Psychology Final Exam Part 2

Define and identify the functions of the id, ego, and superego. 1. Id 2. Ego 3.SuperEgo

(A) Id Primitive impulses, unconscious pleasure principle B) Ego * Conscious, decision maker Reality Principle C) Superego * Unconscious; conscience Sense of morality; constraints of society ) 1. id The part of the person that Freud called the "it," consisting of unconscious drives; the individual's reservoir of sexual energy. Id -instincts and reservoir of psychic energy -pleasure principle 2. ego The Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. Ego -deals with the demands of reality -reality principle 3. superego The Freudian structure of personality Superego -moral branch of personality; -"conscience"

Describe the relationship between contact comfort and attachment 1.Attachment 2.Separation anxiety 3.Stranger anxiety

1. instinct in which proximity to an attachment figure is sought when the child senses or perceives threat or discomfort.is found in all mammals to some degree, especially nonhuman primates.Natural attachment to mother or primate 2. is a condition in which a child becomes fearful and nervous when away from home or separated from a loved one -- usually a parent or other caregiver -- to whom the child is attached.normal in very young children (those between 8 and 14 months old).When this fear occurs in a child over age 6 years, is excessive, and lasts longer than four weeks, the child may have separation anxiety disorder. 3. Stranger anxiety is a form of distress that children experience when exposed to people unfamiliar to them. Symptoms may include: getting quiet and staring at the stranger, verbally protesting by cries or other vocalizations, and hiding behind a parent.

Explain the purpose of defense mechanisms in Freud's theory. 1. Defense mechanism 2. Repression 3. Projection 4. Displacement 5. Reaction formation 6. Regression 7. Denial

(Self-protective "distortions" of the truth Unconscious strategies to defend against anxiety Repression - forgetting anxiety producing memories Example: Forgetting about a mistake you made Your example: Regression - reverting to earlier behavior patterns Example: Going "back to the bottle" under stress Your example: Displacement - divert impulses to a safer target Example: Yell at your spouse instead of the boss Your Example: Sublimation - unacceptable impulses to better activities Example: Writing novels about unacceptable topics Your example: Rationalization - self justifying explanations Example: I deserve expensive desserts because I studied hard. Your example: Projection - attribute your impulses to others Example: She keeps starting fights (v. I start them) Your example:) 1.Defense mechanism - Defense Mechanisms reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality not necessarily unhealthy (Conflict between the id, ego, and superego results in anxiety.) 1. Repression: forget the unacceptable 2. Rationalization: claim different motive 3. Displacement: shift feelings to new object 4. Sublimation: transform vile to valuable 5. Projection: attribute own faults to others 6. Reaction Formation: convert to opposite emotion 7. Denial: disbelieve present reality 8. Regression: revert to earlier, "safer" period

Describe the processes that take place in the conscious, pre-conscious, and unconscious mind. 1. Conscious 2. Pre-conscious 3. Unconscious

(Unconscious mind * Memories outside awareness/not accessible Preconscious mind * Thoughts just beneath surface Voluntary access Conscious mind * Thoughts you are aware of Currently processing ) 1. the conscious mind consists of everything inside of our awareness. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about in a rational way. The conscious mind includes such things as the sensations, perceptions, memories, feeling and fantasies inside of our current awareness 2. Preconscious:Consists of things that a person is not currently aware of, but could be retrieved or brought into consciousness if desired or needed. (EGO) 3. The unconscious includes thoughts, emotions, memories, desires, and motivations that lie outside of our awareness, yet continue to exert an influence on our behaviors nevertheless. (SUPER EGO, ID)

List the characteristics of the three stages of prenatal development 1.Zygote 2.Germinal period 3.Embryonic period 4.Fetal period

1. Conception occurs when a single sperm cell from the male merges with the female's ovum (egg) to produce a zygote, a single cell with 23 chromosomes from the mother and 23 from the father. 2 .—weeks 1 and 2: The germinal period begins with conception. After 1 week and many cell divisions, the zygote is made up of 100 to 150 cells. By the end of 2 weeks, the mass of cells has attached to the uterine wall 3 .weeks 3 through 8: The rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells develop, and the beginnings of organs appear . In the third week, the neural tube, which eventually becomes the spinal cord, starts to take shape. Within the first 28 days after conception, the neural tube is formed and closes, encased inside the embryo. By the end of the embryonic period, the heart begins to beat, the arms and legs become more differentiated, the face starts to form, and the intestinal tract appears 4. months 2 through 9: At 2 months, the fetus is the size of a kidney bean and has started to move around. At 4 months, the fetus is 5 inches long and weighs about 5 ounces (Figure 9.1c). At 6 months, the fetus has grown to a pound and a half. Th e last three months of pregnancy are the time when organ functioning increases and the fetus puts on considerable weight and size, adding baby fat.

Describe the process of reconstructive memory 1. Eyewitness accounts

1. Eyewitness testimony may contain errors due to memory decay or bias. Special cases of retrieval include autobiographical memory, emotional memory, memory for trauma, repressed memory, and eyewitness testimony. Autobiographical memory is a person's recollections of his or her life experiences. Th e reminiscence bump refers to the fact that most people have more autobiographical memories for the second and third decades of life. Autobiographical memory has three levels: life time periods, general events, and event-specific knowledge. Biographies of the self connect the past and the present to form our identity. Emotional memories may be especially vivid and enduring. Particularly significant emotional memories, or flashbulb memories, capture emotionally profound events that people often recall accurately and vividly. Memory for personal trauma also is usually more accurate than memory for ordinary events, but it too is subject to distortion and inaccuracy. People tend to remember the core information about a personal trauma but might distort some of the details. Personal trauma can cause individuals to repress emotionally laden information so that it is not accessible to consciousness. Repression means forgetting a particularly troubling experience because it would be too upsetting to remember it. Eyewitness testimony may contain errors due to memory decay or bias.

-Summarize the characteristics of Piaget's four stages of cognitive development. 1.Sensorimotor stage 2.Object permanence 3.Preoperational stage 4.Egocentrism 5.Concrete operational stage 6.Conservation 7.Formal operational stage

1. Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to about 2 years of age, during which infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with motor 2.is Piaget's term for the crucial accomplishment of understanding that objects and events continue to exist even when they cannot directly be seen, heard, or touched. Piaget believed that "out of sight" literally was "out of mind" for very young infants 3. Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which thought is more symbolic than sensorimotor thought. type of symbolic thinking that children are able to accomplish during this stage is limited 4.involves the individual's belief that others are as preoccupied with him or her as the adolescent himself or herself is and that the individual is both unique and invincible (that is, incapable of being harmed) (Elkind, 1978). Egocentric adolescents perceive others as observing them more than actually is the case—think of the eighth-grade boy who senses that everyone has noticed the small pimple on his face. 5. Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, lasting from about 7 to 11 years of age, during which the individual uses operations and replaces intuitive reasoning with logical reasoning in concrete 6.k The beaker test determines whether a child can think operationally—that is, can mentally reverse action and understand conservation of the substance. ( a ) Two identical beakers are presented to the child, each containing the same amount of liquid. As the child watches, the experimenter pours the liquid from B into C, which is taller and thinner than A and B. ( b ) The experimenter then asks the child whether beakers A and C have the same amount of liquid 7. Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development, which begins at 11 to 15 years of age and continues through the adult years; it features thinking about things that are not concrete, making predictions, and using logic to come up with hypotheses about the future

Explain the differences between recall, free recall, cued recall, and recognition measures of memory. 1. Recall 2. Recognition

1. Recall is a memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information, as on essay tests. -Cued Recall is when a person is given a list of items to remember and is then tested with cues to remember material. -Free recall describes the process in which a person is given a list of items to remember and then is tested by being asked to recall them in any order. 2. Recognition is a memory task in which the individual only has to identify (recognize) learned items, as on multiple-choice tests.

Describe the process of cognitive development according to Piaget. 1.Schemes (schemas 2.Assimilation 3.accommodation

1. Schemas can also be at work when we recall information. Schema theory holds that long-term memory is not very exact. We seldom find precisely the memory that we want, or at least not all of what we want; hence, we have to reconstruct the rest. Our schemas support the reconstruction process, helping us fill in gaps between our fragmented memories. 2. occurs when individuals incorporate new information into existing knowledge. Th at is, people assimilate the environment into a schema. Assimilation means that, faced with a new experience, the person applies old ways of doing things 3. occurs when individuals adjust their schemas to new information. Th at is, people accommodate their schemas to the environment. Accommodation means that rather than using one's old ways of doing things, a new experience promotes new ways of dealing with experience

Describe the function and characteristics of short-term memory 1. Short-term memory 2. Working memory

1. Short-term memory is a limited-capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless we use strategies to retain it longer. 2. A three-part system that allows us to hold information temporarily as we perform cognitive tasks; a kind of mental workbench on which the brain manipulates and assembles information to help us understand, make decisions, and solve problems.

Explain Kohlberg's levels and stages of moral development 1. Preconventional level & stages 2. Conventional level & stages 3. Postconventional level & stages

1. The preconventional level is based primarily on punishments and rewards from the external world. Moral reasoning is guided by not wanting Heinz to go to jail or concern for the druggists' profits. 2. At the conventional level, the individual abides by standards such as those learned from parents or society's laws. At this level the person might reason that Heinz should act in accord with expectations or his role as a good husband or reason that Heinz should follow the law no matter what. 3. At the postconventional level, the individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options, and then develops an increasingly personal moral code. At this level, the person might reason that Heinz's wife's life is more important than a law.

Explain the differences between the secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized patterns of attachment. 1.Secure attachment 2.Anxious-ambivalent 3.Avoidant 4.Disorganized

1. The ways that infants use their caregiver, usually their mother, as a secure base from which to explore the environment 2. In the strange situation, such an infant might not even notice the mother has gone, or conversely might respond with intense distress, only to rage at the mother when she returns. 3. will avoid or ignore the caregiver — showing little emotion when the caregiver departs or returns. The child will not explore very much regardless of who is there. Infants classified as anxious-avoidant (. They did not exhibit distress on separation, and either ignored the caregiver on their return. 4.tense movements such as hunching the shoulders, putting the hands behind the neck and tensely cocking the head, and so on. It was our clear impression that such tension movements signified stress, both because they tended to occur chiefly in the separation episodes and because they tended to be prodromal to crying. Indeed, our hypothesis is that they occur when a child is attempting to control crying, for they tend to vanish if and when crying breaks through.

Explain the differences between cross-sectional and longitudinal 1.Cross-sectional design 2.Longitudinal design

1. a number of people of different ages are assessed at one point in time, and differences are noted 2. A special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time

Describe the characteristics of long-term memory. 1. Long-term memory 2. Declarative memory 3. Semantic memory 4. Episodic memory 5. Nondeclarative memory 6. Procedural memory

1. a relatively permanent type of memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time. 2. the conscious recollection of information, such as specific facts and events and, at least in humans, information that can be verbally communicated 3. a person's knowledge about the world. It includes your areas of expertise, general knowledge of the sort you are learning in school, and everyday knowledge about the meanings of words, famous individuals, important places, and common things. 4. is the retention of information about the where, when, and what of life's happenings—basically, how we remember life's episodes. Episodic memory is autobiographical. 5. memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience. Implicit memory comes into play, for example, in the skills of playing tennis and snowboarding. 6. Procedural memory is an implicit memory process that involves memory for skills. For example (assuming that you are an expert typist), as you type a paper, you are not conscious of where the keys are for the various letters, but your well-learned, nonconscious skill of typing allows you to hit the right keys.

Describe the symptoms and Alzheimer's proposed causes of Alzheimer's disease

One form of dementia Slow decline over many years Physical, mental, emotional, social effects Memory problems earliest symptom Multiple possible causes, inc. genetics, environment, diet, inflammation in brain. Amyloid plaques; tau proteins, tangles Problems for society, caregivers.

Summarize the basic assumptions associated with Freud's psychosexual stages.

Oral Stage: 0-18 Months infant's pleasure centers on the mouth Anal Stage: 18-36 Months child's pleasure involves eliminative functions Phallic Stage: 3-6 Years child's pleasure focuses on the genitals Oedipal complex castration anxiety Latency Stage: 6 Years - Puberty psychic "time-out" interest in sexuality is repressed Genital Stage: Adolescence and Adulthood sexual reawakening source of sexual pleasure is someone else Fixation - Remain locked in particular developmental stage (e.g., anal retentive)

Define personality

Personality is a pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world.

Explain the roles of schemas in memory.

Schemas are developed based on information provided by life experiences and are then stored in memory.

Explain the differences between objective (self-report inventory) and projective personality test.

Self-report inventory -Also called an objective test or an inventory, a method of measuring personality characteristics that directly asks people whether specifi c items describe their personality traits. Projective test- A personality assessment test that presents individuals with an ambiguous stimulus and asks them to describe it or tell a story about it—to project their own meaning onto the stimulus

Describe several techniques for improving memory 1. Mnemonics 2. Elaborative rehearsal (elaboration) 3. Self-references 4. Visual imaginary 5. Organization 6. Overlearning 7. Massed practice 8. Spaced (distributed) practice

1. is a memory aid, such as an abbreviation, rhyme or mental image that helps to remember something. The technique of developing these remembering devices is called "mnemonics." 2. Elaborative rehearsal is a type of memory rehearsal that is useful in transferring information into long term memory. This type of rehearsal is effective because it involves thinking about the meaning of the information and connecting it to other information already stored in memory. 3. relating material to your own experience 4. One of the most powerful ways to make memories distinctive is to use mental imagery 5. e word organized is important: Memories are not haphazardly stored but instead are carefully sorted. 6. Overlearning means learning to perform a task so well that it becomes automatic. 7. Massed practice is generally defined as practice that occurs without rest between trials (Burdick, 1977). Schmidt (1991) defines massed practice more loosely as, "a practice schedule in which the amount of rest between trials is short relative to the trial length." 8. Spacing Effect states that we learn material more effectively and easily when we study it several times spaced out over a longer time span, rather than trying to learn it in a short period of time.

Explain the reasons for forgetting. 1. Encoding failure 2. Decay theory 3. Interference theory 4. Motivated forgetting 5. Retrieval failure

1. occurs when the information was never entered into long-term memory 2. when we learn something new, a neurochemical memory trace forms, but over time this trace disintegrates; suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting. 3. According to interference theory, people forget not because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way of what they want to remember. 4. motivated forgetting Forgetting that occurs when something is so painful or anxiety-laden that remembering it is intolerable. 5. Psychologists have theorized that the causes of retrieval failure include problems with the information in storage, the effects of time, personal reasons for remembering or forgetting, and the brain's condition.

Summarize the characteristics of Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development

1. trust versus mistrust basic needs met by sensitive caregivers 2. autonomy versus shame and doubt discover and assert will of their own 3.initiative versus guilt challenged to assume responsibility 4.industry versus inferiority mastering knowledge & intellectual skills 5. Identityvs. Role Confusion Peer relationships The teenager must achieve a sense of identity in occupation, sexroles, politics, and religion. 6. ntimacyvs. Isolation Love relationships The young adult must develop intimate relationships or sufferfeelings of isolation. 7. Generativityvs. Stagnation Parenting Eachadult must find some way to satisfy and support the next generation. 8. EgoIntegrity vs. Despair Reflection on andacceptance of one's life The culmination is a sense ofoneself as one is and of feeling fulfilled.

Explain the information-processing approach to memory 1. Information processing approach 2. Encoding 3. Storage 4. Retrieval

1. ways that the human mind interprets incoming information, weighs it, stores it, and applies it to decision making. 2. the process by which information gets into memory storage. 3. Retaining information over time. 4. Taking memory out of storage

Explain the differences between the social learning and gender schema theory explanations of gender role development. 1.Sex 2.Gender identity 3.Sexual orientation

1.-justice perspective (men) < Kohlberg- "be a man!" -care perspective (women) < Gilligan "itll be okay dont worry" 2.men who embrace a stereotypically masculine gender identity are more likely to report themselves as less emotional ( Jakupcak & others, 2003). Gender differences in emotion are much more tied to social context than to biological sex (Brody, 1999), Women say they are more emotional in a longer period of time than men. 3. is the direction of his or her erotic interests

Explain the effects of teratogens and other negative factors on prenatal development. 1.Teratogen 2.Fetal alcohol (spectrum) syndrome

1.A teratogen is any agent that causes a birth defect. Teratogens include chemical substances ingested by the mother (such as nicotine if the mother smokes and alcohol if she drinks) and certain illnesses (such as rubella, or German measles). Substances that are ingested by the mother can lead to serious birth defects. 2.fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a cluster of abnormalities and problems that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy. These abnormalities include a small head, defects in the limbs and heart, and below-average intelligence (Klingenberg & others, 2010)

Explain Bandura's social-cognitive view of personality. 1.Social cognitive 2.Self-efficacy 3.Reciprocal determinism

1.Bandura's social cognitive theory states that behavior, environment, and person/ cognitive factors are all important in understanding personality. 2. self-efficacy The belief that one can master a situation and produce positive change. 3. reciprocal determinism behavior, environment, and cognitive factors interact to create personality

Explain the effects of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting styles on children's development.

Authoritarian- Absolute control Authoritative - Reasonable control Permissive- No control

Describe the evidence for and against the view that personality is inherited. Behavior genetics

Behavioral Genetics twin studies reveal substantial genetic influence on Big Five traits most traits influenced by multiple genes Evaluating the Biological Perspective ties personality to animal learning, brain imaging, and evolutionary theory criticisms (e.g., biology may be the affect, not the cause, of personality) Genes are important Genetics is not destiny Nonshared influences more important Individuals are unique; no single explanation. All theories contribute to research and knowledge.

Explain the views of Abraham Maslow on self-actualization.

Hierarchy of needs-Abraham Maslow developed the hierarchy of human needs to show that we have to satisfy basic physiological needs before we can satisfy other, higher needs. -Self-actualization - The motivation to develop one's full potential as a human being—the highest and most elusive of Maslow's proposed needs -Maslow's theory that human needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization

Explain the views of humanistic theorists regarding personality.

Key Concepts: Self Concept - our beliefs about who we are Self Esteem - Positive feelings about the self Self-Actualization - motive to reach our potential Carl Rogers - best known humanist Client (Person) Centered Therapy Unconditional positive regard, empathy Non-directive approach Humanistic Perspectives: emphasis on a person's capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities Humanistic Perspectives Abraham Maslow -third force psychology -self-actualization -peak experiences -biased since focus was on highly successful individuals Carl Rogers -personal growth and self-determination -unconditional positive regard conditions of worth self-concept -empathy -genuineness Evaluating Humanistic Perspectives Contributions -self-perception is key to personality -consider the positive aspects of human nature -emphasize conscious experience Criticisms -too optimistic about human nature -promotes self-love and narcissism

Explain the Big Five personality traits. 1.Trait 2.Big Five

Trait an enduring disposition that leads to characteristic responses traits are the building blocks of personality Trait Theories people can be described by their typical behavior strong versus weak tendencies -Individuals high in extraversion are more likely than others to engage in social activities and to experience gratitude and a strong sense of meaning in life -Openness to experience is related to liberal values, open-mindedness, tolerance, and creativity THE BIG FIVE LIST (OCEAN) Openness -Imaginative Practical Conscientiousness -Organized Disorganized Extraversion -Sociable Retiring Agreeableness -Softhearted Ruthless Neuroticism / Stability -Calm Anxious -Secure Insecure -Self-Satisfied Self-Pitying