psychology chapter 3

what is the dominant allele?

the dominant trait that is usually the capital letter when you do the grid (B)

action potential

the electrical signal that typically moves from the cell body down the axon to the axon terminals.

auditory cortex

the main area responsible for processing auditory information, is located within the temporal lobe.

how does Charles Darwin describes in the theory of evolution by natural selection

the theory states that organisms that are better suited for their environment will survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their environment will die off.

what is pavlov experiment.

when he rings a bell for a dog the dog then salivates and then he eats the dog food. the dog then associates the bell with its time to get feed. over 100 years old.

broca's area

which is essential for language production.

motor cortex

which is involved in planning and coordinating movement.

prefrontal cortex

which is responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning

contingency contract

with reward incentives best for one student.

token economy

with reward objects to be redeemed. with or without potential of reward removal. best for groups of students.

what does trial and error and its effects mean?

• Organisms use trial and error to solve problem • If effect of behavior is pleasant, organism will repeat behavior • Might repeat even when behavior no longer works!

thyroid gland

Located in the neck, the _____________ releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite.

biological perspective

and focus on the physiological causes of behavior assert that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems

substantia nigra and the ventral tegmental area (VTA)

are also located in the midbrain. Both regions contain cell bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, and both are critical for movement.

agonists

are chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and, thus, strengthen its effects.

Psychotropic medications

are drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance

what is a chromosome?

are long strings of genetic material

what is a gene

are sequences of DNA

what is range of reaction?

asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall.

the nervous system is divided into two major subdivisions what are they?

central nervous system (cns) and peripheral nervous system (pns)

pituitary gland

descends from the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association with it.

what is a fraternal twin?

develop from a single fertilized egg that split, so the genetic material is exactly the same in each

what is an identical twins?

develop from a single fertilized egg that split, so the genetic material is exactly the same in each

When Jamal's teammates stopped paying attention to his boasting, he boasted less and less frequently. The concept best exemplified by Jamal's change in behavior is

extinction

what is an example of a recessive allele?

smooth chin is a recessive trait, which means that an individual will only display the smooth chin phenotype if they are homozygous for that

At the end of each class period, a teacher rewards students for thoughtful or courteous behavior. Which of the following is a schedule of reinforcement that the teacher is using?

fixed interval correct

When teachers praise students who score the highest on tests or who do work without mistakes, this often makes other students

give up if they are not also doing well

The PNS has two major subdivisions what are they?

he somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

membrane potential

his difference in charge across the membrane, called the __________________ provides energy for the signal.

wernicke's area

important for speech comprehension, is also located here.

computerized tomography (CT) scan

involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of a person's body or brain

thalamus

is a sensory relay for the brain.

homeostasis

is a state of equilibrium, in which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at optimal levels

what is a mutation?

is a sudden, permanent change in a gene.

the synapse?

is a very small space between two neurons and is an important site where communication between neurons occurs

hippocampus

is an essential structure for learning and memory.

somatic nervous system?

is associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary.

parasympathetic nervous system

is associated with returning the body to routine, day-to-day operations.

reticular formation

is centered in the midbrain, but it actually extends up into the forebrain and down into the hindbrain.

what is the nervous system?

is composed of two basic cell types: glial cells (also known as glia) and neurons.

midbrain

is comprised of structures located deep within the brain, between the forebrain and the hindbrain.

amygdala

is involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories.

Sympatheric Nervous System

is involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities

limbic system

is involved in processing both emotion and memory.

hindbrain

is located at the back of the head and looks like an extension of the spinal cord.

occipital lobe

is located at the very back of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is responsible for interpreting incoming visual information.

parietal lobe

is located immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is involved in processing information from the body's senses.

frontal lobe

is located in the forward part of the brain, extending back to a fissure known as the central sulcus. is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language.

temporal lobe

is located on the side of the head (temporal means "near the temples"), and is associated with hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language.

what is a genotype

is the genetic makeup of that individual.

What is epigenetics?

looks beyond the genotype itself and studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways.

what is central nervous system (CNS) comprised of?

of the brain and spinal cord

antagonist

on the other hand, blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor.

what is a phenotype?

on the other hand, refers to the individual's inherited physical characteristics

functional magnetic resonance imaging (FMRI)

operates on the same principles, but it shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels.

somatonsensory cortex

parietal lobe contains the ________ which is essential for processing sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature, and pain.

receptors

proteins on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with different shapes "matching" different neurotransmitters.

what is glial cells?

provide scaffolding on which the nervous system is built, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication, provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses.

cerebellum

receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills.

hypothalamus

regulates a number of homeostatic processes, including the regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure.also serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in the regulation of sexual motivation and behavior

skinner theory?

reinforcing by increments.

what is DNA?

s a helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs.

positron emission tomography

scans create pictures of the living, active brain

gonads

secrete sexual hormones, which are important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and behavior. T

what are neurons?

serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system. This section briefly describes the structure and function of neurons.

electroencephalography (EEG)

serves this purpose by providing a measure of a brain's electrical activity.

pons

serves to connect the brain and spinal cord.

watson theory?

shaping new feelings.

vicarious learning errors

Misperception of model or environment • Acting on incomplete information • Faulty information processing (physiological or learned) ➔ Inaccurate expectations and self-assessment

vicarious learning effects

Self-regulation by learning from observation • Self-motivation and self reinforcement to study and emulate model • Mastery of emulation ➔ self-efficacy about abilities • Helps future performance goals for self

what is genetic environmental correlation

Stated simply, our genes influence our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes.

A child who is frightened by a dog and develops a fear of other dogs is exhibiting which of the following principles of learning?

Stimulus generalization

pancreas

The _______ is an internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon.

Posting the names of students who pass a classroom test correct

Which of the following practices promotes a performance goal orientation?

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a person is placed inside a machine that generates a strong magnetic field.

mastery experiences

According to Albert Bandura, which of the following is the most powerful source of self-efficacy for a child?

what and example of shaping new feelings?

Albert neutral about rat • Unpleasant sound when rat is near • Now Albert is afraid of rat (emotional conditioning) • Now Albert is afraid of anything white and furry! (overgeneralized response)

Positive reinforcement correct

Alice maintains a messy desk in order to gain attention from her teacher. For Alice, the teacher's attention serves as which of the following?

myelin sheath

Axons range in length from a fraction of an inch to several feet. In some axons, glial cells form a fatty substance known as the.

resting potential

Between signals, the neuron membrane's potential is held in a state of readiness, called the

what is Bandura: Vicarious learning

Combination of behavior, environment, and attitude • Direct modeling: adults and peers in environment • Symbolic modeling: movies, celebrities, TV, ads, etc.

what are some types of reinforcement?

Continuous reinforcement ➔ subject expects reward for every performance • Until behavior is automatic • Intermittent reinforcement ➔ random and decreasing rewards • Usually gets better/faster results than continuous

when to reinforce?

Fixed ratio = reinforce every nth time • Variable ratio = reinforce at no set number of times • Fixed interval = reinforce after a set amount of time • Variable interval = reinforce at no set amount of time

what are some limited practical application of pavlov's findings?

For overcoming phobias • Associate stimulus with pleasant response • For overcoming obsession • Associate stimulus with unpleasant response

Which of the following strategies is LEAST likely to increase test scores?

Giving rewards to students who get very high scores correct

what is cognitive learning theory?

Hybrid of behaviorism and cognitive theory • Learner observant of others, not acted upon • Learning by observing behavior and consequences (peers, adults, etc.)

threshold of excitation

If that charge reaches a certain level, called the__________________ the neuron becomes active and the action potential begins

what are ways to extinguishing undesired behavior?

Ignoring = not reacting to incorrect behavior • Time out (and other removal punishments) = taking away social contact, privileges • Corporal punishment = physical pain ➔ Meant to be a scientific procedure, without emotion

reuptake

Once the signal is delivered, excess neurotransmitters in the synapse drift away, are broken down into inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a process known as

diabetes

People who suffer from ________ do not produce enough insulin; therefore, they must take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production, and they must closely control the amount of sugars and carbohydrates they consume.

what are some punishment categories?

Positive = adding or issuing something unpleasant • Negative = removing something pleasant • Meant to be a scientific procedure, without emotion!

what are some times of reinforcers?

Positive = something desired • Negative = remove undesired thing • Punishment = something undesired • Primary = essential to life • Secondary = symbol or currency for reward

what are ways to promoting desired behaviors>

Premack principle = get thing you want by doing thing you don't like • Shaping = reinforcing partial or approximate correct behavior • Meant to be a scientific procedure, without emotion!

example of a conditioned stimulus and conditioned response for the pavlov experiment.

Ring a bell when food comes

example of unconditioned stimulus/ unconditioned response for the pavlov experiment.

Seeing food, dog salivates

longitudinal fissure

The most prominent sulcus, known as the

hemispheres ( left hemisphere and right hemisphere)

The most prominent sulcus, known as the longitudinal fissure , is the deep groove that separates the brain into two halves or

soma?

The nucleus of the neuron is located in the

dendrites?

The soma has branching extensions known

cerebral cortex

The surface of the brain, known as the

gyri

The surface of the brain, known as the cerebral cortex , is very uneven, characterized by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps, known as

sulci

The surface of the brain, known as the cerebral cortex , is very uneven, characterized by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps, known as gyri (singular: gyrus), and grooves, known as

synaptic vesicles

The terminal buttons contain

neurotranmitters

The terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles that house _____. also are the chemical messengers of the nervous system

corpus callosum

The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the _____ consisting of about 200 million axons.

forebrain

The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the ______, which is the largest part of the brain.

endocrine system, hormones

The_______ consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances known as ___________

adrenal glands

The_______ sit atop our kidneys and secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline).

lateralization

There is evidence of some specialization of function—referred to as ________ in each hemisphere, mainly regarding differences in language ability.

axon?

These signals are transmitted electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the soma known as the

terminal buttons?

These signals are transmitted electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the soma known as the axon, which ends at multiple

what are semipermeable membrane

This membrane allows smaller molecules and molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules.

Reinforcing responses that represent progress toward a desired response correct

Using the principle of successive approximations involves which of the following?

what is an example of reinforcing by increments?

Want dog to dance • Reward dog (food) for every approximation of desired behavior • Later reward only for closer approximations • Now dog "dances" on cue.

what is heterozygous?

When someone has a combination of alleles for a given gene

what is homozygous?

When someone has two copies of the same allele,

What is a response?

a reaction to a stimulus ( in the pavlov experiment the dog salivating)

what is a stimulus?

a signal to which an organism responds. ( for the pavlov experiment the bell was the)

what is an allele

a specific version of a gene

fight or flight response

allows the body access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to safety

what is the ripple effect for praising a student?

can get students to work/behave better to earn same reward • Can backfire if students feel they can't meet expectations

what is the peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprised of?

connects the CNS to the rest of the bod

what is a polygenic gene?

controlled by more than one gene.

autonomic nervous system?

controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control.

medulla

controls the automatic processes of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate

chromosomes are also known as what?

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

all or none

this means that an incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation.

thorndike theory?

trial and error and its affects