Psychology 101
Control
Altering conditions that influence behavior.
Chunk
Any meaningful unit of information, consisting of whatever info can be organized into meaning.
central nervous system (CNS)
located in the center of your body. primarily responsible for processing and organizing information.
Signal Detection Theory
a theory explaining how various factors influence our ability to detect weak signals in the environment A theory of perception in which internal (psychological) and external (environmental) context both play a role in our perception of stimuli.
limbic system and components
Interconnected group of forebrain structures involved with emotions, drives, and memory generally responsible for emotions, drives, and memory. However, the major focus of interest in the limbic system, and particularly the amygdala, has been its production and regulation of aggression and fear
Descriptive Studies
Involve observing and noting the behavior of people or other animals to provide a systematic and objective analysis of behavior Pros: valuable in the early stages of research when trying to determine whether a phenomenon exsists. Cons: errors in observation can occour because of an observers expectations (observers bias). observers presence can change the behavior being witnessed.
Neuroplasticity
The brain's ability to reorganize and change its structure and function throughout the life span
language functions (aphasia)
brocas area impaired language ability
transduction
converting a receptor's energy into neural impulses that are sent on to the brain
terminal buttons
of axon form junctions with other cells and release chemicals called neurotransmitters.
Extrasensory perception (ESP)
the purported ability to obtain information about the world without any sensory stimuli
form perception (gestalt)
Gestalt Principles Rather than perceiving its discrete parts as separate entities, the Gestaltists emphasized the importance of organization and patterning in enabling us to perceive the whole stimulus.
process of neurotransmission
Given that some neurons have thousands of receptors, which are only responsive to specific neurotransmitters, what happens to excess neurotransmitters or to those that do not "fit" into the adjacent receptor sites? The sending neuron normally reabsorbs the excess (called reuptake), or they are broken down by special enzymes.
Understanding
In psychology, understanding is achieved when the cause of behavior can be stated.
Description
In scientific research, the process of naming and classifying.
case studies
In-depth study of a single research participant.
experiments--independent and dependent variables
Independent variable versus dependent variable Experimental group versus control group Random assignment Controlling confounding variables
bottom-up processing
Information processing beginning "at the bottom" with raw sensory data that are sent "up" to the brain for higher-level analysis; data- driven processing that moves from the parts to the whole: conceptual.
twin,
Monozygotic (identical) twins share 100 percent of their genes. Dizygotic (fraternal) twins share 50 percent of their genes. And, often, the twins are raised in the same environment. If there is a genetic contribution to a behavior/mental process, then monozygotic twins should be MORE alike than dizygotic twins.
Illusion
a perception in-congruent with sensory data
confounding variables
anything other than the independent variable that affects a dependent variable
Saturation
color purity A color's purity of hue; its intensity
sensory reduction
filtering and analyzing incoming sensations before sending neural messages on to the cortex
selective attention
filtering out and attending only to important sensory messages
optical illusions
learned to make the size and judgements from perspective cues
MRI
magnetic resonance imaging powerful electromagnets produce high frequency magnetic field that is passed through the brainproduces 3d pictures of the brain useful for identifying abnormalities
Wavelength
the distance between peaks (or trough)
Experimental vs. Non Experimental
An experiment is any study in which a treatment is introduced. A new method of teaching. A non-experimental study does not introduce a treatment. Comparing opinions from natural groups.
hormones
Chemicals manufactured by endocrine glands and circulated in the bloodstream to produce bodily changes or maintain normal bodily function.
structuralism (Titchener)
Edward Titchener (Wundt's student) structuralism Conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components Used introspection to study consciousness Sought to identify the structures (basic building blocks) of mental life via introspection and determine how these elements combine to form experiences.
Pavlov & Skinner
Pavlov used his data in much of behaviorism ( pair white coat with food, when white coat is seen, it signals or indicates food is coming) Skinner- actions controlled by rewards and punishment. Important to learning, conditioning, rewards and punishment.
sympathetic Nervous System
Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) responsible for arousing the body and mobilizing its energy during times of stress; also called the "fight-or-flight" system
parasympathetic Nervous System
Subdivision of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) responsible for calming the body and conserving energy
Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that connects to sensory receptors and controls skeletal muscles
behavioral genetics—
The study of the relative effects of genetic and environmental influences on behavior and mental processes
frontal
Two lobes at the front of the brain governing motor control (motor cortex), speech production in left lobe (Broca's area) , and higher functions, such as thinking, personality, emotion, and memory
Functionalism
William James It is how the mind evolved to help people adapt to the environment. Based on Darwin's work of Natural Selection. "Refers to a psychological philosophy that considers mental life and behavior in terms of active adaptation to the person's environment." Model : Animal studies
participant observation
active involvement
Binocular Cues
information gathered from both eyes to help judge the depth and distance depth cues that are based on two eyes
endocrine system
made up of a network of glands , this system uses hormones to carry its messages Endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream, which travel throughout the body, carrying messages to any cell that will listen. Hormones also function like your global e-mail recipients forwarding your message to yet more people. For example, a small part of the brain called the hypothalamus releases hormones that signal the pituitary (another small brain structure), which stimulates or inhibits the release of other hormones.
corpus callosum
primary connection between the two cerebral hemispheres is a thick, ribbon-like band of nerve fibers under the cortex
dendrites
recieve information from other cells
Sensory Adaptation
sensory receptors tend to become less sensitive to constant stimuli Constant stimulation of a sense can produce adaptation (ex: putting on socks and not feeling them throughout the day.)
psychophysics
studies the link between physical characteristics of stimuli and our sensory experience of them
Cultural neuroscience
studies the ways that cultural variables affect the brain, the mind, genes, and behavior
experimental control groups
the treatment groups that receive the intervention a comparison group that does not receive the intervention (or receives one unrelated to the independent variable)
biopsychosocial model
unifying and integrative model views biological processes, psychological factors, and social forces as interrelated influences that interact with the seven major perspectives
evolutionary psychology
useful for considering whether behaviors and physical mechanisms are adaptive
axon
carries neurons messsage to other body cells
Light Adaptation
Ability of the eyes to adjust to light after being in the dark
Sensory Conflict Theory
motion sickness
cell body
recieves information from dendrites and if enough simulation is recevied the message is passed on to the axon.
perceptual constancies
the brain's ability to "rewire" itself and adapt to a skewed environment perceptual adaptation perceptual set frame of reference
Weber's Law
the law stating that each of the five senses has its' own constant ratio determining difference thresholds
Frequency
the number of sound waves passing a given point per second, higher frequency is perceived as higher pitch, and lower frequency is perceived as lower pitch
Parapsychology
the study of extrasensory perception (ESP)
Temperaments
Sanguine (air), Choleric (fire), Melancholic (earth), Phlegmatic (water)
association areas
So-called quiet areas in the cerebral cortex involved in interpreting, integrating, and acting on information processed by other parts of the brain
Brain chemistry;
hundreds of substances play critical roles in mental activity and behavior, not just a few
Rods
specialized light receptors in the retina that are responsible for sight when the light level is low, not sensitive to color, but useful for night vision What cells of the retina see in black and white and are used for night vision?
Neofreudians
"Psychiatrists and psychologists were a group of loosely linked American theorists of the mid-twentieth century, who were all influenced by Sigmund Freud, but who extended his theories, often in social or cultural directions."
Pheromones
- Some animals communicate wit each other by secreting and detecting odoriferous substances.
Types of Neyrons
1. Sensory or afferent neurons - Carry messages towards the brain. 2. Interneurons - Carry messages between nerve cells (inside brain). - Carry messages between afferent and efferent. 3. Motor or efferent neurons - Carry messages away from brain.
Applied vs Basic Research
Applied research is one type of research that is used to answer a specific question that has direct applications to the world. This is the type of research that solves a problem. Basic research is another type of research, and it is driven purely by curiosity and a desire to expand our knowledge. This type of research tends not to be directly applicable to the real world in a direct way, but enhances our understanding of the world around us.
common neurotransmitters (function; connection to disease and disorders; excitatory and inhibitory)
Chemicals that neurons release, which affect other neurons. deliver messages to specific receptors, which other neurons nearby probably don't "overhear." endogenous opioid peptides, commonly known as endorphins. These chemicals mimic the effects of opium-based drugs such as morphine—they elevate mood and reduce pain. They also affect memory, learning, blood pressure, appetite, and sexual activity. will help you understand some common medical problems.
humanism (Rogers, Maslow)
Maslow: fouder of the humanistic psychology. known for maslow hierarchy of needs. Rodgers: client centered therapy first APA award free will, self-actulization and human nature as anturally positive and growth-seeking
Accommodation
the process by which the lens changes shape in order to focus on images near and far
Cones
specialized light receptors responsible of the color and our ability to sense details Color vision
Place Theory
states that pitch corresponds to the location of the vibrating hair cells along the cochlea
Frequency Theory
states that pitch is determined by the vibrating frequency of the sound wave, basilar membrane and associated neural impulses theory of pitch that states that pitch is related to the speed of vibrations in the basilar membrane
placebo effect
Inactive substance used as a control
Three Ways of Doing Psychology
1. Experimental 2. Teachers 3. Applied
three areas of ethical concern
areas 1, 2, & 3
hypothesis
Specific, testable prediction about how one factor, or variable, is related to another
ethnocentrism descriptive research:
Believing one's culture is typical of all cultures, is central and "correct," and judging others by this standard.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
Composed of the brain and spinal chord.
medulla
essentially an extension of the spinal cord, with many nerve fibers passing through it carrying information to and from the brain. It also controls many essential automatic bodily functions, such as respiration and heart rate.
correlational studies--
examine how variables are naturally related in the real world Researchers do not attempt to alter variables Researchers cannot draw causal conclusions from correlational studies
Top-Down Processing
Past experience, knowledge and expectation memory, motivation or cultural background guide our perceptions of objects or events.
Episodic Memory
- stores memories of events or "episodes" - temperal coding - info on when and where the episode took place
surveys
Research technique that questions a large sample of people to assess their behaviors and attitudes.
Three Types of Correlations
1. Positive correlation 2. Negative correlation 3. Zero correlation
Punishment
An aversive consequence used to weaken the behavior that it follows.
Minorities in psychology
Between 1920 and 1966 Only 0.2% of the PhDs from the most prestigious universities went to African Americans Early pioneers paved the way for others Francis Cecil Sumner: 1st African American to receive a Ph.D. in psychology Studied with G. Stanley Hall Published research concerning strategies for the higher education of African American youths Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark: Studied the racial identity in children Their research was cited by the Supreme Court when it outlawed school segregation
Humanists
Focus on subjective human experience (opposite of behaviorist). Free will is key: predecessors were deterministic. Psychological needs were love, self-esteem, creativity, etc.
thalamus
Forebrain structure at the top of the brainstem; serves as the brain's switchboard relaying sensory messages to the cerebral cortex
Smell
Olfaction -physical process of odor detection
causation--directionality
Researchers find a relationship between two variables but cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable
Area One
Respecting the Rights of Human Participants Informed consent Voluntary participation Restricted use of deception and debriefing Confidentiality
Area Two
Respecting the Rights of Nonhuman Animal Participants Medical research Psychological research Gains for animals Controversy
depth perception
involves both binocular (two-eye) and monocular (one-eye) cues
Kinesthia
sensory system that conveys information about body position and movement
Optic Nerve
the bundle of axons from ganglion cells leading to the visual cortex the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Perceptual set
the tendency to perceive stimuli in a specific manner based on past experience and expectation
Psychologist
"Are doctor ally-trained professionals who conduct research, perform testing, and evaluate and treat a full range of emotional and psychological challenges."
Semantic Memory
- basic meaning of words and concepts - acts as dictionary or database
Procedural Memory
- mental directions, well-practiced skills - mostly operates outside of conscious awareness ex: riding a bike
Recall
- retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented info using minimal retrieval cues - ex: constructing an essay on a test
Recognition
- stimulus has been previously presented and must be identified - ex: multiple choice on test
Declarative Memory
- stores facts, impressions, events - two subdivisions: episodic and semantic memory
Four Steps to the Scientific Method
1. Develop a Hypothesis. 2. Collect Objective Data. 3. Analyze the Results. Accept or Reject the Hypothesis. 4. Publish, Criticize or Replicate the Results.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
1. Psychological- Breathing, food, sex, water, etc. 2. Safety- Security, Health, Employment 3. Love Belongings- Frien
scientific method and terms
1. Question and literature review 2. Testable hypothisis 3. Research design 4. Data collection and analysis 5. Publication 6. Theory development The cycle continues
Mechanism
1. Repression 2. Denial 3. Projection 4. Displacement 5. Regression 6. Sublimation
Two parts of the Peripheral Nervous System
1. The Somatic Division of PNS - Somatic nervous system: Organ System - carries signals that regulate the internal organs that preform functions such as digestion, heart rate and reparation. - Afferent Sensory System: Motor System -sends messages to the brain and efferent sends messages to the muscles to act on them. 2. The Autonomic Division of PNS (carries signals that regulate internal organs) - Sympathetic division - "fight or flight" system, arouses the heart, lungs and other organs in stressful situations. - Parasympathetic division - returns body to its calm state
"birth" of psychology
1800s john stuart mill argued psychology should be a science of observation and of experiment.
Wilhelm Wundt's lab, when, where, why significant
1879 built first lab Germany. interested in studying the structure of conciseness (became structuralism)
Behaviorism
John Watson The study of observable behaviors. "Psychology that confines itself to the study of observable and quantifiable aspects of behavior and excludes subjective phenomena, such as emotions or motives."
behaviorism (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner
Pavlov: classical conditioning Watson: early behaviorism/classical condition. Should focus on studying behavior. Little Albert. Skinner: theory of operant conditioning. Advocate for behaviorism. Resisted study of the unseen.
Area Three
Respecting the Rights of Psychotherapy Clients Personal information and therapy records must be kept confidential, with records being available only to authorized persons and with the client's permission. Therapists are legally required to break confidentiality if a client threatens violence to him- or herself or to others. Breaking of confidentiality also applies if a client is suspected of abusing a child or an elderly person, and in other limited situations. The public's right to safety ethically outweighs the client's right to privacy.
reticular formation
Running through the core of the hindbrain, midbrain, and brainstem. This diffuse, finger-shaped network of neurons helps screen incoming sensory information and alerts the higher brain centers to important events. Without your reticular formation, you would not be alert or perhaps even conscious.
Transduction
Sensory process that converts the information carried by a physical stimulus such as light or sound waves into the form of neural messages. (physical - thought pattern)
Psychoanalytic Psychology
Sigmund Freud "Freud believed that people could be cured by making conscious their unconscious thoughts and motivations, thus gaining "insight". The aim of psychoanalysis therapy is to release repressed emotions and experiences, i.e. make the unconscious conscious." Behavior was influenced by Thoughts, Impulse, & Desires.
hypothalamus
Small brain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern drives (hunger, thirst, sex, and aggression) and hormones
cultural influences
Social interaction gives rise to culture, which is transmitted from one generation to the next through learning Culture affects thought and behavior (e.g., music/food preferences, ways of expressing emotion, tolerance of body odors) Cultural "rules" reflect adaptive solutions worked out by previous generations
Broca's area
lower left frontal lobe discovered that damage to this area causes difficulty in speech, but not language comprehension.
Depth Perception
the ability to perceive three-dimensional objects and judge distance the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions
habituation
the brain's reduced responsiveness to unchanging stimuli
gate control theory
theory that pain sensations are processed and altered by mechanisms within the spinal cord. Damaged tissue opens the gate Counte rpressure closes the gate Pain is a complex mix of biological and psychological factors
Schemas
-clusters of knowledge in semantic memory that give us a context for understanding events. - depend upon culture and personal experience.
Six main viewpoints of Modern Psychology
1. Biological 2. Cognitive 3. Behavioral 4. Whole-person 5. Developmental 6. Sociocultural perspectives
action potential
A neuron's basic function is to transmit information throughout the nervous system. Neurons "speak" in a type of electrical and chemical language. The process of neural communication begins within the neuron itself, when the dendrites and cell body receive electrical "messages." These messages move along the axon in the form of a neural impulse, or action potential
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
All the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord. Carries messages (action potentials) to and from the central nervous system to the periphery of the body.
Gestalt Psychology
An approach that focuses on immediate experience and awareness to help clients rebuild thinking, feeling, and acting into connected whose; emphasizes the integration of fragmented experiences. "Tries to understand the laws of our ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world." Is a theory of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. (Prisoners vs Guards)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body. It consists of two divisions. Each has two subdivisions.
Stem Cells
Rare, immature cells that have the potential to develop into almost any type of cell depending on the chemical signals they receive
depolarization
1. resting potential when an axon is not stimulated it is in a polarized state, called the resting potential 2. action potential intitation when at rest axon membrane is stimulated by a sufficently strong signal, it produces an action potenial(depolarization) 3. spreading of action potential and repolarization the inital depolarization of step 2 produces a subsequent imbalanced of ions in the adjacent axon membrane. overall summary. the sequential process of depolarization and repolarization moving the action potential from the cell body to the terminal buttons is similar to fans at an athletic event doing the "wave"
glial cells
Cell that provides structural, nutritional, and other support for the neurons, as well as communication within the nervous system; also called glia or neuroglia
adoption
If adopted children are MORE like their biological parents, then genetic factors have a greater influence on that trait. If adopted children are MORE like their adoptive parents, then environmental factors have a greater influence on that trait.
top-down processing
Information processing starting "at the top," with higher-level cognitive processes (such as expectations and knowledge), and then working down; conceptually driven processing that moves from the whole to the parts: data driven.
reflexes
Innate, automatic response to a stimulus (e.g., knee-jerk reflex) We're all born with numerous reflexes, many of which fade over time. But even as adults, we still blink in response to a puff of air in our eyes, gag when something touches the back of the throat, and urinate and defecate in response to pressure in the bladder and rectum. Reflexes even influence our sexual responses. Certain stimuli, such as the stroking of the genitals, can lead to arousal and the reflexive muscle contractions of orgasm in both men and women. However, in order to have the passion, thoughts, and emotion we normally associate with sex, the sensory information from the stroking and orgasm must be carried to the brain.
amygdala hippocampus Hypothalamus
Limbic system structure linked to the production and regulation of emotions (e.g., aggression and fear) Part of the limbic system involved in forming and retrieving memories Small brain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern drives (hunger, thirst, sex, and aggression) and hormones
neurons (dendrites, cell body, axon, terminal buttons, myelin sheath) and
Nerve cell that processes and transmits information; basic building block of the nervous system responsible for receiving and transmitting electrochemical information
naturalistic observation
Observing and recording behavior and mental processes in the participant's natural state or habitat.
positive negative correlations
One in which the two variables move (or vary) in the same direction—the two factors increase or decrease together. one in which two factors vary in opposite directions
single double blinds
Only the researcher, and not the participants, knows who is in either the experimental or control group Both the researcher and the participants are unaware (blind) of who is in the experimental or control group
third variable issues
Researchers cannot be confident that an unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest Feasibility— generally less difficult and expensive than experiments Generalizability— correlational research, done well, generally reflects the "real world" more than experimental design Ethical Considerations— manipulation of some variables would violate ethics
functionalism
Studied how the mind functions to enable humans and other animals to adapt to their environment.
autonomic nervous system
Subdivision of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that controls involuntary functions, such as heart rate and digestion. It is further subdivided into the sympathetic nervous system, which arouses, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which calms
IV & DV
The IV is the variable that is controlled and manipulated by the experimenter; whereas the DV is not manipulated, instead the DV is observed or measured for variation as a presumed result of the variation in the IV.
the divided brain
The cerebral hemispheres are divided into eight distinct areas or lobes—four in each hemisphere. Like the lower-level brain structures, each lobe specializes in somewhat different tasks—another example of localization of function. However, some functions overlap between lobes.
Neurogenesis
The division and differentiation of nonneuronal cells to produce neurons
Convergence
a bionocular cue used to judge distance and depth based on the tension of the muscles that direct where eyes are focusing When objects are closer to you, it requires greater eye strain to see objects closer to you
Afterimage
an image that appears to linger in the visual field after it's stimulus or source is removed
Size constancy
an object is perceived as maintaining its size, regardless of the image projected in the retina
sensory coding
converting sensory inputs into different sensations
cerebellum
coordinates fine muscle movement and balance. Shown that parts of the cerebellum are important for some memory, senosory, perceptual, cognitive, language, and learning
visual cliff
infants hesitate to crawl over the glass, demonstrating some depth perception
functionalism (James)
james: Wrote one of the first textbooks on psychology. Argued the mind consisted of a stream of consciousness that could not be frozen in time, broken down and analyzed
Difference Threshold
minimal difference needed to notice a stimulus change; also called the just noticeable difference (JND)
Absolute Threshold
minimum amount of a stimulus that an observer can reliably detect
Endorphins
neurotransmitter that acts in the same way as morphine by inhibiting pain perception and closing the gate
pain perception
neurotransmitter that acts in the same way as morphine by inhibiting pain perception and closing the gate
Substance P
neurotransmitter that opens pain gate
PET scan
posiron emission tomography designed to detect abnormalities, now used to identify brain areas active during ordinary activites
theory
presents a concept or idea that is testable A good theory produces a wide variety of testable hypotheses
sensation
process of detecting, converting, and transmitting raw sensory information from the external and internal environments to the brain
perception
process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory information into meaningful patterns Subliminal Perception perceiving something without conscious awareness
Proprioceptors
specialized nerve endings primarily located in the muscles and joints that provide information about body location and orientation
Data-based processing
taking basic sensory information about incoming stimuli and processing it for further interpretation. what cameras and video recorders do - collect data. "new experience, unplanned
Retina Disparity
the binocular cue that uses the difference between the images the two eyes see to determine the distance of the objects
Cornea
the clear, outer layer of the eye that shields it from damage and focuses incoming light waves
hue
the color of an object determined by the wavelength of light it reflects
Pitch
the degree of which a sound is high or low determined by the frequency of its sound wave
Amplitude
the height of the wave,(the distance from midpoint to peak or from midpoint to the trough) of the wave. Taller height, the brighter the light
Gestalt
the natural tendency for the brain to organize stimuli into a whole, rather than perceiving the parts and pieces
Perception
the organization and interpretation of sensory stimuli by the brain The act of becoming aware through the senses
Trichromatic Theory
the perception of color is the result of three types of cones, each sensitive to particular wavelengths in the red, green,and blue spectrum We have three types of cones in the retina: cones that detect blue, red and green. Cones are activated in different combinations to produce all colors. (doesn't explain afterimage or colorblindness)
Gustation
the sensation of taste
Vestibular Sense
the sense of balance and equilibrium
Audition
the sense of hearing
Humanism
"An outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters"
synesthesia
: simultaneously perceived as if by one or more additional senses such as sight. Blending of senses. Theoretical Developmental or acquired
Control Group
A control group is a group separated from the rest of the experiment where the independent variable being tested cannot influence the results.
family,
If a specific trait is inherited, biological relatives should show increased trait similarity, compared to unrelated people. Closer relatives, like siblings, should show more similarity than distant relatives.
genes, dominant recessive genes; polygenetic traits;
If you inherit a dominant gene for a trait from ONE parent, then that trait will be expressed. Recessive genes for a trait are only expressed if you inherit TWO of them (one from each parent). Traits that are controlled by multiple genes and often are affected by environmental and social factors.
Women in psychology
Mary Whiton Calkins: Student of William James at Harvard but was not awarded a Ph.D. Founded psychology lab at Wellesley College First female in the APA, and first female president of the APA in 1905 Margaret Floy Washburn: First woman to receive Ph.D. in Psychology Wrote The Animal Mind, which helped begin the Behaviorist movement. Elected president of the APA 1921. Leta Stetter Hollingworth: Debunked popular theories that suggested women were inferior to men. Did pioneering work on adolescent development, mental "retardation" & "gifted" children. Helen Thompson Woolley: Early female psychologist Studied sex differences and found that many presumed differences did not exist
Cognitive Map
Mental image that an organism uses to navigate through a familiar environment.
operational definitions
Precise description of how the variables in a study will be observed and measured (for example, drug abuse might be operationally defined as "the number of missed work days due to excessive use of an addictive substance")
sensory adaptation
Repeated or constant stimulation decreases the number of sensory messages sent to the brain which causes decreased sensation
Empirical Investigation
Research conducted, and conclusions reached, by means of observation and documentation.
applied vs. basic research
Research designed to solve practical problems Meets the goal of change vs. Research conducted to advance scientific knowledge rather than for practical application Meets the goals of describe, explain, and predict
Experiment: Independent variable: Dependent variable:
Researcher manipulates one variable to examine its effect on a second variable variable that is manipulated variable that is measured
temporal lobes
Two lobes on each side of the brain above the ears involved in audition (auditory cortex), language comprehension in left lobe (Wernicke's area), memory, and some emotional control
Wernicke's area
Temporal Lobes language comprehension in left lobe (Wernicke's area) patients with damage in this area could not understand what they read or heard, but they could speak quickly and easily. However, their speech was often unintelligible because it contained made-up words, sound substitutions, and word substitutions. This syndrome is now referred to as Wernicke's aphasia.
fMRI
functional magnetic resonance imaging detects bloodflow by picking up magnetic signals given from blood. measure blood flow which indicates areas of the brain that are active or inactive during activities.
Retrieval Cue
A stimulus used to bring a memory to consciousness.
Prediction
An ability to accurately forecast behavior.
Experimental Group
An experimental group is the group in a scientific experiment where the experimental procedure is performed. This group is exposed to the independent variable being tested and the changes observed and recorded.
Reinforcement
An stimulus that follows and strengthens a response. -Positive -Negative
Hierarchy of needs
Bottom to top Physiological needs: food, water, Warmth, rest Safety needs: security, safety belongingness and love needs: Intimate relationships, friends esteem needs: prestige and feeling of accomplishment self actulization: achieving one's ful potential, including creative activities. needs and safety=basic needs love and esteem=psychological needs self-fulfilment needs
cognitive (Miller)
Cognitive psychology: the study of how people think, learn, and remember thinking, perceving, problem solving, memory, language, and information processing miller: launches cognitive revolution
Cognitive Behaviorism
Combined with conditioning and cognition into understanding behavior. (Reactions and feelings to punishments) Expressed behavior.
psychoanalysis (Freud)
Developed psychodynamic theory and psychoanalysis Focused on unconscious processes Believed that the unconscious contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are hidden but still influence current behavior.
random assignment
Each research participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable Random assignment balances out known and unknown factors, increasing the likelihood that the groups are equivalent
Culture
Enduring values, beliefs, behaviors, and traditions that are shared by a large group of people and passed from one generation to the next.
correlation coefficient
calculated by a formula that produces a number ranging from 1.00 to 1.00. Both +1.00 and -1.00 are the strongest possible relationship. As the number decreases and gets closer to 0.00, the relationship weakens.
spinal cord
cord Beginning at the base of the brain and continuing down the back, the spinal cord carries vital information from the rest of the body into and out of the brain. But the spinal cord doesn't simply relay messages. It can also initiate some automatic behaviors on its own.
myelin sheath
covers the axon of some neurons to insulate and help speed neural impulses In a myelinated axon, the nerve impulse moves about 10 times faster than in a bare axon because the action potential jumps from node to node rather than traveling along the entire axon. MS
antagonistic drugs
decrease supply, release and block recepetors. curare is an acetylcholine antagonist. bloacks receptors, prevents NT from activating. can paralyze and can stop respiration. cobra venom is alike.
D → C → A
dendrites, the cell body, and an axon (Figure 2.6). To remember how information travels through the neuron, think of these three in reverse alphabetical order: Dendrite → Cell Body → Axon.
Monocular Cue
depth and distance cues that require the use of only one ye
electrical recordings
electrical activity throughout the brain sweeps in regular waves across its surface. reveals areas of the brain most active during particular tasks or mental states.
agonistic
increase supply, and realeas, active receptors and block reuptake. L-Dopa is a dopamine: precursor for dopamine, increases the production of NT. releasing neurons are critical. used to treat parkinson's disease. black widow venom: increases release of acetylcholine agonist. nicotine: leads to an increased release of dopamine and glutamate. valium and alcohol are GABA: Gaba is the brains primary inhibitory NT. when active are you are naturally more relaxed. Prozac: blocks the reuptake of serotin, used as an anti-depressant. cocaine: dopamine and norepinephrine.
cross-sectional vs
involve observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in different groups of people at the same time. pros: faster and less expensive than longitudinal. cons: unidentified variables may be involved.
longitudinal
involve observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in the same people over time, either with no intervention by the observer or with intervention by the observer. pros: provide information about the effects of age on the same people, allowing researchers to see developmental changes. cons: ecpensive, take a long time, and may lose participants over time.
Psychodynamics
is an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and emotions and how they might relate to early experience.
synaptic gap
These chemicals then move across the synaptic gap and attach to the membranes of the receiving neuron. In this way, they carry the message from the sending neuron to the receiving neuron.
The Cerebral Cortex
- Two cerebral hemispheres are connected by fibers (corpus callosum) - Cerebrum accounts for 2/3 the brain's total mass. - Cerebral cortex is wrinkled to allow billions of cells to squeeze into the tight space inside the skull.
neuroscience
Localization of function: Some brain areas are important for specific feelings, thoughts, and actions Many brain regions work together to produce behavior and mental activity
statistical significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that a study's result occurred merely by chance
cerebral cortex (structure, function, lobes)
Thin surface layer on the cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, and higher mental processes Although the cerebral cortex is only about one-eighth of an inch thick, it's made up of approximately 30 billion neurons and nine times as many glial cells. It contains numerous "wrinkles" called convolutions, which increases the surface area while allowing it to fit in the restricted space of the skull. The full cerebral cortex and the two cerebral hemispheres beneath it closely resemble an oversized walnut. The division, or fissure, down the center marks the left and right hemispheres of the brain, which make up about 80% of the brain's weight. They are mostly filled with axon connections between the cortex and the other brain structures. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
Occipital Lobes
Two lobes at the back of the brain responsible for vision (visual cortex) and visual perception
parietal lobes
Two lobes at the top of the brain where bodily sensations are received and interpreted (somatosensory cortex) A band of tissue on the front of the parietal lobe, called the somatosensory cortex, receives information about touch in different body areas. Areas of the body with more somatosensory and motor cortex devoted to them (such as the hands and face) are most sensitive to touch and have the most precise motor control
WEIRD
WEIRD is the phenomenon that plagues a lot of psychology and other social science studies: Their participants are overwhelming Western, educated, and from industrialized, rich, and democratic countries.
experimenter participant bias
When the researcher influences the results in the expected direction Occurs when experimental conditions influence the participant's behavior
Structuralism
Willhelm Wundt(usa) & Edward Titchener(german) The building blocks or structure of mental functioning. "Is the theory that elements of human culture must be understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or structure." Model : To use introspection to probe responses to stimuli.
women in psychology
Women were not allowed to earn advanced degrees until well into the 20th Century Belief that women were not smart enough or were unsuited for professional careers Even when they earned degrees, they could not get academic positions
Feature Detectors
neurons in the visual cortex specialized in detecting specific features of the visual experience, such as angles, lines, and movements
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
Primary Reinforcer - reinforces an organisms innate need - ex: food, sex Secondary Reinforcer - money or grades
Perceptual Constancies
Ability to see an object as being the same shape from different angles or distances.
Two Ways of Seeing Color
Trichromatic Theory - Color is realized in the brain, color processing begins in the retina. - Light waves are sensed as red, green and blue. Opponent-Process Theory - Negative afterimages. - Phenomena that involves opponent or complementary colors.
Elaborative Rehersal
Connects new info with info previously stored.
Taste
Gustation - Chemical based physical process leading to taste.
Vision
Helps us to detect desired targets, threats and changes in our physical environment.
Hearing
Helps with the ability to locate objects in a space.
Cochlea
fluid-filled,small shape organ of the inner ear lined with the basilar membrane
Difference Threshold
the minimum difference between stimuli that can be noticed 50% of the time. "noticeable difference"
Memory's Three Basic Tasks
1. Encoding Begins by requiring a selection of some stimulus event from the array of stimuli inputs and them making a preliminary classification. Then, mental label is attached. 2. Elaboration Connect a new concept with existing information. 3. Retrieval Accessing the info and bringing it to consciousness or in a form that influences behavior at an unconscious level.
Five Types of Psychological Research
1. Experiments - variable 2. Correlational Studies - determine the nature of the relationship between variable but cannot determine the cause and effect. - "natural experiments" have already occurred by chance in the real world 3. Survey - determine peoples attitudes, preferences or other characteristics. - vulnerable to bias 4. Naturalistic Observations - Descriptive research technique in which the researcher assesses the behavior of subjects under studying their natural condition 5. Case Studies - Few individuals. - Focus on individuals with rare problems or unusual talents.
Sensation and Perception
1. Information (stimuli) 2. Sensation (raw data is processed by sensory receptors) 3. Perception (sensations are processed in the brain and assigned meaning)
Memory Stages
1. Sensory Memory - few secs 2. Working Memory - 20 - 30 secs 3. Long-term Memory
Gustation: Five Primary Qualities
1. Sweet 2. Sour 3. Bitter 4. Salty 5. Umami (protein rich foods)
Critical Thinking
1. What is the source? 2. Is the claim reasonable? 3. What is the evidence? 4. Could bias contaminate the conclusion? -emotional bias -conformational bias 5. Does the reasoning avoid common fallacies (common sense)? 6. Does the issue require multiple perspectives?
Classical Conditioning
A behavioral process where a response becomes more frequent or more predictable in a given environment as a result of reinforcement. Reinforcement is typically a stimulus or reward for a desired response.
Learning
A process thorugh which experience produces a lasting change in behavior or mental processes.
Habituation
A simple form of learning in which the learning is not to respond. This skill is useful as a response to familiar stimuli.
Implicit and Explicit Memory
Implicit Memory - can affect behavior without coming into full awareness. Explicit Memory - requires conscious awareness
Maintenance Rehersal
Keep information in working memory, driven its very short storage time.
Position and Movement
Kinesthetic - sense of body and movement Vestibular - keeps track of balance
Mood Congruent Memory
Moods can affect what is remembered.
Bottom-Up Processing
Stimuli/sensations that exert a strong influence on our perception.
Theory
Testable explanations for a broad set of facts or observations.
Skin Senses
The skin is a sense organ containing nerve endings, that when stimulated, produce sensations of touch (pain, warmth and cold).
Color Constancy
When the brain automatically corrects the color under different lighting conditions.
Figure-Ground
a central principle of Gestalt psychology, involving the shifting of focus, as attention is focused on one object, all other features drop or recede into the background The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground).
Dark Adaptation
ability of the eyes to adjust to dark after exposure to brightness increased visual sensitivity that gradually develops when it get dark
Shape Constancy
an object is perceived as maintaining its shape, regardless of the image projected on the retina
Photoreceptors
cells that absorb light energy and turn it into chemical and electrical signals for the brain to process
Knowledge Based Processing
drawing on past experiences and knowledge to understand and interpret sensory information. memory of past experience and knowledge to understand sensory information
Color Constancy
objects are perceived as maintaining their color, even with changing sensory data
Gate Control Theory
suggest that the perception of pain will either increase or decrease through the interaction of bio-psychological factors, signals are sent to "open or close gates" that control the neurological pathway Theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain
Retina
the layer of the eye that contains photo receptor cells and location for the transduction of light energy into the neural activity
Blind Spot
the location where the optic nerve exits the retina point in the retinal where the optic nerve leaves the retina so there are no rods or cones there
Iris
the muscle responsible for changing the size of the pupil
Sensation
the process by which sensory organs in the eye, ear, nose, mouth, skin, and other tissues receive and detect stimuli Feeling
Transduction
the process of transforming stimuli into neural signals Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
Perceptual Constancy
the tendency to perceive objects in our environment as stable in terms of shape, size, and color, regardless of changes in the sensory data received
Absolute threshold
the weakest stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time
