psychology chapter 5
testimonials
an appeal in which the sole support for a conclusion is someone's unsupported opinion
appeals to ignorance
an argument in which the premise involves something that is unknown
false dichotomy
an argument in which two possible conclusions or courses of action are presented when there are multiple other possibilities
circular reasoning
an argument structure in which the premise is a restatement of the conclusion
assumptions
in an argument, this is a statement for which no proof or evidence is offered. they may be stated or implied
counterargument
statements that refute or weaken a particular conclusion
main point
the principle argument in an extended passage
appeals to pride or snobbery
the use of praise or flattery to get its recipient to agree with a position
fallacies
unsound reasoning techniques that are used to change how people think
rationalizing
a biased analysis of an argument so that a preferred conclusion will be judged as acceptable or a non-preferred conclusion will be judged as unacceptable
qualifier
a constraint or restriction on the conclusion
popularity
a fallacy in which the only reason for the conclusion is that it is endorsed by everyone
appeals to pitty
a fallacy that asks for your compassion instead of appealing to your reason
card stacking
a fallacy that omits important info that might support an un-favored view
appeals to tradition
a fallacy that utilizes the reason that what already exists is best
arguments against the person
a form of propaganda that attack the people who support a cause and not the cause itself
statement
a phrase or sentence for which it makes sense to ask the question 'is it true or false'
acceptable
a standard for assessing the quality of a premise. a premise is acceptable when it is true or when we can reasonably believe it is true
adequate grounds
a standard for assessing the quality of an argument. occurs when the premises provides good support for a conclusion
consistent
a standard for assessing the quality of an argument. when the premises that supports a conclusion are not contradictory, they are this
convergent structures
a type of argument in which two or more premises support the same conclusion
straw person
a type of fallacy in which an opponent to a conclusion distorts the argument that supports the conclusion by substituting a weaker argument
chained or linked structures
argument types in which the conclusion of one sub-argument becomes the premise of a second argument
subarguments
arguments that are used to build the main argument in an extended passge
put downs
belittling an opposing point of views so that it will be difficult for the listener to agree with it
argument
consists of one or more statements that are used to provide support for a conclusion
slippery slope
counterargument for a conclusion in which the premise consists of the idea that because certain events lie along some continuum, it is not possible to take an action without affecting all the events on the continuum
knowing the unknowable
fallacy in which numbers are provided for events that cannot be qualified
false cause
fallacy in which one event is said to have cause the other because they occur together
propaganda
information presented by proselytizers of a doctrine or belief. it may distort the truth, alter evidence, and appeal to emotions. the objective is to get the reader or listener to endorse the belief
conclusion indicators
key words that often but not always signal that the statements that follow them are conclusions
premise indicators
key words that often but not always signal that the statements that follow them are premises
sound argument
meets 3 criteria: 1. acceptable and consistent premises 2. premises are relevant and provides sufficient support for the conclusion 3. missing components are considered and evaluated
reasons
the bases for believing that a conclusion is true or probably true
conclusion
the belief or statement that the writer or speaker is advocating. it is what the speaker wants you to do or believe
virtue by association
the fallacy of associating a position or person with a desirable position or person in order to create a favorable impression
guilt by association
the fallacy of associating a position or person with an undesirable position or person in order to create a negative impression
premises
the formal term for the statements that support a conclusion