Psychology 3430 Test 2

that a single chronic offender costs society

$1.3 million to $1.5 million ($2.3 million to $2.8 million in 2017 dollars over the course of a lifetime

Socially, adolescent are

American adolescents must frequently adjust to large schools, new peers and teachers with whom they may not have had previous experience, and more challenging academic requirements.

how do parents reinforce gender stereotypes

As children become older, they begin more active play and begin choosing toys more on their own. Parents reinforce gender stereotypes present in society by providing toys or encouraging play consistent with a child's sex.

Gender.

Gender identity and the socialization of gender are perhaps the most comprehensively researched social categories within identity development. Gender is a social construct reflecting cultural beliefs about what it means to be a man versus a woman, or alternatively a boy versus a girl (Leaper & Friedman, 2007).

Surrogate Parent

Me to Anthony

sex

Sex, on the other hand, refers to the biologically based characteristic of being male versus female (males have an X and a Y chromosome; females have two X chromosomes). Gender is clearly based on sex but contains considerably more variation. Sex, on the other hand, is not based on gender and contains more limited variation (for example, in hormone levels, physical characteristics, and sex-typed brain development). Multiple factors, including parents, siblings, friends, and the media, influence how gender identity is realized for a given individual. In addition, it is important to realize that gender socialization begins at or, potentially, before birth.

Sexual behavior.

Sexual behavior is yet another topic that stokes the fires of cultural and religious debate. The biggest question, at least for many adults, is what sexual behavior is appropriate for teens. Certainly, research cannot tell parents what to do, and it cannot determine federal, state, and local policies regarding sex education programming:

Biological factors; Romantic interests appear to correspond with the onset of

adrenarche,

period between age eighteen (or the age of legal adult status) and the mid-twenties termed

emerging adulthood..He has stated that these individuals are neither adolescents nor fully adults; they are relatively independent from caregivers yet generally free of the full range of adult responsibilities.

However, the more severe and often violent forms of antisocial behavior beginning in childhood that define membership in the LCP group tend to have higher estimates of

heritability, generally ranging from 60 to 80 percent. A more interesting and more important question, perhaps, is "What is inherited?"

autonomy is

independence from parents

adrenarche

the period of heightened activity of the adrenal glands just prior to puberty.

romantic relationships

"mutually acknowledged ongoing voluntary interactions, commonly marked by expressions of affection and perhaps current or anticipated sexual behavior" (Collins, Welsh, & Furman, 2009, p. 632). Thus, romantic relationships involve two people who both want to be involved with one another (thereby excluding one-way "crushes") and the expression of affection, which may be verbal (whispering sweet nothings, writing love letters) as well as nonverbal (kissing, blowing kisses, winking, gift giving).

emerging adulthood. In fact, emerging adulthood could alternatively be called

"the period of instability"emerging adults have numerous jobs during their twenties (an average of seven), may have a variety of romantic relationships in the process of finding a suitable life partner (including commonly living with a partner or a few partners), and live in a variety of different locations (emerging adults commonly move, on average, once every year or two).

The life-course-persistent (LCP) group

(also sometimes referred to as early starters or chronic offenders), which represents approximately 5 to 10 percent of the population, begins displaying antisocial behavior in childhood and continues into adulthood.

social comparison

(the process of evaluating oneself relative to other people) is evident throughout identity development. Again, this brings home the point that individuals are never truly independent; hence, even the term "individual" is somewhat of a misnomer, although alternative terms like "social being" or "member of the social universe" seem unnecessarily wordy.

antisocial behavior arises through one or more of several broad mechanisms. These mechanisms include

- Social learning (recall the Bobo Doll experiment from Lesson 1), - operant conditioning (such as deviancy training or coercive family interactions), - genetic and neurological causes, - cognitions, and - broader social-ecological processes.

According to Moffitt (1993) and others, there are three classifiable trajectories of antisocial behavior.

1.) LCP- Life course persistant 2.) the adolescence-limited (AL) 3.) Nonstarter

Youths account for _______ percent of all crimes committed in the United States each year.

50

Youths (or juveniles, in legal parlance) commit what percent of all crimes in the United States

50%

Developmental Influences on Romantic Relationships

A number of factors influence when romantic interests begin, who is chosen as a romantic partner, and how romantic relationships proceed. These include an interacting set of biological, cultural, social, attachment, and cognitive factors.

So-called "light" sexual activity has been shown to

A. benefit adolescents at all ages.

The most common pathway for antisocial behavior is the ____________________ trajectory.

AL adolesence limited

Adolescence-limited trajectory.

AL youths lack the neurological deficits associated with the LCP trajectory. Thus, contemporary continuity is not at work, because AL youths do not carry with them a collection of inherited tendencies toward antisocial behavior throughout their lifespan. Moreover, because AL youths, by definition, lack a history of substantial childhood antisocial activity, they are less likely to encounter cumulative continuity in the forms of major snags and snares that prevent them from escaping a pattern of antisocial behavior. Similarly, AL youths are unlikely to experience the same negative rearing environment associated with the LCP trajectory, and their parents may be more likely to respond to their antisocial behavior with successful strategies. So, even when AL youths act antisocially for a brief time, they can more easily extricate themselves and be extricated by others in their lives from a pattern of problems, long before the problems become too great. So why do AL youths do it, and why are there so many of them?

Love.

According to Harry Harlow, "Love is a wondrous state, deep, tender, and rewarding" (1958, p. 631). In his classic article "The Nature of Love," Harlow decried the fact that science had done little to explore the concept of love. It speaks to the complexity of love that researchers have made about as much progress (or more) in space exploration or deep sea exploration as they have in exploring romantic love between two people.

Summary

Antisocial behavior is a pressing social issue with tremendous costs to the population as well as to perpetrators of crime. A small subset of youths is at particular risk for a trajectory of early-onset, chronic antisocial behavior that lasts well into adulthood. These youths can be distinguished from youths with more limited involvement in antisocial behavior by a collection of inherited neurological deficits and by the process through which the consequences of their behaviors accumulate over time. Far more youths engage in time-limited antisocial behavior that is largely limited to adolescence. For these youths, antisocial behavior may serve to give them access to adult privileges. A small subset of youths abstains from antisocial behaviors altogether. For these youths, shyness and anxiety, or perhaps odd social interaction patterns, prevent them from engaging in antisocial peer culture during adolescence. In addition to the causal issues discussed above, numerous public policy issues are associated with youth antisocial behavior. The interaction of developing youths with the mental health, school, and legal systems is fraught with numerous complicated ethical issues that are worthy of closer examination.

Cultural factors.

As mentioned earlier, adolescent romantic relationships prepare individuals for romantic relationships in adulthood. Culture, which is embedded in families, peer relationships, and media, influences norms for when romantic relationships occur as well as for what is acceptable within relationships. For example, some cultures find early dating and marriage acceptable, and some cultures have norms in which older men initiate marriage proceedings with girls who are still in their teens. In the United States, the average age of first marriage is twenty-eight for men and twenty-six for women (Henig, 2010, based on 2009 U.S. Census Bureau data). In addition, culture influences partner selection, with some cultures placing strong emphasis on partner similarity in religious, ethnic, and/or class background. In some cultures, very high levels of conflict between parents and children may ensue should an adolescent try to violate norms for partner selection. Finally, culture influences when sexual behavior begins. While few cultures actively encourage sexual behavior in teenagers, some cultures do a great deal to discourage early sexual activity, while others may emphasize safe sex practice for teens who do choose sexual activity. In yet other cases, teenage pregnancy is far more acceptable or even encouraged. So culture plays a large role in dating among teenagers, although cultures vary widely in the norms they set for teens.

So how do children come to adopt gender and incorporate it into identity?

As the material from Lesson 3 (G x E interactions) suggests, early in life, children are the passive recipients of gender socialization. Parents typically dress newborns differently based on their sex (note that there is no biological reason why boys must wear blue and girls pink) and surround them with gender-typed stimuli. In addition, parents' talk toward babies may be gendered in terms of higher pitches and different themes for girls than for boys.

girls and boys often differ in their peer interaction styles in general, with boys tending to focus more on_________ and girls tending to+___________

Assertion Motives (competition) balance assertion motives with affiliation motives (maintaining friendships). It is noteworthy that when girls and boys interact with one another in peer relationships, girls are generally required to "play by boys' rules," because boys generally do not adapt to interaction with an opposite-sex peer by adapting to her additional motive.

impulsivity among LCP youths is associated with high rates of

Attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder and risky behavior

In addition to the idea of internal working models, which essentially set out expectations and ways of perceiving relationships, there is another interesting cognitive factor that influences romantic relationships.

Cognitive interdependence (also known as identity interdependence) refers to the notion that individual identities overlap within important relationships such that a person's representation of him- or herself will include a concept of "self-in-relationship" (Agnew, Van Lange, Rusbult, & Langston, 1998). Put more simply, a person's view of "I" includes some part "we," as can be seen in overlapping portion of Fig. 7.2. As individuals in relationships become closer to one another, their identities will overlap more. In fact, it is not at all unusual for people in long-term romantic relationships to refer to themselves as "we," even when a partner is absent. It is also important to consider that adolescence is a time when identity development (which will be discussed at length in Lesson 9) is a major ongoing process. So, as adolescents learn their place in the world, they will do so in relation to other important persons in their lives, including romantic partners.

Key features of peer relationships.

Consider how peer relationships are organized, as discussed by Smetana et al. (2006). At the center of any set of relationships are individuals, who enter into peer relationships with their own experiences and perceptions of the social world around them. However, relationships of any sort occur between people.

In addition to neurological factors, there are two developmental processes eloquently described by Moffitt in this lesson's reading (see pages 683-684) and in other works by Moffitt and her colleagues.

Contemporary continuity refers to the presence of heritable behavior tendencies (such as aggression, moodiness, or impulsivity) that are present from birth and have consequences as an individual moves through the lifespan. That is, the consequences of antisocial behavior accumulate over the lifespan of an individual in ways that perpetuate more antisocial behavior (cumulative continuity). Moffitt and other researchers have also described cumulative continuity in terms of "snags" and "snares." So, as individuals commit antisocial acts, the consequences of those behaviors (for example, being placed in a juvenile detention facility) are likely to ensnare them in a pattern of antisocial behavior (by placing them in contact with other antisocial youths and removing them from the prosocial context of school). So, in the long run, the pathway to chronic offending looks something like this:

Label the following acts committed by juveniles using the boldface terminology above: Smoking cigarettes Lying to a parent about one's whereabouts Telling one friend that another friend has an STD when it is not true Throwing a rock at a classmate Stealing money from a cash register

Delinquency Antisocial behavior only, although this label fits all of the other acts too Relational aggression Physical aggression Crime

Family

Emerging adulthood is a time when boundaries with family members are changing drastically. (Recall the discussion of boundaries from Lesson 2.) Specifically, parental control, the nature of parent-child contacts, and parents' knowledge of their children's lives change as adolescents move away from home (although note that many emerging adults may spend some time living with parents). As children move away from home, parents are no longer able to exert control over whom they spend time with, what they do, how they spend money, when they get up, or when they go to bed. Moreover, it generally becomes less acceptable for parents to provide their emerging adult children with punishment as a consequence for misbehavior. Some parents do exert a degree of control, because they may be paying for a portion of children's educations, rent, insurance, or car payments. In addition, most emerging adults' parents continue to offer advice or persuade their children toward a particular course of action regarding jobs, education, and/or romantic relationships. Next, contact between parents and children becomes voluntary, rather than a natural consequence of living together. Contact often continues in the form of visits, phone call, and e-mails (and increasingly, social networking sites). Arnett's (2004) summary of the developmental research suggests that moving away from home is associated with decreased conflict and improvements in parent-child relationships, although there is a balance to be reached between independence and remaining involved with loved ones. Finally, parental knowledge of children's activities generally becomes under the voluntary control of children. Thus, emerging adults frequently avoid telling parents about their indiscretions but remain likely to tell parents about accomplishments and positive experiences. With less to criticize and ongoing improvements in behavioral and emotional control, this information control may serve to further improve parents' perceptions of their children. It is also worth noting that similar boundary changes between emerging adults and their siblings could also aid relationship quality, although siblings may also feel a sense of loss of companionship at home.

Which of the following best describes the way parent-parent relationships affect child-child (sibling) relationships?

Emotions within families are infectious across different relationships.

Life-course-persistent youths. several common characteristics among this group

First and foremost, youths from the LCP trajectory frequently exhibit a number of inherited neurological deficits. In general, about 50 percent of the variation in antisocial behavior patterns can be attributed to genetic factors (a heritability estimate of 50 percent), with the other 50 percent accounted for by environmental factors. (Note, as discussed in Lesson 3, that there is actually some portion of G x E overlap.) However, the more severe and often violent forms of antisocial behavior beginning in childhood that define membership in the LCP group tend to have higher estimates of heritability, generally ranging from 60 to 80 percent. A more interesting and more important question, perhaps, is "What is inherited?" The two most commonly exhibited neurological deficits among LCP youths are low verbal intelligence and impulsivity. Low verbal intelligence is thought to contribute to antisocial behavior by virtue of preventing adequate communication and increasing frustration, which could then lead to aberrant ways of trying to communicate with other children. Instead of saying to a peer who began playing with a toy that was apparently not in use, "Hey, I was using that; could I please have it back?" someone with limited communication skills might just say, "Gimme that!" or simply take the toy back by force. Similarly, impulsivity among LCP youths is associated with high rates of Attention Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder as well as a great deal of risky behavior in general (such as sexual activity, drug use, or excessive speeding while driving). Impulsivity is highly heritable and is linked with deficits in executive functions,

Executive functions are associated with the

Frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex which is developmentally among the last brain areas to fully mature. The frontal lobe is immature through the early twenties, which partially explains why youths are somewhat impulsive in general. In fMRI studies showing brain activity, areas of the frontal lobe have been found to be underactive in highly antisocial youths relative to their peers.

Relative to the influence of younger siblings on older siblings, the influence of older siblings on younger siblings is generally

Greater

Biologically, adolescents are ...

Growing taller, their voices are becoming deeper to resemble those of adults, and high levels of hormones drive the development of sexual interests and reproductive capabilities. Moreover, adolescents' brains are developing rapidly in the areas of emotion regulation (the limbic system) and personality and planning (the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex).

Particularly in early and middle adolescence, peers are the most ___________ people in adolescents' lives. During school, after school, and on weekends, adolescents spend a great deal of time interacting with peers, either in person or via phone and the Internet. Developmentally, having friends is very important to the establishment of __________ and to adolescent ___________

IMPORTANT social skills and well being

Cognitive factors.

In addition to the idea of internal working models, which essentially set out expectations and ways of perceiving relationships, there is another interesting cognitive factor that influences romantic relationships.

Attachment factors.

In many ways, the process of becoming emotionally close to a romantic partner is similar to early childhood attachment. It is therefore useful to consider the ways that early attachment can influence later romantic relationship patterns. Unfortunately, few studies have directly examined longitudinal similarities between these two types of attachment patterns. However, it is reasonable to conclude, based on retrospective studies, that attachment security in childhood is similar to issues of trust and security in adolescent romantic relationships. So early patterns of secure attachment are likely to lend themselves to more stable, emotionally healthy relationships in the teen years, whereas insecure attachment patterns are more likely to lead to less stable relationships, with varying degrees of mistrust, anxiety, aggression, discomfort with intimacy, etc. Attachment theorists suggest that continuity between early attachment and adolescent romantic attachment is a function of internal working models of relationships (cognitive schemas of what relationships are supposed to be like) formed in early childhood. However, it is also important to think of the more contemporary context of adolescent romantic relationships. Adolescents' involvement with romantic partners is influenced by romantic relationships of caregivers on an ongoing basis. Caregivers' own romantic relationships serve as the primary models that adolescents follow in their own romantic endeavors. Thus, relationship patterns are at least partially learned through observing the most available relationship models, which may also include romantic relationships of older siblings, family friends, aunts and uncles, etc. Moreover, as I have suggested repeatedly, the behavior patterns and emotional content of relationships among family members are easily transferred into adolescent romantic relationships. Thus, if there is a high level of conflict and abusive behavior between caregivers, then adolescents are at increased risk for having high-conflict, abusive relationships of their own. However, adolescents who witness low to moderate levels of conflict, along with expression of warmth, are likely to enact those patterns in their own relationships, thereby increasing the likelihood of stable, healthy relationships.

it is also possible that a combination of genetic factors and environmental stressors may serve to activate a long-lasting pattern of antisocial behavior in youths.

In other words, environmental stressors such as poverty and maltreatment may activate a diathesis (a genetic predisposition) for antisocial behavior. Moreover, LCP youths are known to be temperamentally difficult (they do not fall into easy rhythms in infancy, have widely variable moods, and are difficult to soothe), which can evoke negative reactions from caregivers, including high levels of stress, depression, and substance abuse.

In a highly publicized controversy discussed by Steele (1997), two authors (Herrnstein & Murray, 1994, in The Bell Curve) used research evidence to attribute racial differences in intelligence test performance between black and white children to biological inferiority of black children.

In reality, however, racial differences in intelligence tests are almost entirely attributable to cultural biases in test content and class differences in quality of education. As Steele's (1997) research also points out, stereotypes about racial, gender, and other differences can influence test performance negatively for the nonfavored group through a type of self-fulfilling prophecy Steel calls stereotype threat. Thus, caution must be exercised in explanations of research regarding race and ethnicity.

Nonstarter trajectory.

Like the early-onset, chronic pattern of antisocial behavior LCP youths exhibit, the pattern of not engaging in antisocial behavior at all is aberrant. While many parents certainly would prefer this pattern for their children, there are indeed risks associated with this group. Specifically, youths in the NS trajectory tend to be shy, inhibited, and/or anxious. NS youths may also exhibit odd or asocial patterns of social interactions. So NS youths have characteristics that inhibit or interfere with their social relationships in general. As a consequence, the opportunities to engage in antisocial behavior may be fewer, because normative antisocial behavior (the AL trajectory) is almost exclusively a peer activity. As with the LCP group, there are heritable neurological characteristics that accompany the NS trajectory. Specifically, shyness and anxiety are highly heritable characteristics, and are especially common among girls. It is also possible to think of this issue in terms of an overactive brake system (the BIS). Similarly, the odd or asocial behaviors, which are not necessarily more common among girls, may be linked to autistic-like characteristics, mental retardation, or schizophrenia spectrum characteristics. Odd or asocial youths, like LCP youths, are rejected by their peers; but they usually lack the social skills necessary to bond with antisocial youths who have also been rejected by their prosocial peers. Certainly, there are other possibilities that may lead to the NS pathway. For instance, youths who are especially religious or who belong to a culture in which antisocial behavior is perceived especially poorly may refrain from engaging in these types of behaviors. Similarly, youths who belong to cultures in which there is less of a gap between puberty and assuming adult responsibilities (as in nonindustrialized countries) may also be less likely to engage in antisocial behavior.

So why do AL youths do it, and why are there so many of them?

Moffitt (1993) argues that there is a maturity gap in industrialized countries that explains why youths in these countries are more likely than their peers in nonindustrialized countries to exhibit time-limited adolescent antisocial behavior. In industrialized countries, better nutrition is a major factor leading to earlier puberty, and youths in industrialized countries must wait longer to receive the same rights as adults. Thus, there is a gap of several years during which youths look like adults in terms of size and physique but are not afforded adult privileges. Many of the most common antisocial behaviors among AL youths serve them in obtaining adult privileges, such as sex, substances, money, and possessions. Thus, AL youths engage in relatively minor delinquency and crime, such as underage drinking and stealing. AL youths, although they generally do not associate directly with LCP youths, may also follow the lead of older antisocial youths whom they perceive to have status (they're cool!) by virtue of their seemingly unlimited access to adult privileges. As AL youths enter into legal adult status, they may continue to engage in minor antisocial acts (see Nagin, Farrington, & Moffitt, 1995), but these acts dwindle as they become inconsistent with adult roles (for example, heavy drinking begins to have serious consequences for jobs and romantic relationships). The equation changes, so to speak, in that the costs of continuing to engage in antisocial behavior outweigh the benefits. However, some small proportion of youths sometimes becomes ensnared in a longer-term pattern of antisocial behavior, particularly when substance abuse leads to addiction, or when youths' milder antisocial behavior leads to more serious crimes that result in jail or prison sentences.

Sexual orientation.

Moreover, sexual identity is a complex mixture of which sex (or sexes) one is attracted to and which sex one becomes involved with romantically (that is, what actions one takes based on attraction; see Collins, Welsh, & Furman, 2009). Widespread social biases against same-sex romantic relationships create challenges for youths who are attracted to members of the same sex.

Social factors

Over time, youths spend increasing amounts of time in mixed-sex peer groups. Early in adolescence, when many youths begin dating, romantic relationships appear to be part of the peer culture. Partner selection is primarily a matter of status or popularity early on, and peer acceptance and rejection influence how well a given dating partner fits in with a youth's crowd and clique. As discussed in the previous lesson, individual youths are likely to choose partners from among the same crowd, or at least a crowd that is compatible with their own crowd; for example, a "preppy" is unlikely to choose a "goth" for a partner. Later in adolescence, partner selection is more about the partner. That is, a person's choice of a dating partner is more about choosing an individual who is compatible with him/herself than about aiding status. As with adults, primary factors that guide adolescent attraction include intelligence, interpersonal skills, and physical attractiveness.

Difference factors.

Perhaps the greatest commonalities among sibling relationships in general are that, relative to other types of relationships, they tend to be more emotionally intense, as marked by low inhibition and high levels of conflict; and especially intimate, as marked by sharing a great deal of common experiences. Beyond those commonalities, however, a small number of key factors seem to influence the qualities of sibling relationships.

Race

Race is a social category based on common physical characteristics, such as skin color or hair texture

parent-child relationships early in life focus mainly on parents' keeping children

SAFE

As children begin to recognize their own independence, they also begin to gain a sense of their own worth, or self-esteem.

Self-esteem, like the other terms above, requires that one assess one's own qualities relative to those of other people (better/worse at sports than, prettier/uglier than, more/less feminine than, smarter/dumber than,

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between sex and gender?

Sex influences gender but not vice versa.

There is a widespread misconception regarding the amount of conflict that ensues during adolescence between parents and children. As Smetana et al. (2006) and Arnett (1999) observe, only a___________ proportion of adolescents experiences significant parent-child conflict.

Small

Because most of us lack the resources and popularity to hold friend auditions on our own reality TV show an important question is: How do you choose who your friends are?

Sorting the process by which peers establish friendships, cliques, and crowds, begins early in life, with proximity and exposure guiding friend selection; we befriend the ones we're with the most. Early friendships, then, typically occur between neighbors, children whose parents are friends, classmates at preschool, or members of other social groups such as religious congregations.

Siblings also influence peer relationships by exposing one another to their friends. Influences regarding peer exposure are not necessarily consistent among siblings, but the type of peers that siblings are exposed to can certainly influence potential models of behavior, good or bad. In addition, it is not uncommon for siblings to have overlapping friends, or for families with similar-aged children to spend time together. T or F

T

researchers have generally focused only on one social category at a time, even though it is clear that we use multiple social categories simultaneously. t or f

T

romantic relationships among teens are very common, and nearly half of Americans have had sex by the end of high school, with a small but noteworthy proportion of teens becoming pregnant. T or F

T however,Several limitations qualify research results in this field, however. For instance, because most adolescent surveys are based on youths who are in school at the time the survey is administered, they will underestimate risky behaviors that are more common among youths who have been expelled, who have dropped out (because they are pregnant, for example), or who do not attend regularly. Note also that research on romantic relationships and sexual behavior are complicated (like any sensitive subject) by frequent dishonesty or under-reporting of behavior that adolescents perceive adults would look down upon. Moreover, fluctuations in romantic partners make it difficult to follow the same relationship over time. Finally, inconsistent definitions of romantic relationships and sexual behavior often make it difficult to compare results across studies.

romantic relationships during adolescence set the stage for romantic relationships in adulthood. T or F

T, Good relationships, which are characterized by intimacy, support, and nurturing, are undoubtedly beneficial for development and facilitate growth on many levels. However, bad relationships, which are characterized by conflict, irritability, controlling behavior, and aggression, can inhibit development and contribute to emotional difficulties such as anxiety and depression. Given the developmental importance of romantic relationships, as well as the risks of sexual behavior (such as sexually transmitted diseases/STDs and teen pregnancy), this is an area much in need of further research.

Historically, sex education policies have vacillated between abstinence-only programming, which emphasizes that teenagers should not be having sexual intercourse and therefore should not be taught about contraceptive use; and sex education programs that emphasize abstinence as the best choice for teens but also provide education regarding contraceptive use ("safe sex") for those who do choose to have intercourse.

The academic research is equivocal regarding this topic, stating that abstinence-only programs do little to delay or prevent the initiation of sexual activity among teens, while combined abstinence-contraceptive programs do indeed delay sexual activity and prevent teen pregnancy and STD transmission to some extent (Santinelli et al., 2006).

Summary

The social world of adolescents is marked by changing roles and the importance of parents, siblings, and peers. Changes in these social relationships set up the transition to adulthood and provide practice relating to others, experiences that become relevant later in adulthood in the context of work and marriage. Moreover, if a key task of adolescents is to begin establishing their own identities, then it is important to note that they can only establish who they are in relation to other people: by being alike, different, better, worse, etc.

Adolescence

The subject of this lesson, is the period of life from the beginning stages of puberty, generally between ages ten and thirteen, through the late teens and early twenties; it is a lengthy period of transition from childhood toward adulthood. This transition is marked by massive physiological changes as well as restructuring of the peer world during the middle school and high school years.

children with siblings acquire

Theory of Mind:

sibling deidentification

This process is marked by the acquisition of somewhat independent identities or roles both within and outside the family. In many families, these identities come with labels such as "the smart one" or "the artistic one" or "the athletic one" or the infamous "black sheep." These identities may become increasingly engrained over time as adolescents identify who they are in relation to perceived differences between themselves and their siblings. This may also have concrete consequences as youths act in accordance with their roles. Typically, the less-favored sibling tends to experience greater difficulties in development, such as behavioral and academic problems.

On average, friendships between adolescent girls involve greater levels of intimacy and self-disclosure than those between boys.

True

Peer relationships can appear very different over time. Peers tend to spend increasing amounts of time with one another over the course of adolescence, although romantic relationships begin taking time away from friendships and succeed them in importance for many youths in late adolescence. Additionally, peer relationships tend to become more intimate over time, with increasing levels of self-disclosure and maturity. T or F

True

Having one good friend is more important than having several. Quality over quantity T or F

True having one good friend is of greater importance than having several friends; in other words, the quality of friendships matters more, developmentally speaking, than the quantity of friendships.

Socialization processes.

We have looked at five factors that have predictable influences on sibling relationships. However, we must also consider the more complex questions of how siblings influence one another. That is, what developmental processes underlie sibling relationships? Modeling is one way in which siblings influence one another. Siblings witness one another being rewarded and punished (by parents, for example) for their successes and failures, then act accordingly. Moreover, direct reward and punishment processes are also at work in sibling relationships, in that siblings express approval (reward) or disapproval (punishment) of their siblings' behaviors. In some cases, this may mean that siblings express approval of antisocial behavior, lying to parents about antisocial behavior, or other transgressions that one sibling may not want parents to know about. It may also mean expressing disapproval of socially appropriate behavior, such as walking away from a fight.

Theory of mind,

a child's ability to understand that others have different thoughts, preferences, and motivations, typically develops during the preschool years (ages three to five). This ability is important in distinguishing self from other and is a prerequisite for identity development. (See below for a clip of theory of mind assessment.)

co-rumination,

a joint coping style focused on obsessing over negative experiences and associated emotions (Rose, 2002). This process is more common among girls, and may contribute to social and emotional problems through increasing the impact of negative emotional experiences or through changing the interpretation of ambiguous social events to become more negative.

identity development is

a lifelong process

Many religions and cultures also believe sexual relationships between same-sex couples to be

aberrant. Although violence toward the GLBT community (which has mostly been directed toward boys and young men) has decreased greatly in recent years, gay, lesbian, and bisexual teens remain the targets of bullying and harassment. As demonstrated in a classic episode of Seinfeld (clip), sexual orientation is a topic that makes people uncomfortable, and this is especially true for teens, their parents, their friends, and community members.

Within industrialized countries, international research has revealed that adult status is most commonly marked by

accepting responsibility for oneself, making independent decisions, and becoming financially independent (Arnett, 2004). Becoming an adult by moving upward on these dimensions is a process, not a single event.

The nonstarter (NS) group,

approximately 5 to 10 percent of the population, simply never gets started; that is, they do not demonstrate notable levels of antisocial behavior at any time during childhood, adolescence, or adulthood.

At the next broadest level of peer relationships, cliques

are small groups of peers who share activities (do stuff together) and who regularly have direct interaction with one another.

Different parenting styles remain influential, with ________________ parenting having the most positive developmental outcomes across most contexts (Smetana et al., 2006).

authoritative

decrease in levels of reported warmth and closeness between parents and children. This is not surprising given adolescents' increasing need for

autonomy

The research indicates that "light" sexual behavior, including hugging and kissing, appears to

benefit teens of all ages (see Collins et al., 2009)In general, the warmth and affection embedded within these relatively innocuous behaviors seems likely to improve mood and to enhance a person's sense of self-worth, thereby promoting better relationships with others.

Older and younger siblings both influence each-other their relationship is

bidirectional.

Sexual attraction is mostly a matter of __________________; sexual behavior is mostly a matter of ________________.

biology; socialization

Consistent with early gendered play, the media tend to reinforce gender stereotypes,

both in how television and movies portray male and female characters and in how advertisers market products to young children. For example, view the following commercials: action toys (clip here) versus dolls (clip here). Note first of all that no girls are present in the action toy ad, and no boys are present in the doll ad. Second, note the themes in each commercial; the first ad clearly emphasizes masculine themes like adventure and use of mechanical objects, and the second ad clearly emphasizes feminine themes like being a princess. Advertising agencies spend considerable time and resources developing commercials that capitalize on pre-existing gender stereotypes, and they are remarkably successful in those efforts.

It is also important to note that the LCP trajectory is more common among

boys

the AL trajectory is common among

boys and girls

love science tells us relatively little beyond these pieces of common knowledge. One interesting exception has come about in the area of

brain imaging.

Although violence toward the GLBT community (which has mostly been directed toward boys and young men) has decreased greatly in recent years, gay, lesbian, and bisexual teens remain the targets of ________________________________________. As demonstrated in a classic episode of Seinfeld (clip), sexual orientation is a topic that makes people uncomfortable, and this is especially true for teens, their parents, their friends, and community members.

bullying and harassment

4. differential treatment by parents (different rules, responsibilities, and privileges)

can cause problems when siblings perceive those differences in treatment as unfair. Note that differential treatment may include variation in parenting from one parent figure to another, as well as perceived differences across varying time periods, when external circumstances (such as financial hardship) may be influencing parenting. However, most siblings appreciate to a degree that different children are not going to be treated exactly alike.

Also early in life, children witness models of social behavior in their mothers, fathers, siblings, and others (aunts/uncles, daycare providers) with whom they regularly come into contact. So, even though infants cannot express gender stereotypes verbally, they may observe women and men having different social roles (mommy may do stuff around the house and be around more often; daddy may leave during the day and do different types of things around the house), differing communication styles (different amounts of emotional expression, different pitch, different body language), differing interaction styles with siblings (daddy may act differently with brother than with sister), etc. Infants readily collect this information about the world and begin incorporating it into gender schemas in their attempts to make sense of the immense world around them. This same process of observation, social reinforcement, and mimicry is evident throughout childhood as children engage with the home, school, and community environments.

children witness models of social behavior

Peer relationships differ from relationships among family members in that they are

chosen. chosen rather than conferred by birth. Consequently, peer relationships tend to be fluid, with friends coming and going over time, although it is not uncommon for friendships to last for very long periods of time, similar to sibling relationships. Also like sibling relationships, peer relationships tend to involve high levels of warmth and numerous shared experiences. In fact, friendships are a major source of supportiveness during difficult periods for many youths. In general, however, friendships tend to have fewer conflicts than sibling relationships, perhaps because high-conflict friendships can be ended or avoided more easily than conflictual sibling relationships.

Obsessive thinking and talking about negative experiences that occurs jointly between two people is called

co-rumination

children come to adopt the attitudes and beliefs surrounding them as their own. That is, socialization is a process of internalizing society into one's self in the form of

cognitive schemas (cognitive representations of social categories and associated expectations). For each of the categories below, the social world has many common stereotypes, attitudes, social expectations, and expressed behavioral norms. Children are constantly surrounded by models of how they should be, and they regularly witness those who do not fit social norms being ostracized and rejected. So it should not be surprising that social forces are influential in identity development.

Moreover, it is important to consider that with about 2.2 million adults in its prisons and jails, the United States has the world's largest prisoner population. Of the world's five most populous countries, the United States has more people in prison than does China (1,657,812) and more than Brazil (607,731), Indonesia (161,692), and India (418,586)

combined!

Behaviors that violate the laws of conduct for people of any age are called

crime

Jocks, goths, and nerds match which level of peer relationships?

crowds

Which type of continuity linked to long-term patterns of antisocial behavior can be described as a downhill snowball?

cumulative continuity

During adolescence, parents' importance in their children's lives gradually

decreases Because adolescents spend more time at school and with peers, parents are less physically present in adolescents' lives, so parental monitoring becomes less direct (for example, through calling friends' parents, checking up on their children), albeit still important in order to provide knowledgeable guidance. Thus, in general, parents are required to take less direct action on behalf of youths during adolescence as their children become increasingly independent and better able to provide for their own needs, such as dressing and bathing themselves, feeding themselves, and performing chores.

Delinquency

denotes rule violations of child laws of conduct, including running away, alcohol and tobacco consumption, or incorrigibility (failure to follow caregiver rules). A delinquent act is one that is unacceptable only because the actor is a juvenile, which in most states is a person under the age of eighteen. (In Missouri, juveniles are defined as those below age seventeen).

As mentioned above, sibling relationships are relatively conflictual when compared with other types of relationships. Extreme levels of sibling conflict can have

detrimental effects on development because of high levels of stress and negative affect. However, average levels of conflict between siblings provide a foundation for developing social skills, such as sharing and problem solving, that are relevant to interacting with peers.

Sibling relationships represent a relatively understudied area in developmental research, despite the fact that sibling relationships are the longest-lasting relationships over the course of the lifespan, and children often spend more time with their siblings than with anyone else during childhood. At the start, the addition of a new sibling to a family marks a major transition for children because it requires sharing the same amount of family resources, such as parents' time and energy, food, and toys, among a larger number of people The challenges of studying sibling interactions stem largely from

differences in family constellations (different numbers of siblings, differing combinations of sex and age differences, etc.). However, there is enough research to identify some common patterns among these important sibling relationships.

Research indicates that sexual orientation is actually a

dimensional variable in which individuals have varying degrees of physical and romantic attraction toward members of the same versus the opposite sex. Where someone falls on this dimension appears to be largely a matter of biology, although choosing to act on this attraction is somewhat under voluntary control, and many self-identified gay men and lesbians do have sexual interactions with members of the opposite sex (see Collins et al., 2009). The research on sexual orientation, however, is extremely limited by the sensitive nature of sexuality and the fact that many teenagers who are aware of their same-sex attractions are unwilling to participate in research for fear of harassment or discrimination. As with other topics related to sex, cultural taboos interfere with researchers' abilities to obtain accurate information about sexual orientations. For instance, estimates of the proportion of the broader population with same-sex attraction or same-sex sexual activity range

A. benefit adolescents at all ages.

distinct from other types of positive emotion and other types of love.

On the other hand, "heavy" sexual behavior, including intercourse and oral sex, tends to be associated with

emotional..and behavioral problems when it occurs in early adolescence. In late adolescence, however, the impact of heavy sexual behavior appears to be neutral, especially when considered in the context of stable, committed romantic relationships between teens. So there is no obvious reason, based on the research evidence, to think sex is either necessarily harmful or beneficial to older teenagers.

Problematic patterns of peer relationships. While most friendships have their ups and downs, the majority of adolescent friendships do not contribute to major developmental problems. Two patterns of peer relationships, however, have been widely discussed as problematic in the developmental psychology literature.

externalizing pattern, deviancy training

Romantic relationships in early adolescence generally serve the function of A. fitting in. B. developing a close, intimate relationship. C. friendship. D. developing sexual identity.

fitting in.

key social categories individuals use to define themselves:

gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation social class.

First and foremost, youths from the LCP trajectory frequently exhibit a number of inherited neurological deficits. In general, about 50 percent of the variation in antisocial behavior patterns can be attributed to

genetic factors (a heritability estimate of 50 percent), with the other 50 percent accounted for by environmental factors. (Note, as discussed in Lesson 3, that there is actually some portion of G x E overlap.)

and the NS trajectory is somewhat more common for

girls

the beginning of puberty, marked by increased estrogen activity for girls and increased testosterone activity for boys, which promotes maturation of sex organs (gonads). The onset of puberty generally occurs earlier for girls (age ten or eleven, on average) than for boys (age twelve or thirteen); this is consistent with the earlier biological development that girls experience in general. Note that early onset of puberty for girls (relative to other girls) and late onset of puberty for boys (relative to other boys) tend to be associated with problems. In particular, early puberty tends to increase the likelihood of sexual behavior for girls, which is likely a function of involvement with older boys. For boys, late onset of puberty tends to be associated with social ostracism because of small stature.

gonadarche

Thus, romantic interests precede

gonadarche,

older siblings influence younger siblings to a ______ degree

greater Older siblings model behavior for younger siblings, who, in turn, spend a substantial amount of time observing and learning from their older siblings. Also, older siblings often rank above younger siblings in family hierarchies and are frequently given caretaking responsibilities, in some cases taking on the role of surrogate parent.

The adolescence-limited (AL) group,

group, which represents approximately 50 percent of the population, shows elevated antisocial behavior levels during adolescence that generally decline prior to adulthood.

1. Birth Order

has been a subject of much interest in popular media representations of sibling relationships. The research literature suggests that while younger and older siblings influence each other (that is, the relationship is bidirectional), older siblings influence younger siblings to a greater degree. Older siblings model behavior for younger siblings, who, in turn, spend a substantial amount of time observing and learning from their older siblings. Also, older siblings often rank above younger siblings in family hierarchies and are frequently given caretaking responsibilities, in some cases taking on the role of surrogate parent.

3. relationships between parents and children

have powerful influences on sibling relationships. Recall the interconnections among family members from Lesson 2. The emotional content of any one relationship in a family diffuses throughout the rest of a family through interconnections among family members. In addition, siblings frequently re-enact interaction patterns that adults in the family model for them. So if adults model high levels of conflict and name-calling, then siblings are likely to be in conflict and call one another names. If the adults in a family are warm toward each other and model supportiveness and calm discussion in solving problems, then siblings are likely to follow suit in their relations with one another.

Thus, as adolescents become more independent, some temporary problems occur in redefining relationships with parents. Indeed, the _________ between parents and children decreases as adolescents age and come to resemble adults in appearance and abilities.

hierarchy

Additional neurological factors have also been identified as particularly common among LCP youths. These include a

higher-than-average response to rewarding stimuli and a lower-than-average response to fear and punishment.

Bartels and Zeki (2004) performed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans on mothers who viewed pictures of romantic partners, friends, their children, and acquaintances. The results ......

indicated that distinct brain circuitry became activated while viewing pictures of romantic partners, confirming that romantic love is indeed different from other types of love.

5. developmental time period

influences the nature of sibling relationships. Siblings who are both in childhood and similar in age are likely to share a substantial amount of time and common activities together. When they reach adolescence, however, siblings who are close in age may develop independent interests and friendships. Of course, sibling relationships vary so widely from one family to the next, and even within families, that the combination of the different factors above (which are generally considered separately across research studies) limits the generalizability of the research to actual sibling relationships.

At the simplest relational level, then, are dyads

interactions between two people.

relational aggression

is a more indirect form of aggression marked by harming others' relationships (for example, by spreading rumors).

Ethnicity

is a social category based on shared cultural origins and traditions, such as language or religion. Contrary to popular belief, racial groupings are determined far more by social forces than by shared genetic ancestry. In fact, some scientists question whether any concept of race exists outside of social groupings

Oppositional Defiant Disorder

is a youth disorder marked by a pattern of age-inappropriate, hostile, stubborn, and defiant behavior

Antisocial Personality Disorder

is an adult disorder defined by a pervasive pattern of disregard for or violation of others' rights, as well as criminal activities.

Conduct Disorder

is marked by a pattern of more severe antisocial behaviors, and often includes physical aggression and criminal behavior.

Physical aggression

is marked by acts of violence or intimidation (such as pushing, punching, or yelling),

Many questions remain, however, regarding how the capacity for romantic love develops, presumably beginning during adolescence. Furthermore, it is unclear how love differs from infatuation, a common phenomenon among teenagers whose emotions are already intense and highly variable. Moreover, it would be interesting to explore how love changes over the course of relationships, as well as to know more about how the neural circuitry of reason and judgment interacts with more emotion-focused areas of the brain. Thus, much remains to be explored in

love science

The two most commonly exhibited neurological deficits among LCP youths are

low verbal intelligence and impulsivity

is sexual orientation really a choice? Until the third version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) published by the American Psychiatric Association in 1980, homosexuality was classified as a

mental disorder

However, relative to other developmental periods, there is an average increase in levels of conflict between parents and children, with the greatest levels of conflict generally occurring during what age/adolesence

middle adolescence, ages ages fourteen through seventeen). In addition, there is also an average decrease in levels of reported warmth and closeness between parents and children.

As with other age ranges, prominent socialization forces guide this process: in this case,

n the realms of family, peers and romance, school and work, and media.

In general, later puberty has _____________ consequences for boys and _____________ positivde for girls

negative nuetral

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, unhelpful behavior describes specific acts or a pattern of acts that violate social norms and expectations for acceptable behavior.

Impulsivity can also be understood in terms of

neurological activation versus inhibition. Gray (1991) described the behavioral activation system (BAS) as the neurological system that motivates behavioral action, while the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) slows or reduces responses. These systems are analogous to the gas pedal and brakes in a car. LCP youths have been shown in numerous experimental methodologies to have an overactive BAS and an underactive BIS: in other words, too much gas pedal and not enough brakes.

Compared with the adolescence-limited trajectory, the causes of the life-course-persistent trajectory are more closely linked to

neurological factors.

Social class

often so pervasive in youths' lives that they themselves may not even recognize this element of identity; that is, they can't see the forest for the trees. Little research in developmental psychology has directly examined youths' development of social class identity. However, it is likely that youths' identities are consistent with the markers of social class: parental income, occupation, and education. Youths tend to follow in their parents' footsteps, and they identify themselves in relation to their parents: for example, son of Joe the plumber, daughter of Sarah the mayor. In adulthood, individuals may come to identify themselves by their relative social standing, and they will tend to associate primarily with individuals from similar social class backgrounds. Another interesting phenomenon associated with social class identity is the adoption of positive identities associated with poverty. Among the most prominent examples are the development of identities associated with being "redneck," particularly among rural white youths, and being "gangsta," particularly among urban minority youths. Even the briefest search of media in the form of music and television could identify common themes

Approximately what proportion of teenagers report having had sexual intercourse by the end of high school?

one half

Self-concept,

one's self-perception of having unique characteristics, is the broadest construct within the area of identity development (Schaeffer, 2009). In order to realize the concept of "self," children must recognize that other individuals are distinct from them. That is, they must know that there is a "self" and that there are other selves with different collections of attributes.

this and other studies have identified the hormones_____________ and______________ as being linked to romantic love. So love does indeed have neural bases and is unique in some ways.

oxytocin vasopressin

Which of the following diagrams best depicts the order of developmental importance of types of relationships from birth through early adulthood?

parents→peers→romantic

Romantic relationships often do include sexual behaviors,

physical expressions of affection ranging from kissing to sexual intercourse, particularly later in adolescence.

2. Sex and age differences

play a role in sibling relationships, with greater conflict and closeness among same-sex and close-in-age siblings. However, the research literature on these differences is somewhat inconsistent and highly nuanced, meaning that sex and age differences are in need of further research and/or they simply do not have predictable effects.

Furthermore, it is estimated that between 5 and 15 percent of teenaged girls become

pregnant

impulsivity is heritable and linked to deficits in executive functions,

problems which include the ability to plan and enact a sequence of actions.

Crime

refers to acts that violate laws of conduct at any age, including assault, robbery, drinking and driving, murder, etc. Juveniles can commit crimes, but the offenses are generally handled by a juvenile justice system that is separate from the adult justice system. In some cases, however, juveniles can be tried as adults for more severe crimes (such as murder or rape). Aggression refers to hostile acts directed toward others.

Psychopathy

refers to personality characteristics linked to callous and unemotional traits. Psychopathy is not a disorder listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV-TR, 2004), published by the American Psychiatric Association, which describes criteria for diagnosing mental disorders.

In particular, brain areas associated with ____________became more active, and areas associated with ___________ and _____________ became less active.

reward negative emotion and judgment

Overall, 70 percent of seventeen-year-olds report having had a recent _______________ and 48 percent of high school seniors report having had______________ by the end of high school

romantic relationship, sexual intercourse

There are also more than nine million new cases of

sexually transmitted diseases each year among fifteen- to twenty-four-year-olds

As parents exert less control over friendships, and youths are exposed to greater numbers of peers,

sharing similar interests and activities becomes increasingly important in friend selection. Finally, sorting occurs through similar beliefs and values. Thus, the factors that guide friendship selection become increasingly complex over time and involve deeper levels of meaning, but it is commonalities between peers in general that make for lasting friendships.

Differences between racial groups in intelligence test performance are generally due to

socioeconomic conditions.

At the broadest level are crowds

stereotyped groups containing norms for attitudes and behaviors. Crowds include groups with much-discussed popular culture labels such as jocks, preps, nerds, punks, or goths, as well as numerous other groups defined by characteristics such as fashion, extracurricular interests, academic achievement, antisocial behavior, religion, cultural heritage, or music. The larger levels of this hierarchy establish group behavioral norms that guide peer acceptance and rejection. While it is possible to belong to multiple crowds and cliques during adolescence, attempts to maintain friendships or romantic relationships across inconsistent groups are likely to lead to rejection or harassment from peers. For instance, members of a crowd where antisocial behavior is normative are not likely to mix with one in which academic achievement is a key behavioral norm.

Theory of Mind

the ability to understand other people's thoughts and motivations as different from their own, earlier than children without siblings. As a close correlate, children with siblings also tend to develop empathy earlier than only children. So conflict may have positive influences when kept within reason.

The ability to understand that others have different thoughts, preferences, and motivations is called

theory of mind

The remaining 30 to 40 percent of youths are u

unclassified; that is, they do not easily fit into any of the above trajectories.

The process of identity development, as you will see, begins

very early in life, and is heavily influenced by family members and peers, as well as by broader factors such as historical trends and culture.

externalizing pattern,

which is more common among boys, involves increasing levels of antisocial behaviors during childhood and adolescence. Briefly (this issue will be discussed at greater length in Lesson 9), highly aggressive children tend to be rejected by the majority of their more prosocial peers early in life. These children then tend to associate with other antisocial youths, who reinforce their negative behaviors through laughter, smiling, and encouragement, a process Dishion and colleagues termed deviancy training (Dishion, Spracken, Andrews, & Patterson, 1996). These youths tend to increase the seriousness of their antisocial behaviors over time, particularly when adults fail to monitor them sufficiently. It is also difficult to escape this pattern, because attempts to leave an antisocial clique or crowd often require overcoming rejection and harassment by old friends, as well as gaining acceptance from new friends with different norms and values.

Second, an internalizing pattern,

which is more common among girls, generally involves negative emotions, such as sadness, worry, or hopelessness, and withdrawal from peers. A combination of factors contributes to this pattern, including predispositions toward shyness and inhibition, behavioral submissiveness and nonassertion, and victimization experiences (being bullied). This combination of negative peer experiences and social limitations can often initiate a cycle of interpersonal failure in which youths begin avoiding peer interactions, thereby further limiting their social skill development and making it even more difficult to have positive social experiences. Research suggests that girls may be at somewhat greater risk for the internalizing pattern of peer relationships, both because they tend to have higher levels of negative emotion in general, and because they tend to place a greater emphasis on relationships, so that negative peer experiences have a large impact.