Psychology 19.1 How Do We Learn?
Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of __________.
Discrimination
Four-year-old Chuck developed a fear of the stairs in his house after falling down them several times. When he was at his grandmother's house, he had no problem climbing the stairs. Unlike Little Albert's fear of white rats and other white items, Chuck was demonstrating:
Discrimination
Pavlov was inspired to look into associations when he notice that:
Dogs would salivate before the meat powder was presented.
Respondent Behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus. (p. 247)
Operant Behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences. (p. 247)
In the simulation, conditioning can be said to have occurred (the area in the green box on the Early Conditioned Response Graph) when:
blinking occurred less than 500ms after the air puff.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. (p. 248)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR). (p. 249)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR). (p. 249)
Unconditioned Response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth). (p. 249)
Acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. (p. 250)
The process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral response is called:
Conditioning.
Discrimination
(1) in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (2) in social psychology, unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members. (pp. 252, 462)
After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates__________.
A generalization
"Sex sells!" is a common saying in advertising. Using classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual images in advertisements can condition your response to a product.
ANSWER: A sexual image is a US that triggers a UR of interest or arousal. Before the advertisement pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is an NS. Over time the product can become a CS that triggers the CR of interest or arousal.
What have been some applications of Pavlov's work to human health and well-being? How did Watson apply Pavlov's principles to learned fear?
ANSWER: Classical conditioning techniques are used to improve human health and well-being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders. The body's immune system may also respond to classical conditioning. Pavlov's work also provided a basis for Watson's idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of "Little Albert" to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned.
In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?
ANSWER: In classical conditioning, acquisition is associating an NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Extinction is diminished responding when the CS no longer signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.
What was behaviorism's view of learning?
ANSWER: Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. The behaviorists believed that the basic laws of learning are the same for all species, including humans.
According to the simulation, the 'unconditioned link' is:
Blinking to the air puff.
According to the simulation, the 'conditioned link' is:
Blinking to the tone.
Who was Pavlov, and what are the basic components of Classical Conditioning?
ANSWER: Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, created novel experiments on learning. His early twentieth-century research over the last three decades of his life demonstrated that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning. Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. In classical conditioning, an NS is a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. A UR is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS is a previously neutral stimulus (such as a tone) that, after association with a US (such as food) comes to trigger a CR. A CR is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
What is learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?
ANSWER: Learning is the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two or more stimuli (a stimulus is any event or situation that evokes a response). We associate stimuli that we do not control, and we respond automatically. This is called respondent behavior. In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences. These associations produce operant behaviors. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information that guides our behavior. For example, in observational learning, we learn new behaviors by observing events and watching others.
Why does Pavlov's work remain so important?
ANSWER: Pavlov taught us that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.
The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called . When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called .
Acquisition & Extinction
Classical and operant conditioning involve learning through_____, whereas observational learning involves learning through imitation.
Association
Each time Amy eats yogurt, she feels sick. Amy has learned that eating yogurt and sickness go together, so she now refuses to eat yogurt. This kind of learning is called:
Associative learning
If a sea slug repeatedly receives an electric shock just after being squirted with water, its protective withdrawal response to a squirt of water grows stronger. This best illustrates:
Associative learning
Some people have formed negative attitudes towards Pokemon characters that were repeatedly shown with negative words and images next to them. This BEST illustrates the impact of:
Classical Conditioning
In Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a(n)______________stimulus.
Conditioned
In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus is called the:
Conditioned Response
In the simulation for this lab, when the participants responded to the tone by blinking, that was the:
Conditioned Response
In this simulation for this lab, the tone that causes the eye to blink was called the:
Conditioned Response
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that originally elicited no response but, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response is called a(n):
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Ali was conditioned to blink using an air puff and a tone. The experimenter then presented only the tone until the blink response disappeared. What is Ali displaying?
Extinction
When the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus:
Extinction will occur
Max was conditioned to blink using an air puff and a tone. The experimenter then presented only the tone until the blink response disappeared. When Max returns to the lab and the experiment pairs the air puff with the tone again she will likely observe:
Faster Relearning
In Watson and Rayner's experiment with Little Albert the _____ was the unconditioned response.
Fear of a loud noise
Why are habits, such as having something sweet with that cup of coffee so hard to break?
Habits form when we repeat behaviors in a given context, and, as a result, learn associations - often without our awareness. For example, we may have eaten a sweet pastry with a cup of coffee often enough to associate the flavor of the coffee with the treat, so that cup of coffee alone just doesn't seem right anymore.
In slasher movies, sexually arousing images of women are sometimes paired with violence against women. Based on classical conditioning principles, what might be an effect of this pairing?
If viewing an attractive nude or seminude woman (a US) elicits sexual arousal (a UR) in some viewers, then pairing the US with a new stimulus (violence) could turn the violence into a conditioned stimulus (CS) that also becomes sexually arousing, a conditioned response (CR).
Learning is defined as "the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring______________ or ____________________.
Information & Behaviors
According to psychologists, learning:
Is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
The first person to do careful scientific studies of learning was:
Ivan Pavlov
The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors is called:
Learning
__________ learning allows us to learn from others' experiences.
Observational
If Pete wants to train his dog to sit and lie down when he commanded the behavior, he should utilize __________ conditioning.
Operant
Ivan Pavlov was a(n):
Physiologist
Pavlov was conducting research on __________before he started researching associations.
Salivation
Jessie was conditioned to blink using an air puff and a tone. The experimenter then presented only the tone until the blink response disappeared. When Jessie returns to the lab the next day she blinks when she hears the tone. This is referred to as:
Spontaneous Recovery
Tim has been conditioned to blink using air puffs and a 700 MHz tone. The experimenter finds that the conditioned response also occurs for 750 MHz tones and 650 MHz tones but not for 1250 MHz tones or 500 MHz tones. Tim is displaying:
Stimulus Discrimination
Amy has been conditioned to blink using air puffs and a 1000 MHz tone. The experimenter finds that the conditioned response also occurs for 750 MHz tones, 850 MHz tones, 1250 MHz tones and 1500 MHz tones. This is an example of:
Stimulus Generalization
In Watson and Rayner's experiments, "Little Albert" learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In these experiments, what was the US? The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR?
The US was the loud noise; the UR was the fear response to the noise; the NS was the rat before it was paired with the noise; the CS was the rat after pairing; the CR was fear of the rat.
Bella developed a phobia of clowns after she experienced a scary thunderstorm in a room with clown wallpaper as a child. In Bella's case the clown wallpaper served as:
The conditioned stimulus.
Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates ________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates ________.
Two or more stimulus; a response and consequence
A father takes his 1-year-old son out for a walk. The toddler reaches over to touch a red flower and is stung by a bumblebee sitting on the petals. The next day, the boy's mother brings home some red flowers. The boy cries loudly as soon as he sees them. Crying upon being stung is the __________ in this example.
Unconditioned Response
In the simulation for this lab, when the participants responded to the air puff by blinking, that was the:
Unconditioned Response
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response is called a(n):
Unconditioned Stimulus.
Classical Conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events. (p. 248)
Stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response. (p. 247)
Conditioned Response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). (p. 249)
Associative Learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). (p. 246)
Cognitive Learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. (p. 247)
Extinction occurs when:
the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (p. 251)
Learning
the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. (p. 246)
Spontaneous Recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. (p. 251)
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (p. 251)
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). (pp. 6, 248)
Most learning involves the process of association. With classical conditioning, an organism comes to associate:
two or more stimuli and anticipate events.
Most learning involves the process of association. With classical conditioning, an organism comes to associate:
two or more stimuli.
In the simulation for this lab, the air puff that caused the eye blink was called:
unconditioned stimulus
