Psychology chapter 1

Statistics

A branch of mathematics used by researchers to organize, summarize, and interpret data.

Confounding variable

A factor or variable other than the ones being studied that, if not controlled, could affect the outcome of an experiment; also called an extraneous variable.

Variable

A factor that can vary, or change, in ways that can be observed, measured, and verified.

Placebo

A fake substance, treatment, or procedure that has no known direct effects.

Negative correlation

A finding that two factors vary systematically in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases.

Positive correlation

A finding that two factors vary systematically in the same direction, increasing or decreasing together.

Statistically significant

A mathematical indication that research results are not very likely to have occurred by chance.

Experimental research

A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause - and - effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A noninvasive imaging technique that uses magnetic fields to map brain activity by measuring changes in the brains blood flow and oxygen levels.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship (the correlation) between two variables.

Operational definition

A precise description of how the variables in a study will be manipulated or measured.

Survey

A questionnaire or interview designed to investigate the opinions, behaviors, or characteristics of a particular group.

Correlational study

A research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other.

Sample

A selected segment of the population used to represent the group that is being studied.

Representative sample

A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.

Scientific method

A set of assumptions, attitudes, and procedures that guide researchers in creating questions to investigate, in generating evidence, and in drawing conclusions.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that involves combining and analyzing the results of many research studies on a specific topic in order to identify overall trends.

Natural experiment

A study investigating the effects of a naturally occurring event on the research participants.

Theory

A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations.

Hypothesis

A tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables; a testable prediction or question.

Double-blind technique

An experimental control in which neither the participants not the researchers interacting with the participants are aware of the group or condition to which the participants have been assigned.

Case study

An intensive study of a single individual or small group of individuals.

Positron emission tomography (PET Scan)

An invasive imaging technique that provides color-coded images of brain activity by tracking the brains use of a radioactivity tagged compound, such as glucose, oxygen, or a drug.

Placebo effect

Any changed attributed to a persons believes and expectations rather than an actual drug, treatment, or procedure.

Cross-cultural psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes.

Collectivist if cultures

Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the group over the needs and goals of the individual.

Individualistic cultures

Cultures that emphasize the needs and goals of the individual over the needs and goals of the group.

Structuralism

Early school of psychology that emphasized studying the most basic components, or structures, of conscious experiences.

Functionalism

Early school of psychology that emphasized studying the purpose, or function, of behavioral and mental experiences.

Pseudoscience

Fake or false science that makes claims based on little or no scientific evidence.

Demand characteristics

In a research study, subtle cues or signals expressed by the researcher that communicate the kind of response or behavior that is expected from the participant.

Control group or control condition

In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable; the group against which changes in the experimental group are compared.

Experimental group or experimental condition

In an experiment, the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable.

Psychiatry

Medical specialty area focused on the diagnosis, treatment, causes, and prevention of mental and behavioral disorders.

Psychoanalysis

Personality theory and form of psychotherapy that emphasizes the role of unconscious factors in personality and behavior

Random selection

Process in which subjects are selected randomly from a larger group such that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study.

Behaviorism

School of psychology and theoretical viewpoint that emphasized the study of observable behaviors, especially as they pertain to the process of learning.

Descriptive research

Scientific procedures that involve systematically observing behavior in order to describe the relationship among behaviors and events.

Critical thinking

The active process of minimizing preconceptions and biases while evaluating evidence, determining the conclusions that can reasonably be drawn from evidence, and considering alternative findings or other phenomena.

Evolutionary psychology

The application of principles of evolution, including natural selection, to explain psychological processes and phenomena.

Culture

The attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicates from one generation to another.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that ones own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use ones own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures.

Comparative psychology

The branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species.

Dependent variable

The factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment, thought to be influenced by the independent variable; also called the outcome variable.

Testing effect

The finding that practicing retrieval of information from memory produces better retention than testifying the same information for an equivalent amount of time.

Random assignment

The process of assigning participants to experimental conditions so that all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to any of the conditions or groups in the study.

Independent variable

The purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment; also called the treatment variable.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Positive paychology

The study of positive emotions and psychological states, positive individual traits, and the social instructions that foster positive individuals and communities.

Neuroscience

The study of the nervous system, especially the brain.

Naturalistic observation

The systematic observation and recording of behaviors as they occur in their natural setting.

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek out evidence that confirms an existing belief while ignoring evidence that might contradict or undermine the belief.

Replicate

To repeat or duplicate a scientific study in order to increase confidence in the validity of the original findings.

Empirical evidence

Verifiable evidence that is based upon objective observation, measurement , and/or experimentation.