psychology ch 1-2
5 main issues/contraverisies in psychology
-nature (heredity) vs. nurture (environment) (and which has a great influence on behavior) -conscious vs. unconscious determinants of behavior -observable behavior vs. internal mental processes - free will vs. determinism -individual differences vs. universal principles
What percentage of psychologists are from a racial minority?
16%
ratio of men to women in the field
1:2.1
How many psychologists are there?
200,000 active in USA more than 290,000 in Europe 140,000 licensed in Brazil
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1954?
Abraham Maslow publishes Motivation and Personality, developing the theory of self-actualization.
Functionalism
An early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does - the functions of mental activity - and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments. prominent in early 1900s
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1969?
Arguments regarding the basis of IQ testing fuel lingering controversies.
Who was a champion of the behavioral perspective?
B.F. Skinner
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1953?
B.F. Skinner publishes Science and Human Behavior , advocating the behavioral perspective.
What do behavioral neuroscientists and experimental psychologists focus on?
Behavioral neuroscientists focus on the biological basis of behavior, and experimental psychologists study the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world
Where did William James set up his psychological laboratory?
Cambridge, Massachusetts
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1951?
Carl Rodgers publishes Client-Centered Therapy, helping to establish the humanistic perspective
What did 17th century British philosopher John Locke believe?
Children were born into the world with minds like "blank slates" and that their experiences determine the type of adults that they will become. (tabula rasa in Latin)
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1981?
David Hubel and Tortsen Wiesel win Nobel Prize for work on vision cells in the brain.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1637?
Descartes describes animal spirits
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 2000?
Elizabeth Loftus does pioneering work on false memory and eyewitness testimonies.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1807?
Franz Josef Gall proposes phrenology
How did Gestalt psychology look at things compared to structuralism?
Gestalt psychology looked at the whole sense, but structuralism looked at the individual parts of the sense.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1920?
Gestalt theory becomes influential
What did John Dewey (American) draw upon to create _________________?
He drew upon functionalism to create the field of school psychology.
What did the 18th century physician, Franz Joseph Gall, believe?
He thought that a trained observed could discern intelligence, moral character, and other basic personality traits from the shape and number of bumps on a person's skull.
What did Descartes think about nerves in the 17th century?
He thought that nerves were hollow tubes through which animal spirits conducted impulses in the same way that water flows through a pipe (if you got too close to a fire, then heat was transmitted to the brain through those tubes)
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 430 BC?
Hippocrates argues for four temperaments of personality.
free will vs determinism
How much of our behavior is a matter of free will (choices made freely by an individual), and how much is subject to determinism, the notion that behavior is largely produced by factors beyond people's willful control?
conscious vs unconscious causes of behavior
How much of our behavior is produced by forces of which we are fully aware, and how much is due to unconscious activity—mental processes that are not accessible to the conscious mind?
Nature (heredity) vs. Nurture (environment)
How much of people's behavior is due to their genetically determined nature (heredity), and how much is due to nurture, the influences of the physical and social environment in which a child is raised?
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1985?
Increasing emphasis on cognitive perspective
explain the cognitive approach to behavior
It considers how people know, understand, and think about the world.
Describe the behavioral perspective?
It deemphasizes internal processes and concentrates instead on observable, measureable behavior, suggesting that understanding and control of a person's environment are sufffiecient to fully explain and modify behavior.
Explain the humanistic perspective.
It emphasizes that people are uniquely inclined toward psychological growth and higher levels of functioning and that they will strive to reach their full potential.
what does the psychodynamic perspective suggest?
It suggests that the powerful, unconscious inner forces and conflicts about which people have little to no awareness are the primary determinants of behavior.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1904?
Ivan Pavlov wins Nobel Prize for work on digestion that led to fundamental principals of learning.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1980?
Jean Piaget, an influential developmental psychologist, dies.
Who was the first American psychologist to use the behavioral approach and what did he believe?
John B. Watson (1920s) thought that one could gain a complete understanding of behavior by controlling a person's environment also thought that it was possible to control a person's behavior by controlling their environment
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1924?
John B. Watson, an early behaviorist, publishes Behaviorism
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1690?
John Locke introduces the idea of tabula rasa (the idea that people are born into the world as clean slates)
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1957?
Leon Festinger publishes A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, producing a major impact on social psychology
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1928?
Leta Stetter Hollingworth publishes work on adolenscence
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1905?
Mary Calkins works on memory
Who led Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer and Hermann Ebbinghaus
Five perspectives of psychology
Neuroscience, cognitive, behavioral, humanistic,and psychodynamic
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 2010?
New subfields develop such as clinical neuropsychology and evolutionary psychology.
Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939)
One of the first psychologists to focus on child development and on women's issues. Collected data to refute the view, popular in the early 1900's that womens abilities periodically declined during parts of the menstrual cycle.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1890?
Principles of Psychology was published by William James.
Where do psychologists work?
Psychologists are employed in a variety of settings. Although the primary sites of employment are private practice and colleges, many psychologists are found in hospitals, clinics, community mental health centers, and counseling centers.
What is the future of psychology likely to hold?
Psychology will become increasingly specialized, will pay greater attention to prevention instead of just treatment, will become more and more concerned with the public interest, and will take the growing diversity of the country's population into account more fully.
What is the science of psychology? recap
Psychology, is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, encompassing not just what people do but also their biological activities, feelings, perceptions, memory, reasoning, and thoughts
What did Margaret Floy Wahburn do? (1871-1939)
She was the first woman to receive a doctorate inpsychology and she did important work on animal behavior.
Observable Behavior vs. Internal Mental Processes
Should psychology concentrate solely on behavior that can be seen by outside observers, or should it focus on unseen thinking processes?
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1900?
Sigmund Freud develops the psychodynamic perspective.
Who started the psychodynamic perspective?
Sigmund Freud- an Austrian physician in the early 1900s
individual difference vs universal principles
Specifically, how much of our behavior is a consequence of our unique and special qualities, the individual differences that differentiate us from other people? Conversely, how much reflects the culture and society in which we live, stemming from universal principles that underlie the behavior of all humans?
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1915?
Strong emphasis on intelligence testing
cognitive perspective
The approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world. Evolved in part from structuralism
Behavioral Perspective
The approach that suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1895?
The functionalist model was formulated.
Determinism
The idea that people's behavior is produced primarily by factors outside of their willful control.
What does cross-cultural psychology study?
The similarities and differences in psychological functioning among various cultures
What are psychology's main issues and controversies?
They center on how much of human behavior is a product of nature or nurture, conscious or unconscious thoughts, observable actions or internal mental processes, free will or determinism, and individual differences or universal principles.
What do counseling psychologists focus on?
They focus on educational, social, and career adjustment problems.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 5,000 BC?
Trephining used to allow the escape of evil spirits.
major milestones in development of psychology What happened in 1879?
Wilhelm Wundt inaugurates first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany.
What are the origins of psychology?
Willhelm Wundt laid the foundation of psychology in 1879, when he opened his lab in Germany.
Who led the functionalist movement?
William James (American)
Structuralism
Wundt's approach, which focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities (perception, consciousness, thinking, emotions)
Trephining
a procedure in which ancient healers chipped holes in a patient's skull with crude instruments to allow evil spirits to escape that were causing the patient to suffer psychological problems
Introspection
a procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus
free will
ability to freely make decisions about one's own life
Gestalt Psychology
an approach to psychology that focuses on the organization of perception and thinking in a "whole" sense rather than on the individual elements of perception
social neuroscience
an evolving field that allows social psychologists to increase their understanding of social behaviors such as persuasion by using brain scans
What is cognitive psychology?
an outgrowth of experimental psychology, studies higher mental processes, including memory, knowing, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language
Sport Psychology
applies psychology to athletic activity and exercise
What are the biological foundations of behavior?
behavioral neuroscience
What subfield is associated with this situation? What chemicals are released in the human body as a result of a stressful event? What are their effects on behavior?
behavioral neuroscience
What are the major specialties in the field of psychology?
behavioral neuroscience, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, personality psychology, health psychology, social psychology, cross-cultural psychology, evolutionary psychology, behavioral genetics, and clinical neuropsychology, counseling psychology, experimental psychology, clinical psychology
"It is behavior that can be observed that should be studied, not the suspected inner workings of the mind." This statement was most likely made by someone with which perspective?
behavioral perspective
Psychodynamic
believes behavior is motivated by inner, unconscious forces over which a person has little control
Experimental Psychologists
can be misleading because psychologists in every specialty area use experimental techniques
Mamie Phipps Clark (1917-1983)
carried out pioneering work on how children of color grew to recognize racial differences
What subfield is associated with this situation? A strong fear of crowds leads a young man to seek treatment for his problems.
clinical psychology
What subfield is associated with this situation? What mental strategies are involved in solving complex word problems?
cognitive psychology
educational psychology
concerned with teaching and learning processes, such as the relationship between motivation and school performance
industrial/organizational psychology
concerned with the psychology of the workplace
evolutionary psychology
considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
environmental psychology
considers the relationship between people and their physical environment
Humanistic
contends that people can control their behavior and that they naturally try to reach their full potential
What subfield is associated with this situation? Joan, a college freshman, is worried about her grades. She needs to learn better organizational skills and study habits to cope with the demands of college.
counseling psychology
clinical psychology
deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders
What subfield is associated with this situation? At what age do children generally begin to acquire an emotional attachment to their father?
developmental psychology
what are the sources of change and stability in behavior across the life span?
developmental psychology and personality psychology
School Psychology
devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems
PhD
doctor of philosophy: a research degree that requires a dissertation based on an original investigation, takes about four or five years of work beyond bachelor's degree
PsyD
doctor of psychology: obtained by psychologists who wish to focus on the treatment of psychological disorders. (This is different from a psychiatrist), takes about four or five years of work beyond bachelor's degree
What subfield is associated with this situation? What teaching methods most effectively motivate elementary school students to successfully accomplish academic tasks?
educational psychology
behavior and mental processes
encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that maintain bodily function
In the nature-nurture issue, nature refers to heredity, and nurture refers to the ____________________.
environment
types of psychology that are expanding psychology's frontiers
evolutionary psychology, behavioral genetics, and clinical neuropsychology
developmental psychology
examines how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death
cognitive
examines how people understand and think about the world
behavioral neuroscience
examines the biological basis of behavior
How do people sense, perceive, learn, and think about the world?
experimental and cognitive answers that question
What subfield is associated with this situation? A psychologist is intrigued by the fact that some people are much more sensitive to painful stimuli than others are.
experimental psychology
health psychology
explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
focused on the social and cultural factors behind personality
program evaluation
focuses on assessing large-scale programs, such as the Head Start preschool program, to determine whether they are effective in meeting their goals
Cognitive Psychology
focuses on higher mental processes, including thinking, memory, reasoning, problem solving, judging, decision making, and language; a sub-specialty of experimental psychology
Psychology of women
focuses on issues such as discrimination against women and the causes of violence against women
forensic psychology
focuses on legal issues, such as determining the accuracy of witness memories
Behavioral
focuses on observable behavior
personality psychology
focuses on the consistency in people's behavior over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another
Cognitive Psychology
focuses on the study of higher mental processes
counseling psychology
focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems
The statement "In order to study human behavior, we must consider the whole of perception rather than its component parts" might be made by a person subscribing to which perspective of psychology?
gestalt
psychiatrists
have a medical degree and specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders, often using treatments that involve the prescription of drugs
What subfield is associated with this situation? Janetta's job is demanding and stressful. She wonders if her lifestyle is making her more prone to certain illnesses, such as cancer and heart disease.
health psychology
How do psychological factors affect physical health?
health psychology, counseling, and clinical
information processing
how cognitive psychologists see thinking, they see human thinking to the workings of a computer, which takes in information, transforms, stores, and retrieves it
cross-cultural psychology examples
how cultures differ in their use of punishment during child rearing
emphases of cognitive psychology
how people understand and think about the world and describing the patters and irregularities in the operation of our minds
Gestalt psychology emphasizes _______________________________.
how perception is organized
social psychology focuses
human aggression, liking and loving, persuasion, conformity
In the future of psychology, it seems likely that psychologists will be able to provide an understanding of _______________________________ in its broadest sense because of an increase in diversity within the field
human behavior
"My therapist is wonderful! He always points out my positive traits. He dwells on my uniqueness and strength as an individual. I feel much more confident about myself - as if I'm really growing and reaching my potential." The therapist being described most likely follows a ____ perspective.
humanistic
are they done when they receive their doctorate degree
if clinical psychologist sometimes takes another year of internship after receiving doctorate
What subfield is associated with this situation? Jessica is asked to develop a management strategy that will encourage safer work practices in an assembly plant.
industrial psychology
Where do psychologists work?
institutions of higher learning (universities or colleges), self-employed working as private practitioners treating clients, hospitals, clinics, mental health centers, counseling centers, government human-services organizations, businesses, schools, prisons, in the military, federal government in department of homeland security
Early psychologists studied the mind by asking people to describe what they were experiencing when exposed to various stimuli. This procedure was called _______________________.
introspection
cross-cultural psychology
investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups
Anna Freud (1895-1982) (Sigmund Freud's daughter)
made notable contributions to the treatment of abnormal behavior
counseling psychology examples
methods of studying effectively, advice on what kinds of jobs they would be best suited for, everyday difficulties such as a professor's grading practices
Nature (heredity) versus nurture (environment) and what the perspectives think
neuroscience- Nature (heredity) cognitive- both behavioral-Nurture (environment humanistic- Nurture (environment) psychodynamic- nature (heredity)
free will vs determinism and what the perspectives think
neuroscience- determinism cognitive- free will behavioral-determinism humanistic- free will psychodynamic- determinism
Observable Behavior vs. Internal Mental Processes and what the perspectives think
neuroscience- internal emphasis cognitive- internal emphasis behavioral- observable emphasis humanistic- internal emphasis psychodynamic- internal emphasis
conscious vs. unconscious determinants of behavior and what the perspectives think
neuroscience- unconscious cognitive- both behavioral- conscious humanistic-conscious psychodynamic- unconscious
individual differences vs universal principles and what the perspectives think
neuroscience- universal emphasis cognitive- individual emphasis behavioral- both humanistic- individual emphasis psychodynamic- universal emphasis
What subfield is associated with this situation? Luis is unique in his manner of responding to crisis situations, with an even temperament and a positive outlook.
personality psychology
Jeanne's therapist asks her to recount a violent dream she recently experienced in order to gain insight into the unconscious forces affecting her behavior. Jeanne's therapist is working from a ________ perspective
psychodynamic
What do health psychologists study?
psychological factors that affect physical disease,
Why is psychology a unified science?
psychologists of all perspectives agree that the issues must be addressed if the field is to advance
What subfield is associated with this situation? The teachers of 8-year-old Jack are concerned that he has recently begun to withdraw socially and to show little interest in schoolwork.
school psychology
behavioral genetics
seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits
Determinism
sees behavior as caused, or determined by things beyond a person's control
humanistic psychologists think that people have the ability to make their own choices and that all people see to be in control of their lives and behavior and reach_______________________
self-fulfillment
What subfield is associated with this situation? It is thought that pornographic films that depict violence against women may prompt aggressive behavior in some men.
social psychology
How do our social networks affect behavior?
social psychology and cross-cultural psychology
June Etta Downey (1875-1932)
spearheaded the study of personality traits and became the first woman to head a psychology department at a state university
evolutionary psychology
stems from Charles Darwin in 1859 book, On the Origin of Species, thinks that not only physical traits are inherited, but also behavioral traits
Wundt described psychology as the study of conscious experience, a perspective he called ____________________.
structuralism
What were the early perspectives that guided the work of psychologists?
structuralism, functionalism, and gestalt theory
Mary Calkins (1863-1930)
studied memory in the early part of the 20th century and was first female president of APA (american psychological Association)
developmental psychology
studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death
behavioral genetics
studies the inheritance of traits related to behavior
experimental psychology
studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world
What is developmental psychology?
study how people grow and change throughout the life span
three major roles of psychologists in society
teacher, scientist, and clinical practitioner
Plato and Descartes believed _________________________
that some knowledge was inborn in humans
psychodynamic perspective
the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control
Humanistic Perspective
the approach that suggests that all individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and behavior
neuroscience perspective
the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions
What does the neuroscience approach focus on?
the biological components of the behavior of people and animals
experimental psychology
the branch of psychology that studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world
What did Franz Joseph Gall's theory give rise to in the 19th century?
the field of phrenology
stream of consciousness
the flow of thoughts in our conscious minds
free will
the idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual
In the future of psychology, it seems likely that psychologists will be able to focus on __________________________________________.
the prevention of psychological disorders
psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
What did Wundt consider psychology to be?
the study of conscious experience
What is social psychology?
the study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others
social psychology
the study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others
What do clinical psychologists consider/study?
the study, diagnosis, and treatment of abnormal behavior.
behavioral neuroscience
the subfield of psychology that focuses on how the brain and the nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the body, determine behavior.
What do personality psychologists study?
they consider the consistency and change in an individual's behavior, as well as the individual differences that distinguish one person's behavior from another's
Why did Wundt and others create introspection?
to determine how basic sensory processes shape our understanding of the world
What was Wundt's aim?
to study the building blocks of the mind
T or F Race is a biological concept, not a psychological one.
true
clinical psychology examples
unhappiness over the breakup of a relationship, depression, relationship between family communication patterns and psychological disorders, identifying early signs of psychological disturbance
Clinical Neuropsychology
unites the areas of biopsychology (neuroscience) and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders
Where do psychologists work?
university/4year college-26% hospital/other health service-25% government/VA medical center- 17% Business/non-profit- 11% School/other educational- 8% Medical school/other academic- 7% Independent practice- 6%
neuroscience
views behavior from the perspective of biological functioning
functionalism focuses on _________________________________________.
what the mind does and how behavior functions
What was the formal beginning of psychology as a scientific discipline?
when Wilhelm Wundt set up the first experimental laboratory devoted to studying psychological phenomena in Leipzig, Germany in 1879
