Psychology Chapter 11 Motivation and Emotion

The Evolutionary Model

A third model of motivation that focuses on internal drive states is ___. The biological purpose of any living organism is to survive and perpetuate itself. The processes of natural and sexual selection have shaped motivation over time to make all animals, including humans, want those things that help them survive and reproduce Motives involve basic survival and reproduction needs and drives • Hunger • Thirst • Body-temperature regulation • Oxygen • Sex • Motives have been shaped over the course of evolution • Uncontrollable, inborn, unlearned

Reappraisal

An example of emotion regulation that can occur early in the emotion process is ___, in which people reevaluate their views of an event so that a different emotion results. Rather than seeing your next midterm as an opportunity for failure, an outlook that might create fear or anxiety, you might reappraise the exam as a challenging opportunity to prove how much you have learned, an outlook that can lead to eager anticipation.

Gender and Emotion

An overwhelming amount of data speak to no sex differences in emotion, but a few areas stand out as potential areas of difference: the verbal description of emotion, facial expression, and brain physiology. Women talk more about emotions than men do. Women outperform men in accurately recognizing facial expressions of emotion, especially more subtle emotion expressions A recent meta-analysis of many different studies reported that women in general show greater left amygdala activation to fear and negative affect, whereas men show greater left amygdala activity to positive emotion

Expressive suppression

Another kind of emotion regulation operates when people want to make an unpleasant feeling go away. An example of this kind of strategy is ___, the deliberate attempt to inhibit the outward display of an emotion (J. J. Gross et al., 2006). In order to avoid a confrontation, you might literally bite your lip rather than tell your roommates that they are slobs for letting the dishes pile up. Instructing people to suppress their negative emotions can decrease the experience of negative emotion, but it increases activation of the sympathetic nervous system and sustains the emotional response

The Hierarchical Model (Maslow)

Another model of motivation, which combines drives and incentives, is Abraham Maslow's ___ At the lowest level of the hierarchy are physiological needs, such as the needs for food, water, oxygen, and adequate body temperature. At the next level are safety needs, which include physical security, stability, dependency, protection, and freedom from threats, such as war, assault, and terrorism. We need to be fed and out of danger's way before we can pay attention to higher-level needs. The third level in the hierarchy consists of the love and belongingness needs, including the desire for friendship, sex, a mate, and children, as well as the desire to belong to a family or social group. The fourth level in Maslow's hierarchy of needs is the need for esteem—that is, the need to appreciate oneself and one's worth and to be appreciated and respected by others. The top level in the hierarchy is the need for self-actualization, the full realization of one's potentials and abilities in life.

The Needs to Belong and to Excel

As we saw in Maslow's hierarchy of needs, human needs extend beyond the physiological needs of hunger and sex. The need for social contact and belonging—what psychologists call affiliation—and the need to excel and compete with others—what psychologists call achievement—are universal.

Facial Expression of Emotion

Charles Darwin was the first modern thinker to formally propose that facial expressions reveal different emotions and offer a theory for the evolution of emotional expression in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (Darwin, 1872/1998). Darwin described in detail how people and animals display emotions through their faces and bodies. It was not until the 1960s, however, that psychologists began conducting the research that directly addressed Darwin's claims.

Antecedent events

Emotions emerge in response to situations we encounter in the world or in our thoughts Not everyone responds to the same situation in the same way. An individual evaluates the antecedent event to determine whether it is potentially harmful or beneficial as per such criteria as safety or personal goals

Physiological Changes in Emotion

Emotions produce physiological changes, such as increases in heart rate and respiration rate. The physiological system responsible for changes during an emotional response is the autonomic nervous system (ANS), which governs structures and processes over which we have little conscious control, such as changes in heart rate and blood pressure and the release of hormones. The patterns of ANS activity can vary, depending on the emotion elicited. Anger increases heart rate more than fear does; disgust slows the heart

The emotion process

Event--->appraisal--->emotion---> reaction--->the situation has changed

Three Models of Employee Motivation

Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation Organizational support for the well-being of employees

Emotions as Evolutionary Adaptations

From an evolutionary perspective, emotions are adaptations to particular problems in our ancestral past and so contributed to survival and reproductive success

Organizational support for the well-being of employees

How much employees believe that the organization appreciates and supports their contributions and well-being Few things can be more deflating than working hard at something and then having it taken for granted or not appreciated by the people whose opinions matter most to you.

Vocal Expression of Emotion

In studies of actors' portrayals of emotions through spoken nonsense sentences, certain emotions (anger, fear, joy) were associated with higher pitch and volume, while sadness was associated with lower pitch and volume (Scherer et al., 1991).

The Need to Excel: Achievement

In the process, some people compete fiercely with other people, whereas others compete more with themselves. The motivation to succeed raises the question of how to define achievement. However, those obstacles can be measured only in terms of one's goals. When David Feist (whom you met in Chapter 6) was coming out of his vegetative state following his bicycle accident, lifting a finger was a tremendous achievement, yet for a highly driven, accomplished, and motivated athlete, a silver medal at the Olympics might be a crushing defeat.

Differences in Need and Drive and motivation examples

Need: Water Drive: Thirst Motivation: Drink Need: Pleasure Drive: Sex Motivation: Have sex Need: Nutrients Drive: Hunger Motivation: Eat

THE FOUR MAIN REGIONS OF THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN

No single area of the brain is responsible for emotion, but the amygdala, prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and hypothalamus play key roles in the way we experience emotion and remember emotional experiences.

Behavioral-Expressive Changes in Emotion

People show their emotions—knowingly or not—through both verbal and nonverbal means, such as changes in facial behavior and vocal intonation. Although researchers have studied both facial and vocal expressions of emotion, the most extensive body of research has focused on facial expressions.

Types of Affect

Psychologists use the term affect to refer to a variety of emotional phenomena, including emotions, moods, and affective traits. In fact, emotions can impact memory, perception, attention, and decision making

Homeostasis feedback loop

Sensory feedback to the brain tells it when the set point has been achieved, and the brain then tells the body to stop correcting. This feedback system keeps the body's physiological systems at their ideal set point.

Models of Motivation

Some focus more on internal drives, some more on external incentives, and others on both. 1. The Drive Reduction Model 2. The Optimal Arousal Model 3. The Evolutionary Model 4. The Hierarchical Model

Neurocultural theory of emotion

Soon after returning from New Guinea, Ekman (1972) proposed the neurocultural theory of emotion to account for the fact that certain aspects of emotion, such as the facial expressions and physiological changes of basic emotions, are similar in all humans, whereas other aspects, such as how people appraise situations and regulate their emotion expressions in front of others, vary from one culture to another. As it turns out, Samurai women were expected to be proud of a son or husband who had been killed in battle, and the society required them to display joy at the news. In the United States we expect winners not to boast, losers not to mope, and men not to cry in public (although this last norm is changing).

The Optimal Arousal Model

The ___ is another model that focuses on internal drive states; it is based on research by Yerkes and Dodson (1908). It proposes that we function best when we are moderately aroused, or energized. Both low and high arousal/energy levels lead to poor performance (Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Support for the optimal arousal model comes from sensory deprivation research. It involves having a person lie down on a bed or in a sensory deprivation (saltwater) tank. After long periods of sensory deprivation, people begin to hallucinate, their cognitive ability and concentration suffer, and they develop childish emotional responses.

Duchenne smile

The most recognizable facial expression of emotion is the smile of happiness. However, research using FACS shows that not all smiles are created equal. A ___ is a genuine smile that expresses true enjoyment. When we smile for social reasons and are not genuinely happy, we use only the lips and not the band of muscles around the eye, which is called a non-Duchenne smile

The Need to Belong: Affiliation

We depend on other people our entire lives, especially at life's beginning and end. It is not surprising, therefore, that our need to belong and to be accepted by others is one of the strongest of all human needs Further, some psychologists argue that one's self-esteem, or sense of worth, is directly a function of being accepted or rejected by other people (Leary, 2007). Being accepted by others increases our self-esteem, whereas being rejected lowers it. The opposite of being accepted is being rejected, which can be one of the more painful experiences in life. A lack of belongingness leads to both physical and psychological problems, ranging from having more health problems to being more likely to commit suicide

The Drive Reduction Model

When our physiological systems are out of balance or depleted, we are driven to reduce this depleted state (Hull, 1943; McKinley et al., 2004; Weisinger et al., 1993). Central to drive reduction is the idea of maintaining physiological balance, or homeostasis All organisms are motivated to maintain physiological equilibrium around an optimal set point, the ideal, fixed setting of a particular physiological system. The brain gets information from organs and acts upon it - feedback loops

The emotional response

Whether processed consciously or automatically, emotional responses emerge from events appraised as relevant to one's safety or personal goals. includes physiological, behavioral/expressive, and subjective changes.

The Fore tribe from Papua New Guinea

an isolated, preliterate group The method involved presenting stories about emotional situations to New Guineans and showing them a set of three photographed faces per story. Examples of the stories are "He [she] is angry and about to fight" (which should lead participants to pick an "angry" face) or "She [he] is looking at something that smells bad" (for disgust). Then the experimenter asked the listeners which of the three faces matched the story. With this method, the degree of consensus was much higher.

Basic Emotions

anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise—are fundamental states that play a role in essential life tasks, such as protecting oneself and loved ones from harm (fear), progressing toward the realization of a goal (happiness), or experiencing irrevocable loss (sadness) Ekman

Emotions are necessary because

are also powerful motivators of human behavior, though they differ from basic drives, such as hunger, thirst, and sex, in several ways. First, drives are linked to very specific needs or triggers, whereas emotions are not. Happiness, in contrast, occurs in response to an infinite variety of triggers, such as smelling a rose, visiting a friend, reading a good story, or watching a sunset. Second, emotions can override biological drives (Tomkins, 1962). Sexual desire is a powerful motivator, but it can be derailed by emotion. Recall that sexual orgasm cannot occur unless the areas of the brain involved in fear and anxiety are shut down. Simply put, emotions can turn off the drives of hunger, thirst, and sex

What are emotions?

are brief, acute changes in conscious experience and physiology that occur in response to a meaningful situation in a person's environment. They emerge from our interactions with the world and are triggered by situations that are relevant to our personal goals, physical safety, or well-being.

Affective traits

are enduring aspects of our personalities that set the threshold for the occurrence of particular emotional states, such as hostility People who have the affective trait of hostility aren't always angry, but they have hair triggers. If they get cut off in traffic, they are more likely to shout an obscenity at the other driver. For several minutes or likely even longer, hostile people will continue focusing on the event—how they were wronged—making for repeated and/or prolonged experiences of anger

Display rules

are learned norms or rules, often taught very early, about when it is appropriate to show certain expressions of emotion and to whom one should show them

Needs

are states of cellular or bodily deficiency that compel drives. These are what your body seeks. Examples are your needs for water, food, and oxygen.

Moods

are transient changes in affect that fluctuate throughout the day or over several days. We experience moods both physiologically and psychologically, and they tend to last longer than most emotions Moods make certain emotions more likely to occur than others. An irritable mood, for instance, makes people more easily angered than usual. If you are irritated, a slight inconvenience that normally would not bother you, such as having to wait in a slow line at the supermarket, might cause you to speak rudely to the clerk.

Examples of appraisal dimensions include

control (how much control you feel you have in a situation), agency (whether you or someone else made something happen), pleasantness, and fairness (Ellsworth & Scherer, 2003). The type of appraisal that occurs determines the type of the emotion generated. Fear, for instance, arises in situations of uncertainty and over which we feel we have little control (Arnold, 1960; Ellsworth & Scherer, 2003; R. S. Lazarus, 1991).

Universality

does not require 100% consistency in people's recognition of emotion. Culture, gender, personality, and other contextual factors can influence how we interpret other people's facial expressions (Haidt & Keltner, 1999). In spite of the factors that pull for differences, there is a remarkable consistency in the human understanding of a core set of basic emotions.

Intrinsic motivation

happens when you want to do something simply because you enjoy doing it. This type of motivation has four components Challenge: How much do you enjoy the thrill and excitement of new challenges? Enjoyment: How much pleasure do you receive from the process of doing the task? Mastery: Do you gain a sense of accomplishment and pride in doing a difficult task? Autonomy and self-determination: Do you believe that you are free to determine much of what you do and how you do it? Intrinsic motivation is not a static attribute. It changes as life circumstances change. We see this with the various components of intrinsic motivation

Pride

has a recognizable expression, which involves body movements, a smile, the head tilted upward, and a slightly expanded chest Pride is an emotion that is associated with superiority over others and higher social status—even in cultures that do not value social status differences This display is innate; even blind people who have never seen it make the same pose after a victory

In his early studies of people's judgments of emotion in the human face, Silvan Tomkins

howed participants numerous photographs of European Americans posing different emotions and asked them to decide which emotion may have been felt. Researchers obtained pretty strong evidence of agreement on the emotional meaning of those facial expressions, with roughly 70% or more of the respondents providing the same answer for each photo. Most people recognize facial expression similar to that in Figure 11.14 as fear. "basic" emotions, such as anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise, are universal, or common to all human beings. One problem with these early studies on emotion recognition, however, is that all the participants lived in literate, industrialized cultures.

Embarrassment

involves an unintentional revelation about yourself to someone else. Being embarrassed makes you feel self-conscious, as if you have violated some social rule.

Facial Action Coding System (FACS)

is a widely used method by which coders describe the observable muscular movements that are possible in the human face (Ekman & Friesen, 1978). Using ___, researchers have found that many different facial expressions recognized across cultures—such as those for anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise

Incentives

is any external object or event that motivates behavior. In general, drives come from the body, whereas incentives come from the environment. Financial independence, a gold medal at the Olympics, and academic success are all possible incentives behind training or studying.

Emotional intelligence

is the ability to recognize emotions in oneself and others, empathic understanding, and the skills for regulating emotions in oneself and others, which may be at least as important to one's success in life as academic achievement.

Appraisal

is the evaluation of a situation with respect to how relevant it is to one's own welfare (R. S. Lazarus, 1991). Appraisal need not be a conscious, deliberate thought process. Most of the time it probably occurs automatically, outside of awareness, and it may occur in an instant. Whether an event or a situation leads to an emotion depends on how the person appraises it. Appraisal drives the process by which emotions are elicited It explains why the level of happiness expressed by Olympic athletes can be greater for winners of bronze medals (third place) than for winners of silver medal (second place; Medvec, Madey, & Gilovich, 1995). Bronze medalists can easily imagine an alternative outcome: They may not have even placed. Compared to that outcome, third is great. Silver medalists, on the other hand, can easily imagine having won first place! Compared to that outcome, second might be felt as disappointing.

Atkinson(1964) argued that the tendency to achieve success is a function of three things:

motivation to succeed, the expectation of success, and the incentive value of the success Your motivation to succeed is the extent to which you want to be successful, which differs for everyone. For some students, an A2 might be disappointing, whereas for others, a B1 might be a great accomplishment. Expectation of success is an individual's evaluation of the likelihood of succeeding at a task. Incentive value stems from two factors. First, success at the task has to be important to you. Second, the more difficult the task and the lower the odds of succeeding at it, the more meaningful and satisfying it'll be if you do succeed.

Drives

occur when our bodies are deficient in some need. If we are extremely thirsty, we are driven to drink. All our physiological needs have drive components.

Broaden and build model

positive emotions widen our cognitive perspective, making our thinking more expansive and enabling the acquisition of new skills (Fredrickson, 1998, 2001). Negative emotions promote a narrow, vigilant way of looking at the world When in positive moods, people perform poorly on tasks of selective attention that require a narrow focus but better on tasks that require a broader attentional focus

Facial feedback hypothesis

posits that sensory feedback from the facial musculature during expression affects emotional experience People report feeling a particular emotion when they pose on their faces the muscular movements of that emotion expression Recently, the popularity of the cosmetic use of Botox, which reduces wrinkling by paralyzing facial muscles, has led to a flurry of studies on the effects of reduced facial feedback on emotional experience, well-being, and psychological health

Regulation of emotion

refers to the cognitive and behavioral efforts people use to modify their emotions.

James-Lange theory of emotion

says that our perception of the physiological changes that accompany emotions creates the subjective emotional experience. Without the perception of bodily changes, they argued, there is no emotional experience. The ___ theory is not without its critics, most notable among them Walter Cannon (1927), who argued that feedback from bodily organs is not specific enough to account for the varieties of emotional experience. Still, several lines of evidence support the James-Lange view that sensory feedback from physiologically activated body systems plays a role in emotional experience. When people in many cultures are asked to identify the body sensations associated with emotions, they differentiate among several emotional states. For instance, "stomach sensations" are associated most strongly with disgust, and sadness with a lump in the throat

In the 1990s, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi introduced

the concept of flow to describe how people perform best and are most creative when they are optimally challenged relative to their abilities

Set Point

the ideal, fixed setting of a particular physiological system. Set points are important mechanisms that allow homeostasis to work. We have set points for hunger, thirst, respiration, and many other drives. For example, if we get too cold, we shiver to warm up. The normal human body temperature of 98.6°F is like setting your thermostat to 68°F to warm your home. In short, set points guide us to a "happy medium" in our needs. We automatically seek states that are "just right."

Yerkes-Dodson law

the principle that moderate levels of arousal lead to optimal performance Performance is worst when we are either not very aroused (asleep or not paying attention) or overly aroused (highly excited or anxious).

Motivation

the urge to move toward one's goals, an energetic push toward accomplishing tasks, such as getting dinner, getting rich, and getting lucky. Needs, drives, and incentives all contribute to motivation.

If drives push us into action,

then incentives pull us into action.

Extrinsic motivation

this motivation comes from outside the person and usually involves rewards and praises. Reward not only can increase a particular behavior but also can increase performance and feelings of competency. However, extrinsic motivation has its drawbacks (D'Ausilio, 2008; Gneezy et al., 2011); it requires the reward to be constant. If the reward goes away, the motivation to continue goes away and the worker stops doing the rewarded behavior. Similarly, if the reward stays the same and doesn't increase, motivation will drop. In addition, reward has a way of narrowing focus, so it works for simple tasks, but narrow focus hinders creative thinking and the expanded focus required to solve difficult problems. Finally, reward can sometimes remove a person's own desire to perform a task out of pure enjoyment. For example, if you enjoyed reading in middle school and then your parents started paying you for every 25 pages you read, you might start reading for money rather than for pleasure. In this case, your intrinsic enjoyment of reading would have been destroyed by external reward.

Self conscious emotions

which occur as a function of how well we live up to our expectations, the expectations of others, or the rules set by society These emotions, which include shame, guilt, humiliation, embarrassment, and pride, require a sense of self and the ability to reflect on one's own actions.

Subjective Experience of Emotion

which refers to the quality of our conscious experience during an emotional response When people talk about how an emotion feels, they are referring to subjective experience. The subjective aspect of emotion draws on bodily changes, as well as effects on cognition, for emotions can activate associations with images and memories of significant events.