Psychology Final Study Guide

Chapter 2 - Reading and Evaluating Scientific Research

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________ means that there is a relationship between two or more variables. A) cause-and-effect B) correlation C) reliability D) validity

B) correlation

Which of the following represents a strong negative correlation? A) -0.9 B) -0.2 C) +0.2 D) +0.9

A) -0.9

What does it mean to say that two variables are negatively correlated? A) An increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other. B) An increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other. C) A decrease in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other. D) The two variables have no relationship.

A) An increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other.

Without the process of replication as part of the scientific process, what would happen? A) Incorrect results would often go uncorrected. B) Demand characteristics would have larger effect on data. C) The Hawthorne effect would increase. D) Samples would be less representative of the populations they came from.

A) Incorrect results would often go uncorrected.

What is informed consent? A) Volunteers agree to participate in a study after the purpose, tasks, and risks of the study are explained to them. B) IRBs must be informed about the purpose, tasks, and risks of a study before they approve it. C) Researchers agree to be legally responsible for the physical and psychological safety of their participants. D) Participants must be informed of the results of the study they participated in and give their consent before the research is published.

A) Volunteers agree to participate in a study after the purpose, tasks, and risks of the study are explained to them.

Imagine an experiment where the mean of the experimental group is 50 and the mean of the control group is 40. Given that the two means are obviously different, is it still possible for a researcher to say that the two groups are not significantly different? A) Yes, the two groups could overlap so much that the difference was not significant. B) Yes, if the difference was not predicted by the hypothesis. C) No, because the two groups are clearly far too different for the difference to not be significant. D) There is not enough information to answer this question.

A) Yes, the two groups could overlap so much that the difference was not significant.

Ann is convinced that corporal punishment (e.g., spanking) is a good way to discipline a child because she knows a child whose behavior improved because of it. Whether or not you agree with her, Ann is using a flawed argument. Which type of evidence is she using? A) Anecdotal B) Objective C) Generalizable D) An appeal to authority

A) anecdotal

________ research uses past records or data sets to investigate research questions or to look for patterns or relationships. A) archival B) correlational C) experimental D) survey

A) archival

In order to make objective measurements, psychologists generally measure ___________. A) behavior B) introspection C) thoughts D) feelings

A) behavior

A(n) ____________ involves an extremely deep and detailed information-gathering from a single individual over a long period of time. A) case study design B) correlational design C) experimental design D) naturalistic observation design

A) case study design

In an experiment, a researcher wants to avoid the presence of _______________. A) confounding variables B) dependent variables C) independent variables D) random assignment

A) confounding variables

The degree of relationship between two or more variables is __________. A) correlation B) validity C) reliability D) a hypothesis

A) correlation

In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The second variable, which is observed for any possible effects, is called the __________. A) dependent variable B) control variable C) independent variable D) hypothetical variable

A) dependent variable

Which of the following is a measure of central tendency? A) mode B) variability C) range D) standard deviation

A) mode

Observing behavior as it happens in real-life natural settings without imposing laboratory controls is known as the __________. A) naturalistic observation method B) experimental method C) correlational method D) psychometric approach

A) naturalistic observation method

Dr. Rose gives a standardized personality test to a group of psychology majors in January and again in March. Each individual's score remained nearly the same over the two-month period. From this, Dr. Rose can infer that the test is _____. A) reliable B) generalizable C) objective D) verified

A) reliable

By studying a _____, scientists hope that they can generalize the results of their investigation to the _____. A) sample; population B) population; sample C) convenience sample; random sample D) random sample; convenience sample

A) sample, population

Under which of the following circumstances would the mean be the best measure of central tendency to use? A) The data have a normal distribution. B) The data are positively skewed. C) The data are negatively skewed. D) The mean is always the best measure of central tendency

A) the data have a normal distribution

The method of psychological research which utilizes a control group, a dependent variable, and an independent variable is A) the experiment. B) the survey. C) the case study. D) naturalistic observation.

A) the experiment.

What is the purpose of an institutional review board? A) to help protect research participants from abuse B) to hinder the research process by placing unnecessary hurdles in the way of researchers C) to help protect the university from lawsuits from unhappy research participants D) to encourage the use of deception in medical and psychological research with humans

A) to help protect research participants from abuse

The degree to which an instrument measures what it is intended to measure is known as _____. A) validity B) generalizability C) verifiability D) reliability

A) validity

Ecological validity refers to: A) whether the results of a laboratory study can be applied to the real world. B) the impact of a scientific study on the environment. C) the degree to which animal research can be applied to humans. D) the degree to which naturalistic research techniques are used.

A) whether the results of a laboratory study can be applied to the real world.

Which of the following is an example of demand characteristics affecting an experiment? A) An experimenter draws the wrong conclusions from a study because she did not use the correct statistical analysis. B) A participant changes his response to a question because he has the feeling that the experimenter wants him to do so. C) An experimenter stops using a test because it does not appear to be reliable. D) A participant in a double-blind experiment believes she is in the control group.

B) A participant changes his response to a question because he has the feeling that the experimenter wants him to do so.

Most people would agree that anxiety can lead to sleep loss. However, Dr. Jenkins believes that sleep deprivation can also cause increased anxiety. Which research method would allow him to test a cause-effect relationship between the two? A) Naturalistic observation B) Experimental C) Correlational D) Survey

B) Experimental

Which of the following is an advantage of using non-human subjects in psychology research? A) Research on non-humans does not have to be reviewed by ethics committees. B) Many lab animals have relatively short life spans, so several generations can be observed. C) Researchers do not have to justify risk and discomfort by the potential scientific value of the research. D) There are no advantages of animal research over human research.

B) Many lab animals have relatively short life spans, so several generations can be observed

_______________assumes that there are facts about the world that can be observed and tested independently from the individual who describes them. A) Subjectivity B) Objectivity C) Validity D) Generalizability

B) Objectivity

Which of the following is true? A) Researchers typically study populations because it is often too difficult to study samples. B) Researchers typically study samples because it is often too difficult to study populations. C) Researchers typically include both samples and populations in their research. D) Researchers typically avoid studying both populations and samples.

B) Researchers typically study samples because it is often too difficult to study populations.

Which of the following is a strength of experiments? A) They cannot be repeated by anyone other than the experimenter. B) They allow for the establishment of cause-effect relationships. C) They are not subject to demand characteristics since the subjects do not know they are being observed. D) They allow us to draw definitive conclusions about behavior in the natural environment based on subjects' behavior in the laboratory.

B) They allow for the establishment of cause-effect relationships.

A researcher sets up an experiment to test a new antidepressant medication. One group receives the treatment, and the other receives a placebo. The researcher then measures depression using a standardized self-report measure. What is the independent variable in this case? A) Whether the individuals scored high or low on the depression measure B) Whether the individuals received the treatment or a placebo C) Whether the individuals were experiencing depression before the study began D) Whether the individuals, depression decreased or increased during the study period

B) Whether the individuals received the treatment or a placebo

In a memory study, researchers have participants study a list of words, and then tell them it was the wrong list and that they should forget it. This deception is meant to see how effectively participants can forget something they have already studied. If the researchers plan to debrief the participants afterward, would this design meet the standards of an ethical study? A) No, it is not okay to mislead individuals during the course of a study. B) Yes, given that the participants are not at risk and that they will be debriefed, this seems to be an ethical study. C) No, because the researchers should not debrief the participants—it will simply cause them to become angry. D) Yes, because participants fully understood all aspects of the study.

B) Yes, given that the participants are not at risk and that they will be debriefed, this seems to be an ethical study.

Two variables are said to have a correlation when scores on one variable: A) are unrelated to the scores on the second variable. B) are related to scores on the second variable. C) cause the scores on the second variable. D) are different from the scores on the second variable.

B) are related to scores on the second variable.

A researcher wished to study the relationship between high school grades and college grades. Of the following research methods, which would be the most appropriate? A) case study B) correlation C) experiment D) survey

B) correlation

Experimenter bias can best be controlled using ________. A) a placebo B) double-blind control C) randomization D) subjects who do not know the purpose of the study

B) double-blind control

In psychological studies, randomization is used to ensure that: A) there will be an independent and dependent variable. B) each person has an equal chance of being assigned to each group. C) the control group does not know the purpose of the study. D) the experimenter won't know who is in each group.

B) each person has an equal chance of being assigned to each group.

If explanation of the causes of thoughts, feelings, and behavior is a psychologist's goal, then the __________ method of research should be used. A) correlational B) experimental C) survey D) naturalistic observation

B) experimental

Expectations by the experimenter that might influence the results of an experiment or their interpretation are called __________. A) experimental blinds B) experimenter bias C) sample bias D) treatment bias

B) experimenter bias

When psychologists question how well the results of a study apply to other samples or perhaps other situations, they are inquiring about the _____ of the study. A) validity B) generalizability C) verifiability D) reliability

B) generalizability

The peer review process is designed to: A) block alternative therapies from being made available to the general public. B) identify flaws in a research study's methods, findings, and conclusions. C) make researchers feel bad when their article is not published. D) place obstacles in front of people whose theories differ from mainstream science.

B) identify flaws in a research study's methods, findings, and conclusions.

The perception of a statistical association between two variables where none exists is known as ______________. A) confirmation bias B) illusory correlation C) existence proof D) type II error

B) illusory correlation

The _____ always marks the 50th percentile of the distribution. A) mean B) median C) mode D) standard deviation

B) median

Dr. Watson wanted to know which gender was better at sharing at the sixth-grade level, so he went to the local middle school to observe lunch periods. This is a form of ____________. A) case study B) naturalistic observation C) experimental design D) confirmation bias

B) naturalistic observation

Using both independent and dependent variables is associated with which of the following types of research used in psychology? A) experimentation B) naturalistic observation C) correlation D) correlation and experimentation

B) naturalistic observation

When psychologists observe behavior and record data in the environment where it normally occurs, they are using _____. A) case studies B) naturalistic observation C) the supervisory method D) artificial observation

B) naturalistic observation

What is the best way to reduce the social desirability bias in research? A) use random sampling B) provide anonymity and confidentiality C) use random assignment D) submit the research to peer review

B) provide anonymity and confidentiality

Naturalistic observation is ____________________. A) re-creating natural conditions in the laboratory as closely as possible to make an experiment more valid B) studying behavior in its natural context C) basically the same process as objective introspection D observing behavior in the lab without taking formal notes or using technological equipment to measure the experiment findings

B) studying behavior in its natural context

As part of an assignment, Linda's class was asked to complete an anonymous questionnaire on sexual discrimination. Which research method was Linda's professor using? A) field experiment B) survey C) naturalistic observation D) laboratory experiment

B) survey

An important danger of the various types of research bias discussed in Chapter 2 is that they lead us: A) to become anxious or depressed about our place in the world. B) to draw incorrect conclusions and then become convinced that they are accurate. C) to doubt our intuition and gut feelings in important real-life circumstances. D) to underestimate our general levels of cognitive abilities and skills.

B) to draw incorrect conclusions and then become convinced that they are accurate.

The term demand characteristics refers to: A) a set of personality traits that most good scientists share. B) unintended cues that suggest how study participants should behave. C) statements that describe the specific measures that are used to record observations. D) claims based on anecdotal evidence.

B) unintended cues that suggest how study participants should behave.

The Institutional Review Board (IRB) is a committee that determines: A) whether a hypothesis is valid. B) whether the benefits of a proposed study outweigh its potential risks. C) whether a study should be published in a scientific journal. D) whether animal research is overall an ethical practice.

B) whether the benefits of a proposed study outweigh its potential risks.

A correlation tells us: A) whether a cause-effect relationship exists. B) whether two variables are related C) whether or not a test is efficient. D) if people are responding to demand characteristics.

B) whether two variables are related

Which of the following is not a characteristic of a good hypothesis? A) It can be tested using empirical methods. B) It is an if-then statement. C) It is complex. D) It is falsifiable.

C) It is complex.

Which of the following is not a requirement for informed consent? A) Participants need to know the nature of the stimuli to which they will be exposed. B) Participants need to understand any potential physical, psychological, or social risks involved in the research. C) Participants need to have a face-to-face meeting with the researcher before volunteering. D) Participants need to know the approximate duration of the study.

C) Participants need to have a face-to-face meeting with the researcher before volunteering.

A large group of people whom you want to know about is called a __________. A) control group B) treatment group C) population D) sample

C) Population

__________ is consistency of measurement. A) Random assignment B) Validity C) Reliability D) Confounding variable

C) Reliability

Brittany, a softball player who plays catcher for the local college, has thrown out base stealers at a 42, 39, and 41 percent rate over her three years. Her performance could be considered which of the following? A) Valid B) Invalid C) Reliable D) Not reliable

C) Reliable

______________ is a method where researchers typically use interviews, phone surveys, and questionnaires to directly collect responses from the people being studied. A) Generalizing B) Random sampling C) Self-reporting D) Blind sampling

C) Self-reporting

In a survey of recent graduates, your college reports that the mean salaries of the former students are positively skewed. What are the consequences of choosing the mean rather than the median or the mode in this case? A) The mean is likely to provide a number that is lower than the largest cluster of scores. B) The mean is likely to provide a reliable estimate of where the scores cluster. C) The mean is likely to provide a number that is higher than the largest cluster of scores. D) The mean provides the 50th percentile of the distribution, making it the best choice to depict this cluster of scores.

C) The mean is likely to provide a number that is higher than the largest cluster of scores.

In a single-blind study, the participants do not know the purpose of the study or the condition to which they are assigned. What is the difference in a double-blind study? A) The researcher tells the participants the purpose and their assigned conditions in the study. B) The participants also do not know when the actual study begins or ends. C) The researcher also does not know which condition the participants are in. D) The participants know to which condition they have been assigned, but the researcher does not.

C) The researcher also does not know which condition the participants are in.

__________ is the extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure. A) Operationalization B) Reliability C) Validity D) Control group

C) Validity

You overheard someone claiming that 12-step programs are the only way to really quit abusing alcohol "Because my brother is a doctor and so he should know." Regardless of the accuracy of the claim, this and other appeals to authority do not qualify as good evidence because: A) they always lack common sense. B) authority figures are likely to distort the truth. C) authority does not mean that the claim is based on sound, scientific evidence. D) authority is typically based on anecdotal evidence.

C) authority does not mean that the claim is based on sound, scientific evidence.

A detailed, well-researched biography of a famous historical person is technically an example of the __________ method of research. A) psychometric B) naturalistic observation C) case study D) correlational

C) case study

A research method in which the real-life behavior of a pre-selected person or a group is studied at an in-depth level for some time through the use of observation, interviews, and writings (such as letters) is the _____________ method of research. A) survey B) psychometric C) case study D) naturalistic observation

C) case study

Mr. Marshall hired June to collect data from a group of subjects. Neither June nor the subjects were aware of the independent variable that Mr. Marshall had manipulated. This is an example of _______. A) randomization B) a placebo C) double-blind control D) experimenter bias

C) double-blind control

Which of the following is NOT a descriptive research method? A) case study B) naturalistic observation C) experiment D) survey

C) experiment

The use of deception in psychological research is: A) not a serious issue. B) never acceptable. C) generally acceptable when absolutely necessary for the research. D) acceptable only in nonhuman research.

C) generally acceptable when absolutely necessary for the research

In an experiment, a researcher manipulates one variable to see how it affects a second variable. The manipulated variable is called the: A) dependent variable. B) experimental variable. C) independent variable. D) placebo.

C) independent variable.

When you watch dogs play in the park or watch how your professors conduct their classes, you are engaging in a form of __________. A) case study research B) survey research C) naturalistic observation D) psychometric study

C) naturalistic observation

In an experiment to test the effects of anxiety on performance, the dependent variable is the __________. A) amount of anxiety B) age of the person C) person's performance D) cause of the anxiety

C) person's performance

Research in which a carefully selected group of people is asked a set of predetermined questions in interviews or through questionnaires is known as __________. A) correlational research B) case study research C) survey research D) experimental research

C) survey research

Cause-and-effect conclusions can be drawn from the results of an experiment because: A) it is almost always performed in a laboratory setting. B) statistical analysis can be applied to data from an experiment. C) the independent variable is manipulated while other possible causes of change in the dependent variable are held constant. D) several groups of subjects, not just one sample, are typically investigated in a laboratory experiment.

C) the independent variable is manipulated while other possible causes of change in the dependent variable are held constant.

A correlation of .00 means: A) you made a mistake in calculation. B) you did not find out anything about the relationship between the two variables. C) the two variables are unrelated. D) everyone who scored low on one variable scored high on the other variable, and vice versa.

C) the two variables are unrelated.

In research, the object, concept, or event being measured is called a ____________. A) data unit B) population C) variable D) sample

C) variable

_______________ are a set of techniques used to organize, summarize, and interpret data. A) Central tendencies B) Inferential statistics C) Distributions D) Descriptive statistics

D) Descriptive statistics

Confidentiality requires researchers to do which of the following? A) Provide complete anonymity when collecting data. B) Erase all confidential data as soon as the results of the study are published. C) Use a double-blind procedure. D) Remove any specific information that can be connected with a participant when sharing data.

D) Remove any specific information that can be connected with a participant when sharing data.

A subset of cases selected from a larger population is a __________. A) control group B) target group C) treatment group D) sample

D) Sample

The most important factor to ensure that one's results apply to other people in other settings is to use A) a convenience sample. B) extremely small sample sizes. C) random assignment. D) a random sample.

D) a random sample.

One of the main reasons for using a laboratory for psychological research is to: A) prevent subjects from escaping. B) study behavior in a natural setting. C) do large-scale studies. D) allow the researchers to control certain factors.

D) allow the researchers to control certain factors.

Claiming that something is true because 'it should be obvious" is really just _____. A) anecdotal evidence D) an appeal to common sense C) an appeal to authority D) generalizability

D) an appeal to common sense

Support for a claim that is based on a story about an individual or event is called ___________ evidence. A) anecdotal B) narrative C) objective D) authoritative

D) authoritative

In a controlled experiment, the group not subjected to a change in the independent variable, and used for comparison with the group receiving the experimental change, is the __________ group. A) independent B) experimental C) dependent D) control

D) control

In an experiment, the group of subjects to which the experimental group is compared is called the: A) comparison group. B) standard group. C) confederate group. D) control group.

D) control group.

An experiment is said to be __________ when neither researchers nor participants are aware of who is in the experimental or control group. A) single-blind B) unfalsifiable C) a placebo D) double-blind

D) double-blind

To obtain objective information, researchers sometimes must deceive their subjects. Ethically, research involving deception must always _________. A) pay participants B) maintain subject anonymity C) use double-blind control D) explain the deception to the subjects after the data are collected and obtain their informed consent to use the information obtained

D) explain the deception to the subjects after the data are collected and obtain their informed consent to use the information obtained

The degree to which one set of results can be applied to other situations, individuals, or events is called __________. A) objectivity B) reliability C) validity D) generalizability

D) generalizability

A psychologist uses the correlational method to _________. A) explain the effects of one variable on another B) compare two groups of subjects C) determine what causes a variable to change D) identify relationships between variables

D) identify relationships between variables

The __________ variable is what the experimenter manipulates (or varies). A) control B) dependent C) operational D) independent

D) independent

The group that receives the manipulation of an independent variable is called the _______________. A) control group B) dependent group C) experimental group. D) independent group

D) independent group

The purpose of an experiment is to discover whether there is a relationship between the ___________ and the ___________. A) independent variable; control variable B) dependent variable; control variable C) control group; experimental group D) independent variable; dependent variable

D) independent variable; dependent variable

Spurling et al. investigated the effects of two vocabulary learning strategies on word retention two weeks later. In this example, learning strategy is the ________ variable and word retention is the ________ variable. A) control; experimental B) dependent; independent C) experimental; control D) independent; dependent

D) independent; dependent

_______ research studies the same groups of participants over time. A) archival B) correlational C) cross-sectional D) longitudinal

D) longitudinal

Collecting objective data without interference in the subject's normal environment is associated with ________. A) survey research B) applied research C) laboratory research D) naturalistic observation

D) naturalistic observation

Collecting objective data without interference in the subject's normal environment is associated with: A) survey research. B) applied research. C) laboratory research. D) naturalistic observation.

D) naturalistic observation.

The term statistical significance implies that the results are ________________. A) important B) extremely meaningful C) valid D) not likely due to chance

D) not likely due to chance

As children grow older, their discretionary income usually increases. The best conclusion to draw about the variables age and income are that they are: A) causally related B) uncorrelated C) negatively correlated D) positively correlated

D) positively correlated

Which of the following aspects is critical the experimental but not correlational design? A) the ability to test predictions. B) the use of variables. C) the use of operational definitions. D) random assignment.

D) random assignment.

A graph that can be used to represent the pattern of relationship between scores from two variables is called a ____________. A) bar graph B) frequency polygon C) histogram D) scatterplot

D) scatterplot

Claims based on common sense: A) should be considered true. B) should be considered false. C) may be true, but cannot be evaluated by this standard alone. D) should be considered true, but only if offered by an expert in the subject.

D) should be considered true, but only if offered by an expert in the subject.

What is a limitation that affects the generalizability of research results? A) control groups B) operational definitions C) random assignment D) small sample size

D) small sample size

The _____ is a measure of variability around the mean of a distribution. A) mean B) median C) mode D) standard deviation

D) standard deviation