Psychology 201 Test 2
maintenance rehearsal
A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Demi is a 10-year-old with a mental age of 12. Using the ratio formula, Demi's intelligence quotient (IQ) i
120
mental map
A map which represents the perceptions and knowledge a person has of an area
algorithms
A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
Claire wants to write a paper about how often animals use observational learning. Which of the following should Claire NOT include as evidence to support her point that animals use observational learning?
A rat learns to run through a maze quickly to get the food at the end of the maze
goal
A result that a person aims for and works hard to reach
interval reinforcement
A schedule of reinforcement in which the organism is reinforced after a certain time period has elapsed.
systematic desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
Noor and Ahmad, four-year-old twins, are shopping with their mother. She offers to buy them each a small cookie now or a large toy later if they are good during the shopping trip. Noor takes the cookie, but Ahmad waits for the toy. Based on this, who will be more successful in high school?
Ahmad, because he can delay gratification
Dr. Wolfgang would like to conduct a study examining how children learn to use slang words based on listening to their peers. Dr. Wolfgang's research would benefit if he read the work of ________, a psychologist who investigated observational learning.
Alfred Bandura
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
Janet and Joan are on a hot air balloon ride. They experience identical patterns of physiological arousal: increased heart rate, sweaty palms, pupil dilation, and increased breathing. After each woman assesses the environment, Janet interprets her response as being excited while Joan interprets her response as being very scared. Which theory of emotion can best explain this difference?
Cannon-Bard
In a memory experiment, Group A is asked to listen to a list of words. Group B is asked to count the number of e's in the words. Group C is asked to use each word in a sentence. According to the levels of processing model, ________ will remember the most words because ________
Group C; of elaborative rehearsal
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
general intelligence theory
Intelligence has a general mental ability factor, g, that represents what different cognitive tasks have in common
Shanna is preparing for a study to explore how classical conditioning works. Before beginning her own study, it would be most helpful for Shanna to read about ________'s research
Ivan Pavlov
In the musical The King and I, the lead character sings about whistling to hide her fear when she feels afraid, which eventually makes her not feel afraid. The idea that acting like you are not afraid keeps you from feeling afraid is similar to which theory of emotion?
James-Lange
heuristics
Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).
Egosystem goals
Motivate us to build and maintain other people's impressions of us.
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance
two-factor theory of emotion
Schachter and Singer's theory that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling
Which of the following best describes the relationship between schemas and stereotypes?
Stereotypes are a type of schema based on an individual's group membership
Which of the following is NOT a consequence of using a stereotype?
Stereotypes improve decision making when you are unable to think systematically
risk
The chance of loss from an event that cannot be entirely controlled
insight learning
The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known
state-dependent memory
The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind (e.g., depressed, happy, somber) is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.
counterconditioning
a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
stimulus discrimination
a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
blocking
a failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it
stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people
conditioned response
a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category
elaborative rehearsal
a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way
restructuring
a new way of thinking about a problem that aids its solution
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
cryptomnesia
a type of misattribution that occurs when a person thinks he or she has come up with a new idea, yet has only retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source
The final exam for your psychology class is a(n) ________ test.
achievement
Using algorithms in decision making has the advantage of ________ and the disadvantage of ________.
always working; requiring effortful thinking
exemplar
an example or model, especially an ideal one
analogical representation
an idea that shares some of the actual characteristics of the object it represents
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories
retrograde amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past
Sensitization
an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus
sensitization
an increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Shyla is considering going to the Halloween dance. She thinks about how she would feel regret if she did not attend, and she thinks about how she would be happy and excited to hang out with her friends if she did attend, so she decides to go. This example illustrates how
anticipating emotions helps us make decisions
secondary reinforcer
any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars
The Law School Admissions Test (LSAT) measures logical thinking ability and predicts students' success in law school. Based on this you know that the LSAT is a(n) ________ tes
aptitude
Mary does well in both math and science. According to general intelligence theory, Mary's performance in literature and history should be ________ how she does in math and science
as good as
John Watson
behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
Alfred Bandura
behaviorist who looked at personality and self-efficacy and reciprocal determinism
reappraisal
changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus
During Tammy's eye exam, a buzzer rings and a puff of air is blown into her eye, which makes her blink. This happens several times. Then Tammy blinks when she hears the buzzer because she expects that a puff of air will be blown into her eye. In this example, Tammy is showing learning through the process of
classical conditioning
Fallon is afraid of loud sounds, like thunder. She associates lightning with thunder because it regularly precedes thunder. Thus, when Fallon sees lightning, she braces herself for hearing a big boom several seconds later. Fallon has experienced a certain kind of associative learning known as
classical conditioning
vicarious conditioning
classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person
The gray wolves of the Northern Rocky Mountain region vomited after eating poisoned sheep meat. The wolves formed the association of feeling ill with preying on sheep. In this example, feeling ill is the
conditioned response
Professor Kraig is known for his difficult quizzes, which automatically make the students anxious. Immediately before each quiz, he always turns off the projector. Students soon notice that they start to feel anxious when Professor Kraig turns off the projector. In terms of classical conditioning, Professor Kraig turning off the projector is a(n)
conditioned stimulus
second-order conditioning
conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to produce learning from an earlier procedure in which it was used as a CS
If you study in the same room in which you take an exam, you will probably do better on the exam than if you had studied elsewhere. This outcome occurs because of ________ memory.
context dependent
Miss Kinny needs to quickly train her students to line up when she blows a whistle. The reinforcement schedule that will allow the students to learn most quickly is ________ reinforcement.
continuous
Dr. Shaw has a patient who has a phobia of spiders and also loves doing puzzles. Dr. Shaw exposes the patient to spiders briefly while having the patient complete a fun puzzle. Dr. Shaw is using ________ to treat his patient's phobia.
counterconditioning
display rules
cross-cultural guidelines for how and when to express emotions
Jacob has to write an essay for his writing course and decides to write about a boy who is actually a wizard. When his teacher reads the essay, she realizes that Jacob got the idea from a popular book. Jacob denies this, honestly believing that he thought of the idea himself. Jacob is experiencing
cryptomnesia
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Japanese students were shown film clips designed to provoke strong emotions. When Toko watched the clip with other people present, she showed little outward emotion. When Toko watched the clips alone, she showed the same strong emotions observed in American college students. The difference in what Toko considers to be acceptable emotional expression shows the influence of
display rules
Blake is waiting to hear whether he has been accepted to medical school. He is so anxious that he is having trouble working. To cope with the situation, he tries to keep himself from thinking about it by practicing the guitar. In doing so, Blake is dealing with his feelings through
distraction
Raul has no motivation to read the chapters from his biology textbook that were assigned for homework. According to the Premack principle, Raul could reinforce his textbook reading by doing which of the following?
doing something enjoyable after reading
Raymond is studying for finals and has not slept for almost two days. He finally realizes he is exhausted and goes home from the library to sleep. Raymond's desire to go home and get some rest so that he no longer feels tired is a(n)
drive
Timo does not have many memories of his early childhood. However, one thing he remembers clearly is when he broke his favorite toy. He remembers crying for days when his parents would not replace it. This childhood memory may be especially clear for Timo because
emotional events are more likely to be stored in long-term memory
facial feedback hypothesis
emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify
When you are reading your textbook, your brain changes the words you are reading into a meaningful neural code that it can use. In memory, this process is called
encoding
auditory encoding
encoding of sounds
If someone asks you to describe your first day of school, you would most likely retrieve a(n) ________ memory
episodic
When people group several concepts together, such as baseball, basketball, and football, based on the shared property of being "ball" sports, they are creating a ________ of the concepts
exemplar
In a study, male participants are given a drug that makes them feel extremely happy. Participants in Group A are told that the drug will make them happy. Participants in Group B are not told about the effects of the drug. Later on, an attractive woman enters the room. According to the two-factor theory, Group A is less likely to feel attracted to the woman because these participants
expected positive feelings from the drug
On the TV show Lie to Me, the lead character is an expert at reading people's emotions through their expressions. When asked how he does it, the lead character claims that he uses people's ________ to give him the best cues as to how they are feeling
eyes
People from a variety of cultures are able to look at facial expressions and identify emotions like happiness and surprise. This evidence that facial expressions for emotions are universal suggests that
facial expression of emotions is biologically built in
Maya finds her customer service job to be frustrating and stressful. She tells her friend Jeff about her negative experience at work, and he tells her to force herself to smile while she is at work, an idea he learned in his psychology class. When Maya tries smiling at work, she finds her job less frustrating and even begins to enjoy it some days. The idea that Jeff shared with Maya is most likely the
facial-feedback hypothesis
The Acme Chemical Company has some employees who work in a production plant and some who work in a sales office. The plant workers get paid every Friday; however, the office workers get paid for every fifth sale they make. The plant workers are paid on a ________ schedule, whereas the office workers are paid on a ________ schedule
fixed interval; fixed ratio
Gillian bought a set of tools because that brand offered a $10 rebate. The tool company influenced her decision by presenting the information about the rebates. This is a strategy known as
framing
Mr. O'Neil, a high school math teacher, believes that students who are good at math will also be good in English, history, and music. Mr. O'Neil's belief most closely resembles the ________ intelligence theory
general
semantic memory
general knowledge of the world
In an experiment, you are asked to memorize a list of 30 words shown on a screen. At first, this seems like a challenging task. Then you realize that you can hold more words in short-term storage if you
group words together in meaningful ways
Ekman and colleagues found that several emotions are common to people around the world, including all of the following EXCEPT
guilt
When Sarita first moved into her dorm room, she would get distracted by other students chatting in the hall outside her room. After two months of repeated exposure to conversations in the hallway, Sarita does not get distracted anymore. Sarita has learned through
habituation
While studying Ekman's work on expressions of emotions, Tanino learns that the strongest cross-cultural agreement in the identification of emotions involves ________, and the weakest involves ________
happiness; fear and disgust
If you can make decisions, solve problems, learn quickly, and adapt to changes in the environment, you probably have a
high level of intelligence
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
After struggling to solve a physics problem, you take a break for lunch. When you go back to work on the problem, the solution suddenly pops into your head. In this case you used ________ to solve the problem
insight
Aldo cannot get the answer to a chemistry problem even after sitting at his desk for an hour. He gets up and goes for a walk. Suddenly, even though he appears to have stopped thinking about it for a while, the answer comes to him. Aldo has most likely solved the problem based on
insight learning
Our ability to learn quickly, understand complex ideas, and use knowledge to solve problems demonstrates
intelligence
interference effect
irrelevant information interfering with recall
The SAT is a standardized test, which means that i
is administered the same way for all students and scored objectively
Research has shown that the consolidation of memories
is aided by a good night's sleep
Sunil wants to classically condition his dog to fear skunks so that he does not get sprayed again. This task should be much easier than teaching him to fear a house plant because a dog
is biologically prepared to fear animals that might cause it harm
Though it appears to be negative, guilt can actually serve to protect and strengthen our interpersonal relationships. All of the following are examples of this protective concept EXCEPT when guilt
is used to manipulate others
selection effect
kids seek out peers with similar attitudes and interests
observational learning
learning by observing others
Kumar is trying to remember the name of his psychology professor from last semester. To answer this question, Kumar must search for information in hi
long-term storage
Seven-year-old Tarun is baking cookies for the first time. He does not know what a tablespoon is, so every time the recipe says to use a tablespoon, he uses a teaspoon instead. Tarun's system of measurement has ________ validity and ________ reliability.
low; high
Laden has a memory of getting a teddy bear at a childhood birthday party when actually it was her sister who received it. Laden is experiencing
misattribution
misattribution
mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong source
Thayer is holding her infant cousin and she smiles at the baby. The baby observes Thayer smiling and imitates the smile by smiling back. The baby most likely learned to smile in this situation based on
modeling
Your history professor wants to help students learn how to write a high-quality research paper, so he posts an example of an "A" paper on the course website. You use this example as a template when writing your own paper. You have used ________ to write a good research paper
modeling
After finishing elementary school, Mia moved to a new school district for middle school. Almost none of her friends from elementary school came with her to the new school. She feels anxious and quickly joins an after-school club. What motive may be driving Mia's behavior?
need to belong
Jerome's boat sank in cold water and his body temperature is dangerously low, so he starts swimming to raise his body temperature. According to motivational theory, Jerome's low temperature created a deficient state called a(n) ________, which in turn created a motivating state called a(n) ________ to increase his temperature.
need; drive
Tripp is serving a 10-year prison sentence when he is informed by his parole board that he is getting out of jail early for good behavior. If the early release has the effect of increasing Tripp's good behavior in the future, then decrease of time in prison is an example of
negative reinforcement
Every Saturday, Vaughn watches a TV show featuring a chef making new recipes. The chef always throws a pinch of salt over his shoulder when seasoning the dishes. Now, whenever Vaughn cooks, he also throws salt over his shoulder. This modification of Vaughn's behavior is due to
observational learning
Jonathan is traveling to Italy, and his motto for his trip is "When in Rome, do as the Romans do!" This phrase suggests that Jonathan is most likely to learn how to behave in Rome based on
observational learning
Two-year-old Ciara learns that whenever she hits her older brother, her mom will place her in time-out. Ciara therefore understands that a behavior leads to a certain consequence, which is a type of learning called
operant conditioning
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an example of
persistence
Joffrey's wife asked him to go to the store and buy milk, bacon, apples, juice, butter, and cereal. Joffrey did not write down the items and ended up only remembering to buy milk and bacon at the store. The fact that Joffrey only remembered milk and bacon demonstrates the ________ effect.
primacy
Jim and Phil are changing the oil in Jim's car. Jim is remembering the actions involved in changing the oil. Phil is trying to remember the first time he ever changed the oil in his car. Jim is recalling a ________ memory and Phil is trying to recall a(n) ________ memory
procedural; episodic
Dr. Brown conducts research on how concepts are represented in people's minds. He believes that each category has one perfect representation of a concept. Based on this, Dr. Brown most likely follows the ________ model of organizing concepts
prototype
Ellie hates it when her teenagers leave their dirty clothes on the floor. If Ellie decides to use the Premack principle to help her teens change their behavior, she should ________ to reinforce them for doing a less valued activity
provide them a more valued activity
Dominic is watching a horror movie at the movie theater. His heart is racing, he feels scared, and he considers leaving to calm down. Instead, he begins to think about how the blood in the movie is not real and the people are only actors. Dominic is using which strategy to regulate his emotions?
reappraisal
Gwen has always experienced extreme anxiety regarding tests. After seeing a counselor, she learned how to regulate her emotions during exam week. Instead of thinking about the exams as a threat, she thinks of the exams as an opportunity to show how thoroughly she studied and how much she knows. Which strategy is Gwen using to regulate her emotions?
reappraisal
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
prospective memory
remembering to do things in the future
rumination
repeatedly thinking and talking about past experiences; can contribute to depression
Using heuristics in decision making has the advantage of ________ and the disadvantage of ________
requiring minimal thinking; not always working
Edward Tolman
researched rats' use of "cognitive maps"
You study Spanish during high school but then take Portuguese when you are in college. Now, whenever you try to recall a word in Spanish, Portuguese keeps coming to your mind. This result is most likely due to
retroactive interference
Shara is participating in a psychology study in which she has to press a button as fast as possible whenever she sees a circle on the computer screen. This study is measuring ________ reaction time
simple
When using positive punishment as a means of discipline, the word positive indicates
something is being added
Jethro believes that all elderly people have difficulty hearing and understanding. Whenever he interacts with an elderly person, Jethro automatically speaks loudly and slowly. Jethro is applying his ________ of the elderly in these interactions
stereotype
A cat is classically conditioned to purr when it hears the refrigerator door open, because it contains the cat food. But the cat does not purr when it hears the pantry door open. The fact that the cat only purrs when the refrigerator door opens is most likely a result of
stimulus discrimination
When you read the word cake on a menu, it is a(n) ________ representation. The picture of a cake on a menu is a(n) ________ representation
symbolic; analogical
primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
positive punishment
the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
Steve is trying to determine whether it will rain this Saturday. He quickly remembers that it has rained the past three Saturdays. If he uses this information to make his decision, he will be using
the availability heuristic
You are placing a bet on an upcoming basketball game. You quickly remember that the green team has won the last three home games. If you use that information to make your decision, you will be using
the availability heuristic
episodic memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place
retroactive inference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information
procedural memory
the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things
persistence
the intrusive recollection of events that we wish we could forget
guilt
the normal feeling that arises from the conscience when a person acts against internal values
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Addie told Callum her top 10 favorite movies. When he tries to recall the list later on, he can only remember the last two movies Addie mentioned. The fact that Callum only remembers the last two movies is most likely due to
the recency effect
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
stimulus generalization
the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response
Cannon-Bard Theory
the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
James-Lange Theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
symbolic representation
the use of one object to stand for another
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Bridget just took an intelligence test. The results show that Bridget has very high musical intelligence. The test Bridget took was probably based on the
theory of multiple intelligences
In Pavlov's research, classical conditioning occurred when the dogs learned the metronome predicted the arrival of food. This process was based on the animals' instinctive response to the ________ stimulus.
unconditioned
Joseph uses classical conditioning to teach his sister to be afraid of squirrels. To be successful, he must pair the neutral stimulus, the squirrel, with a(n) ________, such as ________
unconditioned stimulus; a loud noise
Sue is a great math student. According to multiple intelligences theory, Sue's linguistic intelligence should be ________ her mathematical/logical intelligence
unrelated to
context-dependent memory
when the recall situation is similar to the encoding situation
At a café, a cup of coffee costs $2.82. To use exact change, you must hold the number 2.82 in your head while sorting through your wallet and calculating what coins you have. To be successful in actively processing this information, you must keep the information maintained in short-term storage by using your ________ memory.
working
You are walking through the jungle and you see a huge snake. Which of the following explanations best represents the James-Lange theory of emotion?
you are afraid because you are shaking
