Psychology of Adulthood & Aging Unit One

Cataract

clouding or opacity in the lens

Psychological perspective

cognition, emotions, personality

Cross-Sectional Design

cohort by time of measurement

Most Efficient Design

combining data from all three provides estimates of the effects of age, cohort, and time of measurement

Glaucoma

conditions causing blindness due to changes in pressure within the eyeball

Primary, Secondary, Tertiary & Optimal Aging

primary aging - normal age related changes secondary aging - disease related impairments tertiary aging - rapid decline shortly before death optimal aging - changes that improve the individuals functioning

Autoimmune Theory

proposes that aging is due to faulty immune system functioning in which the immune system attacks the bodys own cells

Error & Error Catastrophe Theory

proposes that mutations in mir=tochondrial DNA cause irreversible damage that accumlates over time.

Experimental & Quasi-Experimental Design

quasi experimental design - studies on aging are never true experiments because age cant be manipulated.

Nonnormative Influences

random, idiosyncratic events that occur throughout life

Plasticity & Reciprocity in Development

reciprocity principle - people influence and are influenced by the events in their lives. not only are you shaped by your experiences, but you in turn shape many of the experiences that affect you plasticity ***

Immune Senescence

refers to the widespread age-related declines in immune system functioning. T Cells & B Cells destroy bodily invaders known as Antigens. As we age, these cells fail to develop properly and lose their ability to protect us from infections.

Structural Equation Modeling

test paths involving latent variables as well as measured variables. circles are latent variables, squares are varibales that were measured.

Piaget's Cognitive-Developmental Theory

the balance remains stable until the person encounters an object that doesnt fit this new schema. children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world

Survivor Principle

The people who live to old age are the ones who managed to outlive the many threats that could have caused their deaths at earlier ages. survivors are those that are ore likelyy to take car of their heath and not engage in risky behaviors or use drugs/alcohol excessively.

Plasticity

Theory that neurons can remain alive and take over the functioning of those that die

Neuronal Fallout

Theory that we progressively lose brain tissue over the lifespan because neurons do not have the ability to replace themselves when they die

Descriptive Research Design

age, cohort, and time of measurement longitudinal designs cross sectional designs

Multiple Jeopardy Hypothesis

ageism is another 'ism' - multiple minority identities

Normative Age-Graded Influences

ages expected to be associated with certain life events

Modernization Hypothesis

industrialization led older adults to become obsolete

Erikson's 8 Stages

infant - trust vs mistrust toddler - autonomy vs shame & doubt pre schooler - initiative vs guilt grade schooler - industry vs inferiority teenager - identity vs role confusion young adult - intimacy vs isolation middle age adult - generativity vs stagnation older adult - integrity vs despair

Inter- and Intra-Individual Differences

interindividual differences - between people intraindividual differences - variations in performance within the same individual

Menopause

is technically the end of menstruation

Perimenopause

is the period preceding menopause. throughout this period, estrogen graduallyy decreases as does progesterone. anteriod pituitary sends out FSH and LH to compensate. hypothalamus sends out less gonadotrophin-releasing factor. bones, cardiovascular disease, blood pressure, and memory may be affected by estrogen decreases.

Lab, Qualitative, Archival, & Survey Studies

lab studies - participants tested in systematics fashion using standardized procedures often involving some type of task qualitative studies - explores complex relationships in situations that don't lend themselves to restrictions and assumptions of quantitative methods archival research - use existing resources containing data relevant to a question surveys - gain information about a sample that can be generalized to a larger population typically through short answer or multiple choice questions

Life Expectancy, Life Span, Health Expectancy

life expectancy - average length of life for people born in a particular time interval life span - maximum age for a given species health expectancy - number of years a person can life in good heath

Multiple Threshold Model

changes occur in graduated way over time

Longitudinal & Prospective Studies

longitudinal - study of changes across ages in one cohort at a time cross sectional - study of cohort deifferences at one time of measurement

4 Principles of Adult Dev & Aging

1. Changes are contiuous over the lifespan (individuals remain the 'same' even though they change) 2. Only the survivors grow old (aging indiciduals are increasingly self-selected) 3. Individuality matters (people vary within and between age groups) 4. Normal aging is different from disease (intrinsic aing processes are different from those associated with illness)

Smell & Taste

1/3 of 65+ suffer from olfactory impairment; by 80 almost 1/2 have no ability to smell Caused by intrinsic changes as well as disease, injury and exposure to toxins Cigarettes and dentures play important role Cognitive changes associated with loss of smell sensitivity

Prefrontal Cortex

Area involved in planning and encoding information in long-term memory (along with temporal cortex) Normal aging has major effects on this area

Hippocampus

Area responsible for consolidating memories and for spatial navigation Becomes smaller with increasing age, though plasticity is possible

Individuality

As people age, the become more different from each other. This divergence occurs in peoples physical functioning, psychological performance, relationships, interest in work, economic security, and personality.

Random Error Theories

Based on the assumption that aging reflects unplanned changes in an organism over time.

Inter individual differences

Between 2+ people

Biopsychosocial Perspective

Biological - physiological factors and genetics psychological - cognition, emotions, personality sociocultural - social context, history, culture context, history, culture

Bone Remodeling & Loss of Bone Mineral Content

Bone remodeling: old cells are destroyed and replaces by new cells. General pattern of bone development in adulthood involves an increase in the rate of bone destruction compared to renewal and greater porosity of the calcium matrix, leading to loss of bone mineral content. As people experience decreases in sex hormones, they also lose bone mineral content. Estimates of the decrease in bone mineral content over adulthood are about .5% per year for men and 1% per year for women

Case Reports, Focus Groups, Diary, and Observation

Case reports - In-depth analysis of particular individuals. Focus groups - Meeting of respondents asked to provide feedback about a certain topic of interest. Daily diary - Participants enter data on a daily basis such as personal ratings or activities. Observational method - Researchers draw conclusions about behavior through careful and systematic examination in particular settings.

Endocrine System & Hormones

Endocrine system: large and diverse set of glands that regulate the actions of the body's organ systems. Hormones: the chemical messengers produced by the endocrine systems.

Epidemiology, Prevalence & Incidence Statistics

Epidemiological studies - Study frequency of particular diseases in the population. ***

Sleep & Sleep Apnea

Everyone requires 7-9 hrs of sleep a night Midlife adults with sleep problems often are under stress Physical conditions also play a role including obesity, activity and alcohol use Older adults have more disrupted sleep due to more frequent awakenings and less efficient sleep patterns Medical illness can disrupt sleep including those involving joint pain, cancer, lung disease, heart disease, digestive disturbance, depression, anxiety, and bereavement Sleep apnea interrupts sleep, a condition found more often in older adults with certain illnesses

Growth Hormone & Somatopause of Aging

GH: stimulates the growth of bones and muscles and regulates the growth of most internal organs. Throughout life, affects the metabolism of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Somatopause: decline in activity, thought to account for a number of age-related changes in body composition across adult-hood, including loss of bone mineral content, increases in fat, and decrease in muscle mass as well as losses in strength, exercise tolerance, and quality of life in general.

Hypothalamus-Releasing Factors

HRFs are produced by hypothalamus partially regulates secretion of hormones produced by anterior pituitary

Independent vs. Dependent Variable

independent variable - in an experimental study, the factor that the experimental manipulates dependent variable - in an experimental study, the factor that the experimenter observes

Dysthermia, Hypothermia, & Hyperthermia

Hypothermia: body loses heat faster than it can produce heat, causing dangerously low body temperature Hyperthermia: elevated body temp due to body producing or absorbing more heat than it can get rid of, causing dangerously high body temperature Older adults are less able to adjust their internal body temperature to outside conditions.

Touch

Loss of ability to discriminate touch perhaps as high as 1% per year Hands and feet more affected than lip and tongue Practical consequences include loss of ability to grasp, maintain balance, perform delicate handiwork and speak.

Balance, Vertigo & Fear of Falling

Loss of balance is one of main factors responsible for falls which, in turn, can lead to institutionalization and death Previous falls also increase risk of later falls Falls can create a fear of falling which in turn increases the risk even more Further exacerbated by dizziness and vertigo

Sarcopenia

Loss of muscle mass and strength associated with aging.

Pain changes

Lower back pain is chronic problem for as many as 12% of older adults Pain can interfere with cognitive performance & increases risk of falling Current older adults may be more stoic, suffering in silence Pain is associated with obesity Preferable to use non-medicinal methods to control pain which carry no risk of abuse

Meta-Analysis

Meta-analysis - Statistical procedure to combine findings from independently conducted studies.

Wear & Tear Theory

Referred to when people say they feel that they are "falling apart" as they get older.

White Matter Hyperintensities

Researchers are not entirely clear what they represent but these may be due to white matter deterioration Interfere with the integrity of white matter, resulting in disruptions of cognitive functioning

Selective Attrition & Terminal Drop/Decline

Selective attrition: the fact that the people who drop out of a longitudinal study are not necessarily representative of the sample that was originally tested. Terminal decline: individuals gradually lose their cognitive abilities as they draw closer to death.

Continuity Principle

The changes that people experience in later adulthood build on the experiences they had in their earlier years. Meaning we can never isolate the later year sof life without considering the years preceding them. Cumulative.

Replicative Senescence

The loss of the ability of cells to reproduce

Aging in the US & Around the Globe

The older population is increasing. In 40 years there will be 3times as many older people on earth

Self-Efficacy

Used in the social psychological literature to refer to a person's feelings of competence at a particular task

Intra individual

Variations in performance wishing the same individual

Caloric Restriction Hypothesis

View they key to prolonging life is to restrict caloric intake. Thought to have beneficial impact in part because it reduces the formation of free radicals.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)

a single base change in a DNA sequence that occurs in a significant proportion (more than 1%) of a large population. The single base is replaced by any of the other three bases. TAGC becomes TACC.

Whitehall II

a survery of a large sample of british adults focusing on the relationships among health, social class, and occupation. investigated influence of social class on heath. lower emplyment grade jobs ad lower physical functioning scores.

Tinnitus

a symptom in which the individual perceives no soounds in the head or ear (such as ringing) when there is no external source

Activity, Disengagement, & Continuity Theory

activity theory - older adults are better adjusted when they remain involved in their social roles disengagement theory - the normal course of life is for older adults to loosen their social ties continuity theory - the individual's personality determines whether activity or disengagement is optimal

Age, Cohort, & Time of Measurement

age - how many years/months the person has lived. measures change within the individual cohort - year/period of a persons birth. measures influences relative to history at time of birth time of measurement - year or period in which a person is tested. current influences on individuals being tested

Andropause

age related declines in testosterone (loss of about 1% per year starting at age 40). lower testosterone levels more likely in men who are diabetic or obese. testosterone supplements are becoming more common promoting these bodily functions. ED - use viagra or exercise

Cortisol & Glucocorticoid Cascade Hypothesis

aging causes dangeroud increases in cortisol which is produced by adrenal gland, this in turn accelerates loss of neurons in the hippocampus. however -- longitudinal studies suggest instead that weight loss, not age, increases risks for higher cortisol levels.

Antioxidants

can fend off free radicals

Multivariate Correlational Designs

can make up for shortcoings of simple correlational designs control for confounds other than age - other variables can be added into analysis that the research suspects may be linked with age allow investigations of causality - paths can actually be drawn from one variable to another, and their significance tested provide ways to examine change over time - can use statistical methods that model changes in growth

Confidentiality, Informed Consent, & Debriefing

confidentiality - participant will not be identifiable in published reports and data will be securely stored informed consent - awareness of study procedures, risks, and benefits debriefing - information at study's completion about its true purpose

Thyroid Hormones & Basal Metabolic Rate

control basal metabolic rate (BMR) BMR slows in middle age partly due to decreases in thyroid hormones subclinical hypothyroidism may affect 15-18% of 60+

Age-Related Macular Degeneration

damage to the photoreceptors located in the central region of the retina (macula), resulting in blindness

Respiratory System

decreased ability of lungs to expand and contract***

Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Perspective

development is affected by processes at multiple levels (individual - microsystem - mesosystem - exosystem - macrosystem - chronosystem) (circles within circles chart)

Multidirectionality

dimensions and specific components of dimensions grow and shrink during different points in a person's development.

Telomere Theory

each cell replication reduces the lenth of telomeres until the chromosome's tips are no longer protected.

Life Span Perspective

emphasizes continuity of deveolpment from childhood to old age

Erikson's Psychosocial Theory of Development

epigenetic principle - each stage unfolds from the previous state in predestined order, but individuals may confront psychosocial issues in an off-time fashion

Normative History-Graded Influences

events that occur to everyone in a certain time period

Ageism

form of stereotyping based on age that can have many negative consequences

Functional, biological, psychological & social age

functional - how people actually perform biological - heart rate, blood pressure, glucose levels, muscle and bone strength psychological - reaction time, learning ability, memory, intelligence social age - parental, grandparental status, work role, retirement status

Programmed Aging Theories

gompertz curve, there is an age that each species is supposed to live to.

Difference between Normal Aging & Disease

growing older doesnt necesarily mean growing sicker. people need to distinguish between normal aging and disease and be able to treat disease in older people rather than dismiss it as just 'getting older'

Identity Assimilation, Accommodation & Balance

identity assimilation - unhealthy denial, healthy denial identity accommodation - over the hill syndrome, compulsive illness behavior(tends to have more negative effects than other two) identity balance - gradual integration, appropriate adaptation

Presbyopia

loss of ability to focus on near objects

Presbycusis

loss of ability to hear high pitched tones

Melatonin & Circadian Rhythm

melatonin is manufactured by the pineal gland, it controls circadian rhythm

Life Course Perspective

norms, roles, and attitudes about age help to shape the person's life

Incontinence & Overactive Bladder

not a normal part of aging, kegals can help avoid this. smoking makes this worse. behavioral methods and/or medications can help.

Hormone Replacement Therapy

not clear if this is safe, use is controversial. instead; exercise, quit smoking, lower cholesterol, have only 1 alcoholic drink a day.

Age-as-Leveler View

older adults become regarded as targets regardless or prior status

Selective Optimization with Compensation Model

older adults make conscious decisions regarding how to spend their time and effort in the face of losses in physical and cognitive resources. choose areas of focus - maximize performance in these areas - make up for losses in one are with gains in others

Inoculation Hypothesis

older adults, especially women and mintorities, become more immune to ageism

Niche-Picking

one type of interactive effect ***

Organismic, Mechanistic, & Interactionist Models

organismic - qualitative - active - biological (intrinsic) mechanistic - quantitative - passive - external (environmental) interacctionist - multidirectional/multidimensional - active - reciprocal

Baby Boomers

people born in the post WWII years of 1946-1964

Personal & Social Aging

personal aging - changes that occur within the individual, reflecting time's effects on the body social aging - effects of person's exposure to a changing environment

Biological perspective

physiological factors and genetics

Genome-Wide Association Study

researchers scan the entire genome of a large number of people

Genome-Wide Linkage Study

researchers study genomes of families with specific traits or disorders

Schemas, Assimilation, Accommodation, & Equilibrium

schemas - mental structures we use to organize the world assimilation - fit a new experience into an existing category accommodation - change a schema in response to new information equilibration - balanced state between assimilation and accommodation

Brain Scans

see chart for what the scans use and what it shows of the brain

Terror Management Theory

seeing older adults remind us of our mortality

Social Clock

sets age norms and expectations (ex; people expect you to graduate at a certain age, marry and have kids.)

Correlational Designs (+ & - correlations)

shows extent of relationship between two variables. can be negative or positive. strength is indicated by how close to +/- 1. cannot detect causality. correlation does not equal causation.

Urinary System

slower excretion rates ***

Sociocultural perspective

social context, history, culture

Compression of Morbidity

the illness burden to a society can be reduced if people become disabled closer to the time of their death

Geriatrics

the medical specialty in which aging is the main focus

Androgenetic Alopecia

the most common form of pattern hair loss in men and women as they age

Gerontology

the scientific study of the aging process (biology, medicine, nursing, sociology, history, and even the arts and literature)

Cross-Linking Theory

the strands of collagen molecule start to become intertwined, causing the molecules to become increasingly more rigid and smaller. results from exposure to certain kinds of sugars which leads to glycation, causing formation of advanced glycation end-products.

Time-Sequential, Cohort-Sequential, & Cross- Sequential Designs

time sequential - age by time of measurement cohort sequential - age by cohort cross sequential - cohort by time of measurement

Free Radical Theory

unstable oxygen molecules produced when cells create energy. they seek out and bind to other molecules. the attacked molecule then loses its functioning. immune cells will release them in order to fight off invading viruses and bacteria. antioxidants (found in plants) can fend them off.

Reliability & Validity

validity - content, criterion, construct reliability - consistency, test - retest

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) & Adrenopause

weak steriod, the most abundant steriod in the body. precursor to testosterone and estrogen production. production decreases with age, called adrenopause. it is not clear is replacement therapy is safe, exercise is a less risky way to deal.

Cardiovascular System

with age, decrease in aerobic capacity of 1% per year

Gender, Sex, Race, Ethnicity, SES, Religion

women typically live longer certain religions live longer because of rules for that religion; avoiding alcohol for example lower SES have shorter lives

Various age groups or divisions

young-old: 65-74 old-old: 75-84 oldest-old: 85+ centenarians: 100-109 super-centenarians: 110+