Psychology 370 Midterm

Associationism

a theory in philosophy or psychology which regards the simple association or co-occurrence of ideas or sensations as the primary basis of meaning, thought, or learning. Based upon Newtonian Physics.

Peter Lombard (1100-1160)

Natural revelation is just as important as special revelation

Rationalists

Reason is the prime source of knowledge, thinking mind, not sensation, should provide justification of truth. Ex. Descartes

Renaissance Humanism

Rebirth, Focus on human psychology and celebration of its potential, desire to study the human condition.

Roger Bacon (1214-1294)

Two "prerogatives of experimental science" Theories should be evaluated by their novel predictions (#1). Experimentation should augment naturalistic observation (#2).

Humanism

Human element in behavior, separate from divine; emphasized objective; 3 themes: human dignity, independence from intellectual authorities, human frailty

Ampliative Inference (J.S. Mill)

inference that goes beyond the information given (sensation)

Positivism (Auguste Comte)

information derived from sensory experience, interpreted through reason and logic, forms the exclusive source of all certain knowledge. Law of three Stages - Societies cognitive development that represent different attitudes toward the explanation of natural events. (Theological, Metaphysical, Positive)

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. (Underlying schemas dont change)

unconscious inference (J.S. Mill)

our perceptions are the result of unconscious assumptions, or inferences, that we make about the environment. Distinguish between information derived from sensation and from inference. Rational unconscious.

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)

"father of anatomy" dissection of human cadavers. Rejected Galen's medical theories (Discovered Galen's was based on animals).

Wundt's psychology

- Psychology is the science of immediate experience - Focus on apperception - Conscious attention must be drawn to stimuli - Voluntaristic psychology (what the mind does is voluntary) - Volkerpsychologie (folk psychology, 1900-1920) Two basic elements: Sensations & Feelings

Threshold of Consciousness

Level below which unconscious ideas are repressed. Repressed ideas sum their energy to force their way into consciousness. Johann Friedrich Herbart.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

1. British biologist who wrote "On the Origin of Species" 2. Challenged the idea of special creation by proposing a revolutionary theory of biological evolution 3. Concluded that every living plant and animal takes a part in a constant "struggle for existence" in which only the "fittest" survive 4. Argued that the fittest are determined by a process of natural selection

Enlightenment

18th century, focus on reason as primary source of authority, religious tolerance, emphasis on scientific method

Cerebral Localization

19th century, shift to controlled experimentation, neurophysiological dualism (cerebral cortex distinct from lower brain/spinal cord). Marshall Hall introduced reflex arc.

Herophilus of Chalcedon

330/320 - 260/250 BC; physician at Alexandria; practiced dissection (live criminals); distinguished between sensory and motor neurons

Medieval Psychology

500-1500, Early Period (500-1000) Decline of commerce/learning; Middle Period (1000-1300) commerce/learning revived; Late Period (1300-1600) Intellectual/social systems break down. Medieval Church cared more about theoretical ideas/not empirically tested.

Averroes (1126-1198)

A Muslim physician and philosopher, who, among other things, wrote commentaries on Aristotle's work on the senses, memory, sleep and waking, and dreams. "Averroes Heresy" Didn't individuate between souls, Believed soul wasn't immortal on rational grounds unless through faith

Evolution via Natural Selection

Any non-random differential reproduction (i.e. survival and/or fecundity) of genotypes due to differences in their associated phenotypes.

Avicenna

Arabian philosopher and physician, Developed flying man argument for dualism, theory of inner senses (senses were located in the ventricles). Expansion on Aristotle's view of psyche

Galileo

Argued "Bad Idea", theories not accepted until tested empirically, ideally via a crucial experiment (experiment that tests 2 competing ideas).

Psychological Disorders/Medieval Christianity

Attributed to environment, brain damage, & imbalance of 4 "humors", treatment -> Same as Hippocrates (diet, exercise, music, etc)

Peter Abelard (1079-1142)

Author of Yes And No; university scholar who applied logic to problems of theology; demonstrated logical contradictions within established doctrine. Revived dialectic method "For and against". Censured by church

Benedict de Spinoza

Big on emotion; role of self preservation: positive emotion - increase, negative emotion - decrease. Impulses/desires cloud reason. Connection to cognitive-behavioral therapy, aimed at understanding real reason's behind people's actions (empathy)

comparative psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species.

Francois Magendie

Discovered, in modern times, the distinction between sensory and motor nerves. First university course on Physiology. Bell-Magendie Law

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech. Refuted unitary nature of brain activation.

Immanuel Kant

Criticized both rationalists & empiricists, encouraged a middle ground, didn't deny the existence of innate ideas, should be subjected to empirical evaluation.

European Recovery

Dark Ages ended around 1000, Revival in scholarship, First Crusade (1095) made contact with Muslim scholars, Church became more open to other forms of knowledge.

Johann Friedrich Herbart

Developed "dynamic psychology". Built on associationist psychology. "Attractive"(effort) "Repulsive"(conflict with ideas in mind) possess ideas in consciousness.

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

Developed first complex description of reflexive behavior (Characterized as mechanistic, automatic and involuntary), Systematic Doubt, Identify axioms that were immune to error or doubt, Dualist (Mind and brain come together in pineal gland). "I think, therefore, I am"

Franz Gall (1758-1828)

Developed the false theory of phrenology, argued more/intellectual faculties are innate, rejected dualism. cranioscopy. First to ATTEMPT to identify neural location of behavior origins.

David Hartley (1705-1757)

Developed theory of associations, sensation -> pulsation of microscopic elements inside nerves, vibrations/marks create memories and other mental activity.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

Developed utilitarianism (Maximize human happiness and minimize human misery). Developed system of logic - Three methods: Method of Agreement, Method of difference, Method of concomitant variation. Thought psychology was a "blot on the face of science". Championed scientific study of character (ethology)

Theodosius

Emperor of the Roman Empire who made Christianity the official religion of the empire. Banned Pagan religions, including science

George Berkeley (1685-1753)

Empiricist. Strongly against deism (God detached from earthly affairs). Solipsism - the self is the only entity that can be known/verified. Rejected Locke's views on qualities. (Even essential qualities may not be perceived).

End of Medieval Period

Ended in 1453 (Fall of Constantinople), Assimilated Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology, World changed with 3 things: Gutenberg's printing press, Columbus's "discovery" of America, Renaissance & Reformation

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

English politician and writer, advocated that new knowledge was acquired through an inductive reasoning process (using specific examples to prove or draw conclusion from a general point) called empiricism; rejected Medieval view of knowledge based on tradition, believed it's necessary to collect data, observe, and draw conclusions. This was the foundation of the scientific method.

Plotinus

Escape body via transcendental experiences, sould imprisoned by body, neoplatonism, senses source of beauty in art/music

Johannes Muller (1801-1858)

Expanded the Bell-Magendie law by demonstrating that each sense receptor, when stimulated, releases an energy specific to that particular receptor. This finding is called the doctrine of specific nerve energies. Developed vitalism, "God" particle

Fall of Rome Continued

Fall of Rome coincided with rise in Christianity, Edict of Milan (All religions tolerated).

Euclid

Father of geometry; Deductive system of demonstration

Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934)

Father of modern neuroscience, Established cell theory of neuron

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)

First real account of evolution, pricinples of inheritance of acquired characteristics & struggle for the fittest. Gave term evolution its modern meaning (description of organic change). "Survival of the Fittest". Soft Heredity (inheritance through biological reproduction can be influenced by the life history of organisms).

Alexander Bain (1818-1903)

First to integrate psychology and physiology. Drafted account of voluntary behavior, Spencer-Bain principle, Behavioral learning, distinguished between voluntary and involuntary.

Pierre Flourens (1794-1867)

First to study major sections of the brain; done via Extirpation (removal) or Ablation on live animals. Critiqued Phrenology. Argued for unitary nature of brain.

Scientific Advancement

General lack of interest in pursuing new knowledge, Knowledge based on scholarly tradition, theorists became practitioners.

Galen

Greek surgeon of the Roman Empire, believed every structure (organ) had function, "vital" and "animal" spirits.

Claudius Ptolemy

He believed that the Earth was at the center of the Universe, and that the sun and other planets revolved around the Earth. Aristotle geocentric theory

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

Human psyche -> function of human body Greatest scholastic theologian Synthesized an apologetic of faith and reason from Aristotle and church doctrine Used "quaestio" method. "Great chain of being" "Ladder of Intellect (faith)" Thought dependent on sensory experience Introduced intentionality, psychologcal states make reference to some object beyond themselves.

Scientific Rationalism

Humans part of all-encompassing mechanical universe, Spiritual -> Deism, Non-Spiritual -> Determinism/Nihilism. Human Behavior predictable = satisfaction maximized, displeasure avoided

Alhazan

In the 11th Century, the Arab mathematician and scholar proposed that vision is based on light entering the eye rather than light coming from within the eye. Explained how two eyes create one image.

Women's Sphere

In the years prior to World War I, the sphere of women was in the household,. Women were supposed to be more pure and raise children to be good citizens. Alleged health consequences of too much cognitive effort

Medieval Christianity & Science

Inquisition not against science but the Catharina heresy (critical of wealth of the church due to Christ being poor)., Prohibited dissection in 1163 (Not directed at science), Witchcraft.

Mediate experience (Wundt)

Kind of experience that is theoretically interpreted.

Francis Galton (1822-1911)

Invented correlation coefficent. First to systematically apply statistics to study of psychological characteristics. Study of individual differences, lead to development of eugenics.

Emil Du Bois-Reymond (1818-1896)

Is considered the father of electrophysiology. Found that the brain conducts, rather than generates. Chemical reactions way to slow to account for instantaneous.

Philo

Knowledge revealed by gods, Reason/experience = bad, Soul "imprisoned" by material body, "go towards light" = good, carnal experience = bad. Neoplatonism

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)

Measured speed of neural conduction (30-35 meters per second). Tested on a frog. Perception was unconscious interference. Developed theory of color vision (trichromatic theory of color vision).

Scientific Revolution

Medieval World was breaking down, Urbanization "Black death", Rise of nation-states, Exploration of World, Johann Gutenberg invents printing press (1450).

Epiphenomanlism

Mentality and consciousness are by-products of the reflexive neurophysiological states that mediate sensory-motor connections and are not causes of behavior. Consciousness plays no role in the generation of behavior.

Augustine of Hippo

Monk, led Christianity to substance dualism, big on faith, first account of introspection, Autobiographical account with psychological commentary.

Roberts Bartholow

Physician who conducted an early, but ethically questionable, study of electrical stimulation of a conscious human brain (Mary Rafferty).

Laissez-faire evolution

Policy that government should interfere as little as possible in the nation's economy. Social progress is best assured by leaving evolution to its natural course. Herbert Spencer

Duns Scotus

Preview of John Stuart Mill's "Three Methods"

Rome

Produced technological marvels, very little natural/psychological science. More interested in practical ideas

Eugenics

Programs of artificial selection that encourage/promote the breeding of the "highly gifted" and discourage/prevent the breeding of "idiots and imbeciles"

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

Psychological Hedonism, Individualism, large influence on early social psychologists.

Gottfriend Leibniz

Psychological Paralleslism - Physical/mental processes develop in parallel, deterministic paths. Introduced monads (Tiny life-units that comprise the universe). Apperception, different types of knowledge

John Locke (1632-1704)

Rejected innate ideas, "Tabula rosa", sensation and reflection (worthless without sensation). Empiricist. Simple ideas have two qualities: Primary qualities (essential) and secondary (sensations) qualities.

Kenneth and Mamie Phipps Clark

Researchers whose work was used in the Brown v. Board of Education case that overturned segregation in schools.

Galen's Theory of Personality

Sanguine (cheerful) - Blood - Air - Choleric (irritable) - Yellow Bile - Fire Melancholy (sad) - Black Bile - Earth Phlegmatic (lazy/calm) - Phlegm - Water

Individualism

Social groups are merely collections of individuals acting in their own best interests

Islam

Started by Muhammad in 610, orginally very hostile to science, 800 Calip Haround-Al-Raschid translated ancient Greeks into Arabic, Islamic Empire preserved science, became the place for classical learning/science.

Nicolaus Copernicus

The Copernican Revolution, Sun is center of solar system, Shifted science to "realism" (best theory is the one that provides the most accurate view of reality). Opposition to "instrumentalism" (best theory is the most economically predictive device)

Substance Dualism

The belief that the mind and the body both exist as two distinct and separate realities, which the mind can survive bodily death.

inheritance of acquired characteristics

The hypothesis that organisms' bodies change during their lifetimes by use and disuse and that these changes are inherited by their offspring. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

The Sensory-Motor Theory of the Nervous System

The nervous system is a reflexive sensory-motor system whose every component can be characterized as having a sensory or motor function. (Cognitive functions are purely more elaborate reflexes).

Spencer-Bain principle

The observation first made by Bain and later by Spencer that behavior resulting in pleasurable consequences tends to be repeated and behavior resulting in painful consequences tends not to be.

Saint Albertus Magnus

Thirteenth century philosopher who helped to establish the works of Aristotle within the Christian world by making a complete and detailed scholarly review of the works of Aristotle, and also of Aristotle's Islamic and Jewish commentators. He also conducted careful and systematic observations of nature that anticipated the beginnings of science.

Neoplatonism

Views based on the ideas of Plato that one should search beyond appearances for true knowledge.

Fall of Rome

Vikings destroyed Rome, uprising of feudal system, decline of science (31 BC), Still remnant in East (Constantinople).

experimental self-observation

Wilhelm Wundt's technique of combining trained introspection with objective measurement

Physiological Psychology

Wilhelm Wundt: first to apply methods of physiology to explain mental states/processes that had always been discussed by philosophers. Put resources necessary to develop psychology.

William of Occam

William of Occam as in Occam's Razor" was a 14th century philosopher and theologian. (Occam's Razor, aka 'parsimony' named for) Always choose the most simple explanation.

Accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information (underlying schemas do change)

struggle for existence

competition among members of a species for food, living space, and the other necessities of life. Thomas Malthus

Saint Anselm

defined theology as "faith seeking understanding". Reason and sense experience can supplement faith and developed famous arguments for existence of God

Gustav Fechner (1801-1887)

developed an approach to measuring sensation and perception called psychophysics. Senses research. Ex. "just noticeable differences" - subjective unit of measurement of the perceived difference.

Immediate experience (Wundt)

direct subjective experience as it occurs. Consciousness as it appears.

Empiricists

emphasize learning and experience. Knowledge cannot be properly inferred or deduced unless it is derived from sensory experiences. Ex. Thomas Hobbes

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany. Father of modern psychology.

Robert Grosseteste (1200s)

father of the scientific method, Logic of confirmation/falsification of scientific theories

Experimental Introspection

the method according to which the researcher has to carefully observe his or her own experience as a response to a physical stimulus delivered in laboratory surroundings. Quality, Intensity, Duration

Bell-Magendie Law

the concept that the entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and the exiting ventral roots carry motor information

Psychological Hedonism

the doctrine that all action is motivated by the desire to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. "Will" is just the most powerful appetite

mind-body problem

the issue of how the mind is related to the brain and body

Electrophysiology

the study of the electrical activity of cells

educational psychology

two methods of learning, Assimilation and Accommodation.