Psychology Exam 10

What is the key theme of emotional developmental in adulthood?

"the adaptive integration of emotional experience into satisfying daily life and successful relationships with others"

What are some skills involved in emotional competence?

-Having awareness of one's emotional states -Detecting others' emotions -Using the vocabulary of emotion terms in socially and culturally appropriate ways -Having empathetic and sympathetic sensitivity to others' emotional experiences -Recognizing that inner emotional states do not have to correspond to outer expressions -Adaptively coping with negative emotions by using self-regulatory strategies that reduce the intensity or duration of such emotional states -Having awareness that the expression of emotions plays a major role in relationships -Viewing oneself overall as feeling the way one wants to feel

Explain how aspects of child's environment can encourage or discourage the persistence of temperament characteristics.

. For example, a recent study found that fathers' internalizing problems (anxiety and depression, for example) were linked to a higher level of negative affectivity in 6-month-olds (Potapova, Gartstein, & Bridgett, 2014). And another recent study revealed that maternal negativity and child problem behavior were most strongly linked for children who were low in effortful control and living in chaotic homes (Chen, Deater-Deckard, and Bell, 2014). One useful way of thinking about temperament-environment connections involves the concept of goodness of fit, which we examine next.

Define emotion.

feelings or affect what a person is in an interaction that is important to you

Name and describe Chess and Thomas' three types of temperament.

An easy child is generally in a positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new experiences. A difficult child reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept change. A slow-to-warm-up child has a low activity level, is somewhat negative, and displays a low intensity of mood.

Study section Developmental Connections in Temperament.

Is temperament in childhood linked with adjustment in adulthood? In one study, children who had an easy temperament at 3 to 5 years of age were likely to be well adjusted as young adults (Chess & Thomas, 1977). In contrast, many children who had a difficult temperament at 3 to 5 years of age were not well adjusted as young adults. Also, other researchers have found that boys with a difficult temperament in childhood are less likely as adults to continue their formal education, whereas girls with a difficult temperament in childhood are more likely to experience marital conflict as adults (Wachs, 2000).

What are the developmental changes in emotion during the adult years characterized by?

an effort to create lifestyles that are emotionally satisfying, predictable, and manageable by making decisions about an occupation, a life partner, and other circumstances.

Emotions are influenced by _______ foundations and a person's _______.

biological and experiences

Describe the findings of the NICHD study concerning US child care on pages 320-2.

search NICHD

Study section Interpreting Differences Styles and Attachment.

search differences in attachment

Describe the differences between mothers and fathers as caregivers.

search mothers and fathers

Study Parenting and the Child's Temperament on page 310.

search parent

What is temperament?

which involves individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding. With regard to its link to emotion, temperament refers to individual differences in how quickly the emotion is shown, how strong it is, how long it lasts, and how soon it fades away (Campos, 2009).

What are the following emotions when do they first occur: primary emotions, self-conscious emotions

-Primary emotions are emotions that are present in humans and other animals; these emotions appear in the first six months of the human infant's development. Primary emotions include surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, and disgust (see Figure 1 for infants' facial expressions of some of these early emotions). In Lewis' classification, self-conscious emotions require self-awareness that involves consciousness and a sense of "me." -Self-conscious emotions include jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, and guilt—most of these occurring for the first time at some point after 18 months of age when a sense of self become consolidated in toddlers.

Describe the 4 types of attachment.

-Securely attached children use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment. When in the presence of their caregiver, securely attached infants explore the room and examine toys that have been placed in it. When the caregiver departs, securely attached infants might protest mildly, and when the caregiver returns these infants reestablish positive interaction with her, perhaps by smiling or climbing onto her lap. Subsequently, they usually resume playing with the toys in the room. -Insecure avoidant children show insecurity by avoiding the mother. In the Strange Situation, these babies engage in little interaction with the caregiver, are not distressed when she leaves the room, usually do not reestablish contact with her on her return, and may even turn their back on her. If contact is established, the infant usually leans away or looks away. -Insecure resistant children often cling to the caregiver and then resist her by fighting against the closeness, perhaps by kicking or pushing away. In the Strange Situation, these babies often cling anxiously to the caregiver and don't explore the playroom. When the caregiver leaves, they often cry loudly and push away if she tries to comfort them on her return, then want to be held again. -Insecure disorganized children are disorganized and disoriented. In the Strange Situation, these babies might appear dazed, confused, and fearful. To be classified as disorganized, babies must show strong patterns of avoidance and resistance or display certain specified behaviors, such as extreme fearfulness around the caregiver.

Name and describe the 3 attachment styles of adults.

1. I find it relatively easy to get close to others and I am comfortable depending on them and having them depend on me. I don't worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me. 2. I am somewhat uncomfortable being close to others. I find it difficult to trust them completely and to allow myself to depend on them. I get nervous when anyone gets too close to me and it bothers me when someone tries to be more intimate with me than I feel comfortable with. 3. I find that others are reluctant to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my partner doesn't really love me or won't want to stay with me. I want to get very close to my partner, and this sometimes scares people away.

Study section Adolescence on page 303-4.

Adolescence section

Study first 3 paragraphs of Understanding Emotions section.

Among the most important changes in emotional development in early childhood is an increased understanding of emotion (Denham, Bassett, & Wyatt, 2015; Denham & others, 2014). During early childhood, young children increasingly understand that certain situations are likely to evoke particular emotions, facial expressions indicate specific emotions, emotions affect behavior, and emotions can be used to influence others' emotions (Cole & others, 2009). In one study, young children's emotional understanding was linked to how extensively they engaged in prosocial behavior (Ensor, Spencer, & Hughes, 2010). Between 2 and 4 years of age, children considerably increase the number of terms they use to describe emotions. During this time, they are also learning about the causes and consequences of feelings. When they are 4 to 5 years of age, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions. They also begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people. Moreover, they show a growing awareness that they need to manage their emotions to meet social standards (Denham & Zinsser, 2014). And, by 5 years of age, most children can accurately identify emotions that are produced by challenging circumstances and describe strategies they might call on to cope with everyday stress (Cole & others, 2009).

Study the portion of Coping with Stress that is on page 302.

An important aspect of children's lives is learning how to cope with stress (Mash & Wolfe, 2013, 2016; Masten, 2014a, b; Morris, Thompson, & Morris, 2013). As children get older, they are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and determine how much control they have over it. Older children generate more coping alternatives to stressful conditions and make greater use of cognitive coping strategies (Saarni & others, 2006). For example, older children are better than younger children at intentionally shifting their thoughts to a topic that is less stressful. Older children are also better at reframing, or changing their perception of a stressful situation. For example, younger children may be very disappointed that their teacher did not say hello to them when they arrived at school. Older children may reframe this type of situation and think, "She may have been busy with other things and just forgot to say hello."

Describe the benefits of secure attachment in adulthood.

Attachment security predicted more positive romantic relationships (Holland & Roisman, 2010). In newlywed marriages, spouses were more likely to engage in infidelity when either they or their partner had an anxious attachment style (Russell, Baker, & McNulty, 2013). A national survey indicated that insecure attachment in adults was associated with the development of disease and chronic illness, especially cardiovascular system problems such as high blood pressure, heart attack, and stroke (McWilliams & Bailey, 2010). Adults with avoidant and anxious attachment patterns had a lower level of sexual satisfaction than their counterparts with a secure attachment pattern (Brassard & others, 2012). Secure attachment in adults was linked to fewer sleep disruptions than insecure avoidant and anxious attachment (Adams & McWilliams, 2015).

Describe the findings of the studies on adult attachment patterns on page 324-5.

Do adult attachment patterns with partners reflect childhood attachment patterns with parents? In a retrospective study, Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver (1987) revealed that young adults who were securely attached in their romantic relationships were more likely to describe their early relationship with their parents as securely attached. In a longitudinal study, infants who were securely attached at 1 year of age were securely attached 20 years later in their adult romantic relationships (Steele & others, 1998). Also, a longitudinal study revealed that securely attached infants were in more stable romantic relationships in adulthood than their insecurely attached counterparts (Salvatore & others, 2011). However, in another longitudinal study links between early attachment styles and later attachment styles were lessened by stressful and disruptive experiences such as the death of a parent or instability of caregiving (Lewis, Feiring, & Rosenthal, 2000).

Study section Attachment in Middle and Late Childhood.

Earlier you read about the importance of secure attachment in infancy and the role of sensitive parenting in attachment (Thompson, 2015). The attachment process continues to be an important aspect of children's development in the childhood years. In middle and late childhood, attachment becomes more sophisticated, and as children's social worlds expand to include peers, teachers, and others, they typically spend less time with parents. Kathryn Kerns and her colleagues (Brumariu, Kerns, & Seibert, 2012; Kerns & Brumariu, 2016; Kerns & Seibert, 2012, 2016; Kerns, Siener, & Brumariu, 2011; Siener & Kerns, 2012) have studied links between attachment to parents and various child outcomes in middle and late childhood. They have found that during this period of development, secure attachment is associated with a lower level of internalized symptoms, anxiety, and depression in children (Brumariu & Kerns, 2011). For example, their research revealed that children who were less securely attached to their mothers reported having more anxiety (Brumariu, Kerns, & Seibert, 2012; Kerns & Brumariu, 2014). Also in this research, secure attachment was linked to a higher level of children's emotion regulation and less difficulty in identifying emotions. And their research indicates that insecure disorganized children (Type D) are most at risk for developing anxiety problems (Kerns & Brumariu, 2014).

Study section Emotion Regulations in Emotions and Coping.

Earlier, we discussed some general developmental changes in emotion regulation across the childhood years. Here we examine in detail how infants develop emotion regulation and coping skills. During the first year of life, the infant gradually develops an ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions. From early in infancy, babies put their thumbs in their mouths to soothe themselves. But at first, infants mainly depend on caregivers to help them soothe their emotions, as when a caregiver rocks an infant to sleep, sings lullabies to the infant, gently strokes the infant, and so on.

Study first paragraph of section Emotional Expression and Social Relationships.

Emotional expression is involved in infants' first relationships. The ability of infants to communicate emotions permits coordinated interactions with their caregivers and the beginning of an emotional bond between them (Thompson, 2015). Not only do parents change their emotional expressions in response to infants' emotional expressions, but infants also modify their emotional expressions in response to their parents' emotional expressions. In other words, these interactions are mutually regulated (Bridgett & others, 2009). Because of this coordination, the interactions are described as reciprocal, or synchronous, when all is going well. Sensitive, responsive parents help their infants grow emotionally, whether the infants respond in distressed or happy ways (Thompson, 2014). A recent study found that a higher level of maternal positive emotionality predicted more initial infant smiling and laughter, while a higher level of parental stress predicted a lower trajectory of infant smiling and laughter (Bridgett & others, 2013). Another recent study revealed that parents' elicitation of talk about emotion with toddlers was associated with the toddlers' sharing and helping behaviors (Brownell & others, 2013).

Study section Caregiving Styles and Attachment.

How do the caregivers of insecurely attached babies interact with them? Caregivers of avoidant babies tend to be unavailable or rejecting (Posada & Kaloustian, 2011). They often don't respond to their babies' signals and have little physical contact with them. When they do interact with their babies, they may behave in an angry and irritable way. Caregivers of resistant babies tend to be inconsistent; sometimes they respond to their babies' needs, and sometimes they don't. In general, they tend not to be very affectionate with their babies and show little synchrony when interacting with them. Caregivers of disorganized babies often neglect or physically abuse them (Bernard & others, 2012). In some cases, these caregivers are depressed. In sum, caregivers' interactions with infants influence whether infants are securely or insecurely attached to the caregivers (Sroufe, Coffino, & Carlson, 2010).

Describe the changes in aging brain related to emotions.

How might the brain be involved in the changes in older adults' emotion that take place? Although links between the aging brain and emotion have only just begun to be studied, recent research suggests some possible connections (Dolcos, Katsumi, & Dixon, 2014; Samanez-Larkin & Carstensen, 2011). Reduced negative emotion in older adults may be associated with decreased physiological arousal of emotion due to aging in the amygdala and autonomic nervous system (Kaszniak & Menchola, 2012). More effective emotion regulation may be related to this reduction in subcortical activation and also to increased activation in the prefrontal cortex (Samanez-Larkin & Carstensen, 2011).

Study section Developmental Changes in Emotion on page 302.

Improved emotional understanding. Children in elementary school develop an increased ability to understand such complex emotions as pride and shame. These emotions become less tied to the reactions of other people; they become more self-generated and integrated with a sense of personal responsibility. A child may feel a sense of pride about developing new reading skills or shame after hurting a friend's feelings. Also, during middle and late childhood as part of their understanding of emotions, children can engage in "mental time travel," in which they anticipate and recall the cognitive and emotional aspects of events (Lagattuta, 2014a, b). Marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions. Children now sometimes intentionally hide their emotions. Although a boy may feel sad that a friend does not want to play with him, he may decide not to share those feelings with his parents. The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings. In the elementary school years, children reflect more about emotional experiences and develop strategies to cope with their emotional lives. Children can more effectively manage their emotions by cognitive means, such as using distracting thoughts. A boy may be excited about his birthday party that will take place later in the afternoon, but still be able to concentrate on his schoolwork during the day. An increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions. A fourth-grader may become aware that her sadness today is influenced by her friend's moving to another town last week. Development of a capacity for genuine empathy. Two girls see another child in distress on the playground and run to the child and ask if they can help.

Study section Infants' Social Sophistication and Insight.

In sum, researchers are discovering that infants are more socially sophisticated and insightful at younger ages than was previously envisioned (Thompson, 2006, 2015, 2016). Such sophistication and insight are reflected in infants' perceptions of others' actions as intentionally motivated and goal-directed, their motivation to share and participate in that intentionality, and their increase in emotion understanding and communication by their first birthday. The more advanced social cognitive skills of infants could be expected to influence their understanding and awareness of attachment to a caregiver.

Study first paragraph of Regulating Emotions on page 301.

Many researchers consider the growth of emotion regulation in children as fundamental to the development of social competence (Calkins & Dollar, 2014; Goodvin, Thompson, & Winer, 2015; Nelson & others, 2012). In a recent study of 5- to 7-year-olds, understanding others' emotions was linked to the children's emotion regulation (Hudson & Jacques, 2014).

Describe the recent research on older adults' attachment.

Older adults have fewer attachment relationships than younger adults (Cicirelli, 2010). With increasing age, attachment anxiety decreases (Chopik, Edelstein, & Fraley, 2013). In late adulthood, attachment security is associated with psychological and physical well-being (Bodner & Cohen-Fridel, 2010). Insecure attachment is linked to more perceived negative caregiver burden in caring for patients with Alzheimer disease (Karantzas & others, 2010).

Study section Fear.

One of a baby's earliest emotions is fear, which typically first appears at about 6 months of age and peaks at about 18 months. However, abused and neglected infants can show fear as early as 3 months (Campos, 2005). The most frequent expression of an infant's fear involves stranger anxiety, in which an infant shows a fear and wariness of strangers. Stranger anxiety usually emerges gradually. It first appears at about 6 months of age in the form of wary reactions. By age 9 months, the fear of strangers is often more intense, reaching a peak toward the end of the first year of life (Scher & Harel, 2008).

Explain socioemotional selectivity theory. Be thorough.

One theory developed by Laura Carstensen (1991, 1998, 2006, 2009, 2011, 2014) stands out as important in thinking about developmental changes in adulthood, especially in older adults. Socioemotional selectivity theory states that older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being. Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships. This theory argues that older adults deliberately withdraw from social contact with individuals peripheral to their lives while they maintain or increase contact with close friends and family members with whom they have had enjoyable relationships. This selective narrowing of social interaction maximizes positive emotional experiences and minimizes emotional risks as individuals become older. According to this theory, older adults systematically condense their social networks so that available social partners satisfy their emotional needs (Sims, Hogan, & Carstensen, 2015).

Explain Erikson's trust vs. mistrust stage.

Physical comfort and sensitive care, according to Erikson (1968), are key to establishing a basic trust in infants. The infant's sense of trust, in turn, is the foundation for attachment and sets the stage for a lifelong expectation that the world will be a good and pleasant place to be.

What are recommendations for helping children cope with the stress of especially devastating events?

Reassure children of their safety and security. This step may need to be taken numerous times. Allow children to retell events and be patient in listening to them. Encourage children to talk about any disturbing or confusing feelings. Tell them that these are normal feelings after a stressful event. Help children make sense of what happened. Children may misunderstand what took place. For example, young children "may blame themselves, believe things happened that did not happen, believe that terrorists are in the school, etc. Gently help children develop a realistic understanding of the event" (p. 10). Protect children from reexposure to frightening situations and reminders of the trauma. This strategy includes limiting conversations about the event in front of the children and limiting exposure to media coverage of the event.

What are strategies parents can follow in regards to child care?

Recognize that the quality of your parenting is a key factor in your child's development. Make decisions that will improve the likelihood you will be good parents. "For some this will mean working full-time"—for personal fulfillment, income, or both. "For others, this will mean working part-time or not working outside the home." Monitor your child's development. "Parents should observe for themselves whether their children seem to be having behavior problems." If problems arise, parents need to talk with their child-care providers and their pediatrician about their child's behavior. Take some time to find the best child care. Observe different child-care facilities and be certain that you like what you see. "Quality child care costs money, and not all parents can afford the child care they want. However, state subsidies, and other programs like Head Start, are available for families in need."

Describe Harlow's research and his findings.

Regardless of whether the infant monkeys were fed by a wire or a cloth mother, they overwhelmingly preferred to spend contact time with the cloth mother.

Describe the links between adults' current attachment styles and many aspects of their lives.

Researchers are studying links between adults' current attachment styles and many aspects of their lives (Craparo & others, 2014; Hudson & others, 2014; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2014). For example, securely attached adults are more satisfied with their close relationships than insecurely attached adults, and the relationships of securely attached adults are more likely to be characterized by trust, commitment, and longevity. A recent meta-analysis of 94 samples of U.S. college students from 1988 to 2011 found the percentage of students with a secure attachment decreased in recent years while the percentage of students with insecure attachment styles increased (Konrath & others, 2014).

Study section Dating and Adjustment.

Researchers have linked dating and romantic relationships with various measures of how well adjusted adolescents are (Furman & Rose, 2015; Soller, 2014). For example, a recent study of 200 tenth-graders revealed that those with more romantic experiences reported higher levels of social acceptance, friendship competence, and romantic competence—however, having more romantic experience also was linked with a higher level of substance use, delinquency, and sexual behavior (Furman, Low, & Ho, 2009). Also, among adolescent girls but not adolescent males, having an older romantic partner was linked with an increase in depressive symptoms, largely influenced by an increase in substance use (Haydon & Halpern, 2010). Dating and romantic relationships at an early age can be especially problematic (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009). A recent study found that romantic activity was linked to depression in early adolescent girls (Starr & others, 2012). Researchers also have found that early dating and "going with" someone are linked with adolescent pregnancy and problems at home and school (Florsheim, Moore, & Edgington, 2003).

Study section Positive and Negative Emotions.

Stereotypes suggest that older adults' emotional landscape is bleak and that most live sad, lonely lives. Researchers have found a different picture (Kunzmann, Kappes, & Wrosch, 2014). One study of a very large U.S. sample examined emotions at different ages (Mroczek & Kolarz, 1998). Older adults reported experiencing more positive emotion and less negative emotion than younger adults, and positive emotion increased with age in adults at an accelerating rate (see Figure 5). And a recent study of individuals from 22 to 93 years of age explored emotional experiences in the mornings and evenings (English & Carstensen, 2014b). Older adults reported experiencing more positive emotions than younger adults at both times of the day.

Study section Emotion Regulation.

The ability to control one's emotions is a key dimension of development (Laible, Thompson, & Froimson, 2015). Emotion regulation consists of effectively managing arousal to adapt to circumstances and to reach a goal (Thompson, 2015). Arousal involves a state of alertness or activation, which can reach levels that are too high for effective functioning. Anger, for example, often requires regulation. Parents can play an important role in helping young children regulate their emotions (Kiel & Kalomiris, 2015; Wilson & others, 2014). Depending on how they talk with their children about emotion, parents can be described as taking an emotion-coaching or an emotion-dismissing approach (Gottman, 2014). The distinction between these approaches is most evident in the way the parent deals with the child's negative emotions (anger, frustration, sadness, and so on). Emotion-coaching parents monitor their children's emotions, view their children's negative emotions as opportunities for teaching, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions. In contrast, emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions. Researchers have observed that emotion-coaching parents interact with their children in a less rejecting manner, use more scaffolding and praise, and are more nurturant than are emotion-dismissing parents (Gottman & DeClaire, 1997). Moreover, the children of emotion-coaching parents are better at soothing themselves when they got upset, are more effective in regulating their negative affect, focus their attention better, and have fewer behavior problems than the children of emotion-dismissing parents.

Study section Attachment to Parents.

The initial interest in attachment focused on infants and their caregivers. Developmentalists have recently begun to explore the role of secure attachment and related concepts, such as connectedness to parents, during adolescence (Dawson & others, 2014; Kobak & Kerig, 2015; Kobak & others, 2015; Zack & others, 2015). Secure attachment to parents in adolescence facilitates the adolescent's social competence and well-being, as reflected in such characteristics as self-esteem, emotional adjustment, and physical health (Hoeve & others, 2012). Recent research indicated that the most consistent outcomes of secure attachment in adolescence are positive peer relations and emotion regulation (Allen & Miga, 2010). In other recent research, Joseph Allen and his colleagues (2009) also found that adolescents who were securely attached at 14 years of age were more likely to report at age 21 that they were in an exclusive relationship, comfortable with intimacy in relationships, and attaining increased financial independence.

What is heredity's role in the biological foundations of temperament?

Twin and adoption studies suggest that heredity has a moderate influence on differences in temperament within a group of people (Buss & Goldsmith, 2007). Too often the biological foundations of temperament are interpreted as meaning that temperament cannot develop or change. However, important self-regulatory dimensions of temperament such as adaptability, soothability, and persistence look very different in a 1-year-old and a 5-year-old (Easterbrooks & others, 2013). These temperament dimensions develop and change with the growth of the neurobiological foundations of self-regulation.

Study section Stress and Gender.

Women and men differ in the way they experience and respond to stressors (Almeida & others, 2011). Women are more vulnerable to social stressors such as those involving romance, family, and work. For example, women experience higher levels of stress when things go wrong in romantic and marital relationships. Women also are more likely than men to become depressed when they encounter stressful life events such as a divorce or the death of a friend. When men face stress, they are likely to respond in a fight or flight manner—become aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol. By contrast, according to Shelley Taylor and her colleagues (2011a, b, c, 2015, Taylor & others, 2000), when women experience stress, they are more likely to engage in a tend and befriend pattern, seeking social alliances with others, especially friends. Taylor argues that when women experience stress an influx of the hormone oxytocin, which is linked to nurturing in animals, is released.

What is attachment?

a close emotional bond between two people.

Explain social referencing.

is the term used to describe "reading" emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a specific situation. The development of social referencing helps infants to interpret ambiguous situations more accurately, as when they encounter a stranger and need to know whether or not to fear the person (Pelaez, Virues-Ortega, & Gewirtz, 2012). By the end of the first year, a mother's facial expression—either smiling or fearful—influences whether an infant will explore an unfamiliar environment. Infants become better at social referencing in the second year of life. At this age, they tend to "check" with their mother before they act; they look at her to see if she is happy, angry, or fearful.