. Found participants from Fore people who isolated (many members experienced little to no contact w modern cultures, hadn't been exposed to emotional facial expressions from other cultures.) Theory: specific facial expressions corresponding to basic emotions are universal.

In Hock Power of Conformity: what was a criticism to Asch's study? what are applications and other studies that branched off from his?

eceived widespread support/acceptance→ only criticism is if findings can be generalized outside of lab setting. Applications: 400 students assessed on knowledge of sex → numerous factors shown to predict high-risk sexual behaviors including conformity to peer group pressures. -study: examined why men less likely than women to seek help → author suggests that 1 of primary forces preventing men from seeking help=conformity -culture plays role in conformity.

Chapter 5: how does exercise affect aging?

exercise slows aging: studied identical twin pairs, only 1 exercised. Active older adults more mentally quick. Physical exercise does the obvious things (like prevents heart disease, keeps healthy, etc,) maintains telomeres that protect chromosome ends, appears to slow progression of alzheimer's. -stimulates brain development and neural connections -sedentary older adults RA to aerobic exercise programs exhibit enhanced memory, sharpened judgement, reduced risk of severe cognitive decline. Exercise reduces brain shrinkage, promotes neurogenesis, increases cellular mitochondria

In Hock Thoughts of Tune: study regarding changing your own personal views based on monetary rewards in order to deal with cognitive dissonance

male psych students. Tasks worked to create a negative opinion of study. - control=taken to another room where interviewed about reactions to experiment just completed. -Other participants: experimenter told them after study that each one of them were among participants in "group A" who performed tasks w no prior info, and said that "group b" participants received info about tasks before entering lab (that tasks "fun and interesting", told by undergrad student who had already completed tasks) . → not true! -experimenter leaves room, and comes back. Says that undergrad who normally gives info to group B sick, and having trouble finding someone to fill in for him. So asked participant if he would be willing to inform waiting participants. -after participants agreed, given sheet of paper saying was enjoyable and exciting. -then participant paid $1 or $20 and taken into waiting room, then to interview room where asked their opinions of tasks exactly as had been asked of participants in control condition. -Overall, 3 groups: one group received $1 to lie about tasks, 1 received 20, and one didn't lie at all (control)

Chapter 5: are males or females more prone to dying? what is a death-deferral period?

males more prone to dying (despite more male embryos bringing life than female) -By age 100, women out# men 5 to 1 -living to 100? Disease, cells stop reproducing, frail and vulnerable to tiny things, telomeres wear down (which is accelerated by smoking, obesity, or stress) -telomeres: breastfed children have longer, frequent abuse/bullying exhibit shorter. -death-deferral period- 2000 to 3000 more americans died on 2 days after Xmas than 2 days before, etc. (idea of surviving until after a milestone)

Chapter 10: Intelligence test scores of adopted children compared with those of biological parents and those of adoptive parents?

mental similarities between adopted children and adoptive families wane with age. -Intelligence scores resemble those of biological parents over adoptive. Genetic influence more apparent as accumulate life experiences -study: 11,000 twin pairs, heritability of general intelligence increased from 41% in middle childhood to 55% in adolescence to 66% in young adulthood.

In Hock Power of Conformity: the more attracted/committed you are to a group, the more... As the size of the group increases...

more attracted/committed you are to group, more likely to conform to behavior/attitudes of group -conformity increases as size of group increases, but only true for groups of up to 6-7 members. After, conformity levels off → as becomes large, people may suspect that members working together purposely

In Hock Thoughts of Tune: How did Cooper and Fazio refine Festinger's theory? what are the two processes responsible for changes in opinions and attitudes?

outline 4 necessary steps for attitude change to occur through cognitive dissonance : -attitude-discrepant behavior must produce negative consequences -participant must feel personal responsibility for negative consequences (not forced into it,) -physiological arousal -person aware that arousal experiencing caused by attitude-discrepant behavior. -2 processes responsible for changes in opinions/attitudes- persuasion and cognitive dissonance

In Hock to help or not to help? study combining measures of shyness and fear of negative evaluation

participants filled out scales to measure shyness and fear of negative evaluation. Then either help female confederate either alone or w 2 additional confederates in room. - -Participants helping behavior decreased significantly when 2 other bystanders present (regardless of scores on personality tests.) high scores for FNE and shyness less likely to help when no bystanders, but = likely to help when 2 bystanders present. (if others present, shy person feels less pressure to help, to has an "excuse" to avoid helping. If no bystanders present, fear of negative evaluation kicks in and shy person less likely to help than non-shy person.) -another study: bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility in our imaginations. Found that imagining being in a group changed helping behavior → participants asked to imagine that they were either part of group or only w 1 other person. Then, all asked to donate to charity. Participants imagined themselves in presence of others donated significantly less money, felt less personal accountability.

In Hock I can see it all over your face. what was the method of his study?

people from most isolated subgroup of Fore chosen to participate (and then compared to 23 adults who had experienced a great deal of contact w western society). -presented them w 3 pictures of different facial expressions and to read brief description of emotion-producing scene/story that corresponded to one of the photos. Participants points to expression that best matched story. 6 stories chosen -40 photographs of 24 different people used -exp conducted in teams: one member of south fore tribe and 1 member of research team. Each adult participant shown 3 photographs, told story, and asked to choose expression that best matched story. Same for children but only had to choose between 2 photos. -translators of story had careful training to make sure wouldn't influence participants, taught how to translate exactly same way each time, to resist temptation to elaborate/embellish them, avoided looking at participant to avoid unintentional bias, etc.

In Hock Power of Conformity: how were the results of Asch's study important to the field of psychology? When the experiment was slightly changed and 1 confederate gave the correct answer, how did the person within the study answer?

power of social pressure to conform demonstrated clearly and scientifically for first time, and research sparked wave of additional studies/research Social support: conducted exp with slight variation: altered answers of confederates so that 1/7 confederates gave correct answer → only 5% of participants agreed w group consensus (single ally all you need to resist pressure to conform)

In Hock Thoughts of Tune: Aronson and how students became affected by others in sex study

sexually active students asked to make videos ab how condom use can reduce risk of HIV. after making, ½ students discussed why students resist using condoms and reveal own experiences (had to admit that didn't always adhere to message they had just promoted in videos) -other half=didn't participate in follow-up discussions. -When all students given opportunity to buy condoms, significantly higher prop of those in hypocrisy group purchased them. more people in hypocrisy group using condoms constantly later, less in other group bc not required to admit attitude discrepant behavior.

In Hock Power of Conformity: in group of friends, discussing controversial issue. Everyone in group shares 1 view which is opposite of own. When ask you for your opinion, have choice to state true views and risk consequences or agree or avoid issue. What is this an example of?

social pressure and feeling pressure to conform