Psychology of Prejudice Final Exam

Name one positive and one negative subtype of older adults. Name two traits that are representative of each subtype.

-Curmudgeon or Shrew Stubborn, complaining, bitter, demanding, inflexible, nosy, miserly, inflexible, jealous of the young -Despondent Tired, lonely, depressed, neglected, sad, frustrated, arouses pity -Vulnerable Afraid, worried, poor driver, afraid of crime, victims of crime, sedentary, hypochondriac, quiet -Severely Impaired Senile, incompetent, feeble, physically handicapped, slow-thinking, slow-moving -Golden Ager Active, adventurous, alert, capable, healthy, lively, sociable, independent, capable, productive, healthy, sexual -Perfect Grandparent Intelligent, knowledgeable, wise, kind, loving, supportive, generous, family-oriented, likes to be around young -John Wayne Conservative Patriotic, political, old-fashioned, nostalgic, religious, conservative, doesn't like handouts -Sage Intelligent, interesting, wise, very knowledgeable, loving, concerned about the future, tells stories of the past

According to the gender belief system model, why do men reject homosexuality more than women do?

-Men show greater intolerance for gay men than for lesbians. -Men and women hold similar attitudes toward lesbians. -Men were more negative than women toward homosexual behavior, even though men hold more permissive attitudes toward sexuality in general. -Men and women don't differ overall in attitudes toward gay people's civil rights, but sex differences do emerge on gender-related issues, such as gays serving in the military.

Describe one form of discrimination experienced by people with mental illness.

-When mental illness is thought to be controllable, perceivers are more likely to: Avoid a person with mental illness Withhold help Endorse coercive treatment -Perceived danger also influences attitudes toward people with mental illness: Avoidance of mentally ill who are dangerous Acceptance of coercive treatment for mentally ill who are dangerous

Explain the concept of ambivalent racism. According to the theory of ambivalent racism, how do majority group members' values affect how they respond to minority group members?

-amaericans generally accept racial equality, yet lingering negati9ve attitudes still... both positive and negative -both deviant and good qualities to black ppl -emphasize both egalitarian and individualism

Distinguish among blatant, subtle, and covert discrimination and give an example of each.

-blatant disrimination- harmful, unequal, intentional and visible (jim crow laws) -subtle- unequal, harmful, less visible ...often unintentional but not always.. natural order of things ... active: min students suspended at higher rates... passive; giving min less challenging work -covert- unequal, harmful, hidden, purposeful, maliciously motivated.. secret.... ensure failure....tokenism (telling minority renters place is no longer available)

Define aversive racism. Describe one way it is similar to and one way it differs from modern-symbolic prejudice. What are the two incompatible values that underlie aversive racism? How are aversive racists likely to behave when interacting with Blacks?

-commited to egalitarianism, because of socialization they have neg attitudes toward minorities similar: believe in equal opportunity yet still have implicit attitudes diff: aversive believe in social programs and reject traditional radicalized beliefs *feel uncomfortable and try to disengage , strictly adhere to politeness when forced to hang out with minorities

Define motivation to control prejudice. Distinguish between internal and external motivation to control prejudice. Describe one way in which each type of motivation influences behavior.

-everyone is prejudice, restrain it because of egalitarian views -internal: persoanl belief that prejudice is wrong- cuz of egalitarian view... lowers stereotype activation -external: result of social pressure....defensive lower prejudice... threatened by outgrips

Explain the concept of response amplification. What motivates it? Give an example of a situation in which response amplification could result in a problematic outcome.

-extreme behavior toward a stigmatized person -amplifying fact that black student did equally as good as white one.. leads to distrust -amplify in order to contradict the negative part of their ambivalent attitude

Briefly describe Piaget's theory of prejudice development, the three stages of Aboud's theory of the development of racial attitudes, and the three stages of the developmental intergroup theory of prejudice.

-first to address prejudice in children -piaget... based on age groups pre operational - child self-centered, don't notice diff so not prejudice concrete operational - begin to focus on own social group, difficulty understanding prospect of outgrip formal operational - self-focus continues to decline distinguish between other social groups -Aboud not based on age groups young children fearful of anyone unfamiliar- prejudice expressed as fear rather than anger or hostility develop understanding of social categories initially focusing on differences- us vs them view on groups, become aware of intergroup similarities, reduction in prejudice might occur conceptual understanding, categorization occurs on internal categories, ethnicity seen as permanent, individuate others rather than group, reduce prejudice Bandar social learning theory 1. direct teaching- imdivid rewarding fro behaving certain way 2. observational learning- imitating attitudes or beliefs / media. parents. siblings 3. vicarious learning- observing someone else being rewarded for behavior -parents, peers, media

What is attitude-behavior correspondence? List three factors that increase or decrease attitude-behavior correspondence. State whether each factor strengthens or weakens the relationship between attitudes and behavior.

-how well an attitude matches behavior it is supposed to be associated with -high degree correspondance- high correlation between attitude and bahvior. Affect relationship between prejudice and discrimi9nation perceived social support - if people go along with it personal stereotype- more likely to discriminate if goes along with outgrip stereotype attitude-behavior correspondence

Describe the principles of the instrumental model of intergroup competition. Why is it called "instrumental"? As part of your response, describe one situational factor that can contribute to perceptions of intergroup competition and describe the role that social ideologies play in increasing perceptions of intergroup competition.

-majority groups use prejudice and discrimination as tool to reduce competition -instrumental= tool prejudice and disc are ways to reduce comp. -belief in anti-white discrimination correlates with increasing economic and political power among blacks

Define microaggressions. Would you consider microaggressions to be a form of blatant, subtle, or covert discrimination? Explain why microaggressions fit into the category you chose and why they do not fit into the other categories.

-microaggressions: small scale, very day verbal or nonverbal behavior demeans other social groups and their members (I dont think of you as black, you are just a normal person) -form of subtle -normal or natural way of things

Define the concept of social identity. Describe the categorization-competition and self-esteem hypotheses.

-part of one's self concept based on important group memberships -nation, family, college -motivated to create positive social identity -categorization-competition: ppl perceive outgrip members as similar and in-group members as individual and this creates a perception that they are vastly different when they aren't... results in us vs them competition -self-esteem: having high social identity leads to high self-esteem, when group we identify with does well, we feel good about ourselves

What is the sexual orientation hypothesis? Describe the attitudes of heterosexual men and women towards gay men and lesbians - how are they similar and how do they differ?

-prediction that ppl more likely to believe fem men are gay than to believe masculine women are lesbos -gay men more close to women than heterosexual men -gay women are more close to men than heterosexual woman, yet stronger to gay men more accepting : females, educated, younger, not conservative , less authoritarian less accepting; male, blue traditional gender roles, conservative towards sex, caused by social factors rather than biological , religious

Describe the basic principles of the realistic conflict theory of prejudice. As part of your answer, describe the Robber's Cave Experiment and explain how it's findings support realistic conflict theory.

-prejudice occurs when there is perceived or actual competition between groups for limited resources -boys attending summer camp eventuallyy became hostile with each other

Describe two ways in which researchers assess children's explicit awareness of social categories. For which categories does explicit awareness develop earliest? For which does it develop latest?

-show pictures ask them to label them by male female -given set of photos, asked to group ones alike -white/ black dolls presented, ask which is white and which is black child gender first -physical characteristics then race last -unobservable such as religion

Describe the patterns of development of anti-gay prejudice in boys and girls. Describe one explanation for why these patterns differ. Describe the difference in anti-gay prejudice between majority and minority adolescents.

-tend to believe homosexuality is wrong -more tolerant than adults, more comfortable around them -young men tend to be more prejudice towards gay men than girls cuz they value masculinity over fem. and this threatens their masculinity -no gender diff for lesbians -minorities are more prejudice toward gay ppl cuz of cultural differences

Describe the extended contact effect. How effective is it in reducing prejudice?

Extended Contact Having an ingroup friend who has outgroup friend(s) is associated with lower prejudice. WHY? Reduces intergroup anxiety Cognitive dissonance Demonstrates intergroup relationships are permissible Shows outgroup members are open to such relationships

Name and define two goals that facilitate or inhibit stereotype activation.

1. Comprehension goals Need to form accurate impressions of others and understand why events happen 2.Self-enhancement goals Need to see oneself in a positive light 3.Social adjustment goals People automatically or consciously alter behavior to fit situations and adhere to norms 4. Motivation to control prejudice Desire to avoid acting prejudiced because of -Values -Concern others will see them as prejudiced

List two factors that motivate people to make accurate judgments about others rather than rely on stereotypes.

1. Comprehension goals We are generally motivated to form accurate impressions of the people we are interacting with. WHY? Facilitates effective interaction - avoid problematic behaviors In such situations, we seek individuating information 2. Cognitive Styles: Individual differences in people's motivation to acquire and use information Need for Cognition: Desire to think carefully about others Lows: Prefer to make judgments based on simple rules

Describe the 4 areas of discrimination against older adult: in the media, in the workplace, in communication with older adults, and healthcare. Give an example of each.

1. Media How many characters in TV programs are older adults? 14% of population over 50, but only 3% of characters on prime time TV are over 50 Appear relatively rarely in magazine advertisements Even in magazines written especially for older adults! Don't older adults buy things? Are generally portrayed positively in prime-time programming "golden agers" and "perfect grandparents" In news or documentaries, the focus is usually on negative events or problems 2. Workplace Discrimination The most common type of discrimination older people face Older workers who've lost a job have more difficulty securing a new one than younger workers Often take a greater earnings loss than younger workers in the same situation Rooted in inaccurate beliefs People over 55 are physical unable to do the job High rates of absenteeism Productivity declines with age How accurate are these beliefs? Overall, evidence has failed to support ANY of them 3. Communicating with Older Adults Do younger people communicate differently with older people than the way they do with other younger people? Often use patronizing speech Patronizing speech: change in conversational strategies to reflect age stereotypes: Speak VERY slowly or use simple speech Using a demeaning emotional tone - very bossy or overly familiar Keeping the conversation at a superficial level Elderspeak 4. Health Care for Older Adults One of the strongest stereotypes of older adults is that illness is normal and irreversible Health care providers are just as likely to hold these beliefs as are members of the general population Some studies show that physicians: discuss fewer medical and psychological issued with older patients provide better information and support to younger patients who treat older patients with chronic illnesses have more stereotypic beliefs about older people are less likely to pursue aggressive treatments for very old patients vs. very young patients although the risks are similar

Name and describe two processes that affect categorization.

1. Prototypicality: how well a person "fits" the observers concept of the essential features of a particular category 2. Situational Influence: Goals of interaction, especially accurate impression formation. Your new doctor is African-American, and you want him to help you get better. Do you categorize him as African-American or as a doctor? Social context: How are you likely to categorize a white man if he is in a group of women? How are you likely to categorize a white man if he in a group of black people? The category people attend to: People categorized an Asian woman in terms of gender when they saw her putting on make-up (Macrae et al,, 1995). They categorized her in terms of race when they saw her eating with chop sticks. 3. Level of Prejudice: Racially prejudiced people pay more attention to race than other categories (Fazio & Dunton, 1997). Racially prejudiced people appear especially motivated to accurately categorize people when encountering a person with ambiguous racial characteristics.

Explain the distinctions among stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination.

3 components of attitudes: Affective Information: or feelings toward members of a group- prejudice Behavioral Tendencies: or overt acts that treat individuals differently depending on their group membership- Discrimination Cognitive Information: or beliefs about characteristics of members of a group- stereotypes

Define ableism. Describe the characteristics of disabilities that influence how non-disabled people react to people with disabilities.

A prejudice against or disregard for the needs of persons with disabilities Is created by social, political, and environmental obstacles that turn impairments into disabilities Concealable (epilepsy vs. paraplegic) Aesthetically appealing (physical deformities) Controllable (mental illness, alcoholism?) Potentially dangerous (some forms of mental illness) people who are stigmatized the most are people with disabilities that are perceived as controllable

Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of implicit cognition measures relative to other types of measures.

Advantage: Low likelihood of social desirability response bias Limitation: Can only show that one concept is more positively evaluated than another We do NOT have separate scores for each group Do not show absolute levels of prejudice Someone might hold a neutral attitude toward white people and a negative attitude toward black people Or Someone might have a positive bias in favor of white people and hold a neutral attitude toward black people

Give a specific example of an implicit cognition measure.

Affective Priming Paradigm : Uses a prime - a stimulus (such as a picture of a person) associated with a stigmatized group which activates concepts associated with that category Example: Participants are shown a picture of a fat person That picture activates concepts associated with the category, e.g., lazy, and thus should make it easier to recognize the word lazy as negative when someone sees it. Dependent variable: Speed people recognize positive and negative words associated with the primes. Implicit Association Test (IAT): Assesses extent to which unassociated concepts make responding more difficult Uses Response Competition - two responses compete against one another A habitual response and an opposing response The stronger the habitual response, the longer it takes to suppress it and make the opposing response In prejudiced people, negative responses to a stigmatized group are more likely to be habitual and so take longer to suppress Affect Misattribution Procedure: A priming procedure Examines whether the affect (emotion) associated with a prime is transferred to a neutral stimulus Example: Payne et al., (2005) White participants were shown pictures of 12 white people and 12 black people in random order Each picture was followed by a Chinese character DV: Pleasantness rating of Chinese character Results: Participants made more "pleasant" ratings of Chinese characters following pictures of White people

What are implicit cognition measures?

Assess the degree to which concepts are associated with one another in memory Called "implicit" because they work without participants' awareness of what is being measured

What is cognitive busyness? Explain how it affects stereotype activation.

Cognitive Busyness Might stereotype activation be disrupted if working memory is already busy? Gilbert and Hixon (1991): White participants interacted with an Asian research assistant. Those who memorized an 8-digit number while watching a video were less likely to complete word fragments in a stereotypic way (RI_E completed as RICE) than white participants who were not "cognitively busy". Why did this occur? Apparently, stereotype-activation uses working memory, and when working memory is already in use, this leaves reduced capacity for stereotype activation.

Generally, people who are politically conservative score higher on measures of prejudice than people who are politically liberal. Describe one factor that researchers have studied that could explain that difference.

Controversial finding: Research has consistently found positive correlations between conservative political beliefs and prejudice Two possible reasons for correlation Political orientation is correlated with RWA and SDO Political orientation is correlated with value systems SDO and RWA Prejudice may be caused by SDO and RWA rather than a conservative belief system When RWA and SDO are controlled, political orientation has little relation to prejudice Therefore likely that conservatism does not cause prejudice Rather, prejudiced people may use the conservative belief system to justify their prejudices Explanation #1 Can the relationship be explained in terms of personal values? Conservatives tend to place more weight on individualism and less on egalitarianism than liberals Correlation between individualism and prejudice? When individualism is controlled, the correlation between conservatism and prejudice is much weaker Political conservatives who score high on egalitarianism score lower on prejudice Explanation #2 Attribution-value processes Conservatives are more likely than liberals to see people as responsible for their negative outcomes (internal attribution) e.g., unemployed people cannot find jobs because they are lazy Thus, conservatives may be more likely to be prejudiced because they perceive others as violating important values

Explain the relationship between self-esteem and ethnicity for at least two ethnic groups

Defensive detachment of self-esteem from outcomes in a particular domain Feelings of self-worth are not dependent on successes or failures in that domain Results in distancing of self from areas in which group expected to fail Example: Not caring about how you do in school because your racial / ethnic group is expected to fail

Describe social dominance orientation? What types of people are most like to score high on social dominance orientation? Name and define the two components of social dominance orientation. Give an example of a statement reflecting each of those components.

Desire for one's ingroup to dominate and be superior to outgroups Also the extent to which a person believes hierarchical relations are necessary and natural, and that some groups (usually their own!) ought to be more powerful and privileged. Two components 1. Group-based dominance Belief that one's group ought to be at the top of the social ladder 2. Opposition to equality Belief that groups on the bottom of the social ladder ought to stay there High SDO's are particularly likely to endorse racism, sexism, political conservatism, and hold negative stereotypes and prejudices against subordinate groups. WHY? SDO correlates negatively with support of gay and lesbian rights, affirmative action, interracial marriage, and social welfare programs (Pratto et al. 1994). Members of groups that hold more power in society exhibit higher SDO American Whites have higher SDO levels than American Blacks and Latinos Heterosexuals have higher SDO levels than gay men, lesbians, and bisexuals In a large sample of Los Angeles residents (N = 1, 897), men scored higher on SDO than women, regardless of their race, culture, or social class. People high in SDO justify their dominant position in society with legitimizing myths - Ideologies that justify the social hierarchy Ethnic prejudice Nationalism Cultural Elitism the belief that some groups in society are more "cultured" and more deserving of the "finer things in life". Sexism Political Conservatism - the belief that success is based on free enterpires and individual work ethic Stereotypes

Name and define two of the components of right-wing authoritarianism. Give an example of a statement reflecting each of those components. Describe how characteristics of people high in right-wing authoritarianism predispose them to prejudice.

Developed by Robert Altemeyer Avoids measurement problems of F-scale, psychodynamic theory, social ideology NOT personality type! Consists of three sets of attitudes Authoritarian submission - tendency to submit to those we perceive as legitimate authorities Authoritarian aggression - tendency to aggress against people condemned by legitimate authorities Conventionalism - tendency to adhere strongly to social conventions that are perceived as endorsed by legitimate authority figures Correlated with political conservatism, fundamentalist religious beliefs, sexism, heterosexism, proscribed prejudices, etc. Factors that might predispose high RWAs to prejudice: 1. Mental inflexibility Is this related to propensity to stereotype? Need for closure? 2. Disinterest in experiencing new things Related to how much information we seek, exposure to ideas that differ from our own? 3. Perception of the world as a dangerous place Does conforming and submitting to strong leaders help us feel secure? 4. Tendency to organize world in terms of ingroups and outgroups Focusing on how we differ rather than how we are similar?

What is the personal/group discrimination discrepancy? Describe one research result that supports the cognitive explanation for the personal/group discrimination discrepancy.

Disadvantaged group members are more likely to recognize higher levels of discrimination against their group in general than against themselves, personally as a member of that group Discrimination is directed toward "them, but not me" Observed within many different groups: Women in the U.S and Canada, Black and Asian university students in the U.S. and Canada, Canadian Immigrants, Lesbians and gay men Members of stigmatized groups want to distance themselves from negative attributes associated with their group (Hodson & Esses, 2002) women knew there was unequal pay but they didnt believe it was happening to them. just as happy with their job than the men were.

Define ingroup overexclusion and explain why people exhibit this bias.

Drawing a tight circle around ingroup to avoid treating outgroup members as if they are part of the ingroup "You're not a real American if you don't speak English" "Catholics are not Christians" Safer to misclassify ingroup members as outgroups rather than extend ingroup privileges to the "wrong" people Who's more likely to do this? Ethnocentric people More likely when there is competition for scarce resources (implications for immigrants?)

Describe the values of egalitarianism. Explain how each is related to prejudice.

Emphasizes equal opportunity and equal treatment How is egalitarianism related to prejudice? Egalitarian values are negatively correlated with prejudice People scoring high on egalitarianism tend to show less prejudice toward African Americans, lesbians and gay men, and overweight people (Biernat et al., 1996). Egalitarianism appears to inhibit prejudice by preventing activation of negative stereotypes

Describe the values of individualism. Explain how each is related to prejudice.

Emphasizes self-reliance and independence from others Related to Protestant work ethic Emphasizes importance of hard work as the way to success in life "Idle hands are the devil's workshop" (Proverbs 16:27) Groups stereotyped as violating principles of individualism are viewed negatively by those who place high value on its principles People scoring high on PWE hold negative attitudes toward the poor, African-Americans, and the overweight (Rosenthal et al, 2011)

Distinguish between stereotype activation and stereotype application.

Extent to which I am aware of the stereotype (it is accessible) while interacting with a stereotyped group member vs. Extent to which one uses a stereotype to judge a member of the stereotyped group

Describe the common ingroup identity model of intergroup contact.

Gaertner et al. (1993): contact will be effective when members' perceptions of two separate groups ("us" and "them") become one inclusive category ("we"). Achieving common goals ("we defeated the enemy", "we won the game") involve recategorizing two separate groups into a single group identity. This exploits the ingroup bias effect We tend to automatically like fellow ingroup members Much research - both laboratory and field -supporting the model

Describe the intergroup contact theory of prejudice reduction.

Gordon Allport (1954, p. 265) cites the parable on the previous slide to illustrate the popular belief that prejudice grows out of ignorance. If we only knew outgroup members as individuals, we would be less prejudiced against them. Of course Allport knew that contact alone isn't sufficient to promote positive intergroup relations. must be: 1. Equal status between groups 2. Cooperation in achieving common goals 3. Acquaintance potential 4. Institutional support

Define and distinguish between benevolent and hostile sexism. Do these concepts help explain the existence of the affection-discrimination paradox? Explain.

Hostile: hold sexist views negative ones and overtly discriminate against them... hate nontraditional women Benevolent: place women in stereotypical and restricted roles yet on surface they appear to be positive toward them, reward traditional women affection is benevolent disarm is hostility.... both lock women into limited roles

What does "imagined intergroup contact" mean? How effective is it in reducing prejudice?

Imagined Contact Mentally practicing a "positive, relaxed, and comfortable" first meeting with an outgroup member Reduces negative intergroup emotions and physiological arousal Increases perspective taking Not as effective as face-to-face contact

Describe the multicultural perspective on intergroup relations.

In contrast to the color-blind perspective, the multicultural perspective holds that "race and ethnic- ity should be given attention (rather than ignored) because prejudice develops in part from a lack of knowledge of and respect for other groups" (Rosenthal & Levy, 2010, p. 220). Thus, "rather than trying to eclipse ethnic identities, multiculturalism aims to preserve their integrity while encouraging ethnic groups to interact and coexist harmoniously" (Hornsey & Hogg, 2000, p. 145) and come to appreciate and value one another as a result of positive intergroup contact. This viewpoint is the one that multi- cultural education (see Chapter 7) attempts to instill. As we noted in our discussion of those programs, one premise of multicultural education is that an understanding and appreciation of other groups' cul- tures reduces intergroup anxiety and so reduces prejudice. In survey research, people's endorsement of the multicultural perspective is assessed by agreement with statements such as "There are differences between racial and ethnic groups which are important to recognize" and "Each racial and ethnic group has its own strengths that can be identified" (Rosenthal & Levy, 2012, p. 16). Attributing outcome disparities to "deficiencies" in minority group culture e.g., "Latinos don't value education as much as other ethnic groups" Can be used as a moral credential to dismiss allegations of prejudice "I'm not prejudiced - I attended my company's Cinco de Mayo party and I have 2 Latino friends!

Distinguish between incidental and integral emotions. How is each related to stereotyping or prejudice?

Incidental Emotion - the mood you just happen to be in Do people in a happy mood stereotype less than people in a sad or neutral mood? No, they are MORE likely to stereotype! WHY? If "everything is fine" there's little need to carefully analyze the environment! Are angry people more likely to stereotype? Yes! This also includes people who people who are anxious or feel disgusted. WHY? "Hot" emotions (i.e., physiologically arousing) cause us to focus on our emotional state, which distracts us from environmental factors such as individuating information. Integral Emotions are aroused when people think about or interact with social groups Two models of how integral emotions arise and affect behavior Stereotype Content Model Threat Model

Name two stereotypes of older adults.

Intolerance of others -Grouchy, critical, upset easily, rigid, miserly Health and physical appearance -Health problems, hard of hearing, poor hygiene, slow activity Personality traits -Old-fashioned, set in their ways, meddlesome, live in the past -Give good advice, experienced, good companions Dejected -Lonely, insecure, complain a lot, poor, unhappy, hopeless Activity & sociability -Pessimistic, physically inactive -Have lots of friends, have hobbies

Distinguish among intrinsic, extrinsic, and quest religious orientations. How is each related to prejudice?

Intrinsically Religious -People truly believe in religion's teachings and try to live by them -Very small negative correlation with proscribed prejudices -Moderate positive correlation with permitted prejudices Extrinsically Religious - viewing religious worship as an opportunity for social support or achieving status (i.e., non religious goals) -Very small negative correlation with proscribed prejudices -Moderate positive correlation with permitted prejudices quest: Viewing religion as a quest for answers, accepting that one may never know the final truth about such matters. Quest-oriented people express less prejudice both in self-reports and actual behavior. Small negative correlation with permitted prejudices (self-report & actual behavior) Moderate NEGATIVE correlation with proscribed prejudices (self-report & actual behavior) -They do show prejudice against people who do not share their open-minded approach to religion (e.g., fundamentalists)

Explain how the attribution-value model of prejudice accounts for anti-fat attitudes. Describe two forms of discrimination experienced by fat people. Describe the mental health consequences of weight-based stigma.

Less likely to be hired Once hired, are less likely to be promoted Heavy students, especially females, are less likely to attend college Heavy weight daughters are less likely to receive financial support from their parents for their college education (Crandall, 1995) Attribution-value model or modern-symbolic prejudice theory: -Both theories propose that prejudice is directed toward social groups that have characteristics seen as contrary to majority group values -Fat people stereotyped as lazy and lacing willpower and thus responsible for their undesirable characteristics. -Thus fat people are perceived as violators of the Protestant work ethic (or individualism). -Because people believe being fat is a choice, they derogate the overweight Obese people: More likely to experience depression More likely to have low self-esteem Obese people who internalize anti-fat bias: LESS likely to diet More likely to binge eat More likely to avoid exercise Fat people who experience weight-based discrimination are more likely to remain obese

Name and define the two groups of traits that comprise gender stereotypes (i.e., what are male stereotypical traits called? What are female stereotypical traits called?) Give examples for each group.

Male: genetic traits...aggressiveness, competition, ambitious , dominant, independent, confident Female: communal traits...emotional, expressive, talkative, empathetic, kind helpful male stereotype more favorable than female

Describe the assimilation perspective on intergroup relations.

Minority groups should give up their own cultures and replace them with majority culture If everyone has the same culture, then group differences and prejudice will disappear Is it acceptable to ask people to deny their heritage? Critics contend that it amounts to "anglo conformity" Positively correlated with prejudice

Define institutional discrimination. Give an example.

Norms, policies, and practices associated with a social institution resulting in different outcomes for members of different groups. May be intentional or unintentional -Segregation of schools, real estate agencies that steer blacks away from white neighborhoods -Holding elections in a building without wheelchair access

Define cultural discrimination. Give an example.

One group retains the power to define the culture's value system -Marginalizes minority cultures, maintains the status quo

Define interpersonal discrimination. Give an example.

One person treats another unfairly based on group membership. May be intentional or unintentional. -Landlord refuses to rent to people of color -Manager who arbitrarily sets a height requirement for a job

What is the ultimate attribution error?

People assume that: Their own group's negative behavior can be explained by situational factors Negative actions by other groups are due to internal stable characteristics Positive behaviors: By an ingroup member- Attributed to stable personality traits By an outgroup member- Attributed to advantages, luck, or unusual situational characteristics

List two reasons why individuals would be motivated to believe they have not been personally discriminated against

People deny, or at least minimize their personal experiences with discrimination because it is psychologically beneficial to do so. Perceiving oneself as a victim is aversive People might view themselves as personally responsible for their poor treatment People need to justify not taking action against the perpetrator of discrimination Members of stigmatized groups want to distance themselves from negative attributes associated with their group (Hodson & Esses, 2002) Victims of discrimination are disliked by outgroup members and wish to avoid this

What is stigma consciousness? How does it affect the behavior of stigmatized group members? Describe results of research that address the social costs of claiming discrimination.

People who believe they live in a stereotyped world and this affects their interactions with outgroups that is, who believe that they live in a stereotyped world and that this affects their interactions with outgroups—were critical of men who they believed to be sexist. When the men later learned how they were viewed, they, in turn, evalu- ated the women negatively. When the women learned of the men's evaluations, they concluded that they were incompatible with the sexist men. No such effects emerged for women low in stigma consciousness or for women who believed they were interacting with nonsexist men. Claiming discrimination has social costs people may prefer to avoid Dominant groups may view those claiming discrimination as "whiners" People claiming discrimination are often evaluated negatively by outgroup members Members of stigmatized groups are aware of this Taking advantage of discrimination for personal gain Other reasons confronting discrimination might outweigh gains E.g., women might not confront sexism to avoid interpersonal conflict, avoid negative evaluation, doing so might threaten job opportunities, etc.

Are people with high or low power more likely to stereotype? Explain.

People with high power are more likely to apply stereotypes Goodwin et al. (2000): Participants randomly assigned to high power were more likely to evaluate a Hispanic student in stereotypic terms than participants randomly assigned to low power. Why does this occur (Goodwin & Fiske, 1996)? Powerful people feel entitled to judge, and are often required to do so (e.g., bosses) Powerful people are motivated to maintain power difference (higher pay, status) Do negative subordinate group stereotypes help maintain the dominant group's position? Applications to gender? Race or ethnicity? Low power people need accurate impressions of the powerful to gain benefits - thus they tend to individuate the powerful.

Explain the concept of lookism. What advantages do physically attractive people have in the workplace?

Positive stereotypes, prejudice, and preferential treatment accorded to physically attractive people or, more generally, to people whose appearance matches cultural values People with a muscular body type are stereotypically seen as more attractive, healthy, and adventuresomefat people are seen as sloppy, lazy, and unattractive. Thinner people are stereotypically seen as intelligent and neat, but tense and afraid In general, research shows that those quick responses benefit physically attractive people, resulting in lookism

What does a positive correlation coefficient indicate? What does a negative correlation coefficient indicate? Illustrate each with an example from research on prejudice or discrimination. Explain why correlation does not indicate causality.

Positive: As scores on one variable go, scores on the other variable also go up (level of education is positively correlated with income) Negative: As scores on one variable go up, scores on the other variable go down (level of education is negatively correlated with religiosity) Correlational research can only show that two variables are related; it can NOT show that one variable causes the other. 3 Possible directions of causality: Lower prejudice causes more interactions with outgroup members Interacting more often with outgroup members causes lower prejudice Or a 3rd variable is the cause of both (e.g., level of education)

Distinguish between implicit and explicit prejudice.

Reactions toward groups or individuals that occur automatically outside conscious awareness vs. Attitudes that people are aware of and can easily control

Distinguish between proscribed and permitted prejudices. Given an example of each.

Religions proscribe (forbid) some forms of prejudice e.g., most religions condemn racism But permit others e.g., some religions permit prejudice against LGBTQ people permitted prejudices usually focus on groups perceived to violate the religion's values (e.g., some church's support for CA proposition 8)

Describe the polycultural perspective on intergroup relations.

Rosenthal and Levy (2010) have proposed polyculturalism as a fourth perspective on prejudice reduc- tion. The polycultural perspective emphasizes that there is no such thing as a pure culture. Culture is not determined by one's race or nationality and, within a country or a particular racial/ethnic group, there can be many cultural and subcultural groups because throughout history and into the present, cul- tures have interacted with and shared knowledge, customs, and other cultural goods with one another (Keith, 2011). As a result, people of all cultures are interconnected by their history of mutual interaction and influence. Rosenthal and Levy (2010) propose that "if we better understand and appreciate the ways in which cultures are constantly . . . sharing with each other, [then] people's appreciation and respect for, as well as attitudes toward other racial and ethnic groups will be improved" (p. 224). Like multiculturalism, polyculturalism recognizes and celebrates individual cultures; however, unlike multiculturalism, polyculturalism emphasizes the links among cultures rather than the differences between them.

List the six distinct types of stereotype threat discussed in your text.

Self-Concept Threat I conclude that beliefs about my group are true of me Own-Reputation Threat (Outgroup) Outgroup members conclude that beliefs about my group are true of me and judge or treat me badly Own-Reputation Threat (Ingroup) Ingroup members conclude that beliefs about my group are true of me and judge or treat me badly Group-Concept Threat I conclude that beliefs about my group are true of my group Group-Reputation Threat (Outgroup) Outgroup members conclude that beliefs about my group are true and, as a result, judge or treat my group badly Group-Reputation Threat (Ingroup) Ingroup members conclude that beliefs about my group are true and, as a result, judge or treat my group badly

Explain how context influences whether a positive or a negative aspect of a stereotype becomes activated.

Situational context Most stereotypes have both positive and negative components. Which component is activated? Appears to depend on situational context. Wittenbrink et al. (2001): Using an implicit measure found more positive associations for the Black men in positive contexts and more negative associations to Black men in negative contexts. The contexts led to categorization in terms of different subtypes.

Describe the minority stress model. Describe two research findings that support the hypothesis that experiencing discrimination negatively effects people's health.

Situational factors unrelated to one's minority group membership are sources of general stress that affect people's well-being Examples: job loss, illness, or death of a loved one Minorities experience additional stressors External Stressors Objective events which a stigmatized group member may or may not identify as acts of discrimination (microaggressions, bullying, violence, etc.) Internal Stressors Stigmatized group members' expectation that they will be rejected because of group membership

What is social desirability response bias? Why is it an important issue in research in prejudice and discrimination?

Social Desirability Response Bias People's tendency to give socially desirable responses Many prejudiced people do not wish to appear prejudiced

What are and are not the goals of affirmative action? Does affirmative action increase or reduce prejudice? Defend your answer by describing research results.

Some workplace interventions mandated by law, others are voluntary. Affirmative Action Executive Order 11246 established requirements for non-discriminatory practices in hiring and employment for all directed all federal contractors. Make an active effort to recruit and increase the employment of qualified women and minorities where they are underrepresented. Affirmative action occurs whenever an organization "expends energy to make sure that there is no discrimination in employment or education" (American Psychological Association, 1996, p. 5). Affirmative Action Educational Example: AVID (Advancement via Individual Determination Affirmative action where a certain percentage of jobs or opportunities go to minorities or women without regard to their qualifications is not common (Crosby & Cordova, 1996). Criticism: Ingroup members may hold negative attitudes toward beneficiaries of affirmative action Some support for this, but other research finds more positive intergroup attitudes in organizations that use affirmative action Employment and income data of women and minorities before and after the enactment of affirmative generally show that important gains have been made (Burnstein, 1978; Konrad & Linnehan, 1995; Murrell & Jones, 1996; Smith & Welch, 1984).

Describe the self-regulation model of prejudice reduction.

Sometimes low prejudice / unprejudiced people act in a prejudiced way Sensitizes them to cues for unwanted behavior These cues warn them when they might respond in a prejudiced manner and allows them to avoid prejudiced behavior Awareness of contradiction leads people to ask themselves: What caused them to act the way they did What cues can warn them when they might be about to act in a prejudiced manner

What is stereotype suppression? What effects does it have on stereotype use? What is stereotype rebound? Briefly describe one explanation that has been proposed for stereotype rebound.

Stereotype suppression is effective while focusing on suppressing the unwanted thought. Rebound effect Enhanced return of suppressed thoughts that follows an attempt to suppress Are you thinking about a white bear EVEN MORE now? The PARADOXICAL effect of stereotype suppression! People who suppress stereotypes later show: More use of suppressed stereotype e.g., McCrrae et al. (1994): participants stereotyped MORE after being told to avoid stereotypes when writing an essay about a typical day in the life of a skinhead Stereotype comes to mind more easily Greater desire to avoid member of stereotyped group Better memory for stereotype Decreased memory for individuating information Greater use of stereotypes in general Priming - To be able to keep unwanted thoughts suppressed, must be aware of those thoughts We are continually checking for the presence of the unwanted thought! This monitoring process makes the unwanted thought more and more accessible Cognitive effort - Suppressing stereotype depletes cognitive resources needed to control it Motivation - Suppression of stereotype creates a need to use it Rebound effect less likely for low prejudice people Monteith et al (1998): When writing about the daily life of a gay couple, low prejudice participants showed NO rebound effect; high prejudice participants showed the rebound effect Norms that proscribe prejudice can reduce rebound effects (Weyer et al., 2000) But only if people have sufficient cognitive resources People from collectivist cultures may be less prone to rebound effect Might have more practice suppressing unwanted thoughts

What is stereotype threat? Describe how it affects stigmatized group members' behavior. Name two factors that tend to induce stereotype threat.

Stereotype threat refers to the apprehension experienced by members of stigmatized groups in situations in which they fear that they may inadvertently confirm a negative stereotype about their social group. It's a general process (multiple groups, domains) It can affect everyone, even high status groups Stems from situational pressures that bring the stereotype to mind, not from internalization of the stereotype The nature of the threat varies by the context of the stereotype (women threatened by math tests, elderly threatened by memory pressures, etc.) Reduces working memory capacity Most likely to occur when tasks are difficult or frustrating For whom is stereotype threat strongest? For those whose self-esteem is tied to their performance (i.e., those who care the most about doing well) Those who identify strongly with the group Those who are "more alert to threat potential" e.g., Black people who are sensitive to the possibility of race-based rejection e.g., Blacks who have experienced more prejudice

Explain how the stereotypes associated with mental illness contribute to that form of discrimination. Describe one consequence that the stigma associated with mental illness has for people with mental illness.

Stereotypes of the mentally ill: Withdrawn Depressed Tense Unpredictable Dangerous Aggressive -Many experience discrimination, but fair treatment is also common -Stigma decreases the chances that people who need help will seek treatment -People with mental illness are less optimistic about the future

Explain how group privilege determines which groups are stigmatized. Name and describe two factors that define a stigmatized group.

Stigmatized groups differ from privileged groups in terms of appearance or behavior They differ from the "cultural default" Stigmatized individuals have a characteristic that is devalued by dominant group and sets them apart Dominant group determines who is stigmatized Depends on historical and cultural context Everyone has suffered for being "different" at one point of time or another. But some stigmas are temporary, or correctable: Benign Stigmas A temporary disability, e.g., a birthmark which can be removed But other stigmas are more harmful, perhaps the term malignant applies Jones et al, (1984) developed a useful taxonomy for differentiating between benign and more harmful stigmas Based on 5 dimensions

How effective is diversity training in reducing prejudice in the workplace? Briefly describe one factor that influences the effectiveness of diversity training.

The best way to achieve social harmony is to recognize and appreciate our diversity. each group retains distinct cultural characteristics mutual respect for one another's culture Based on belief that prejudice develops from a lack of knowledge about and respect for other groups Strong negative correlation with prejudice Valuing Diversity Programs that aim to establish quality interpersonal relationships through understanding, respecting, and valuing differences among groups May not be effective due to Resistance on the part of trainees Change creates anxiety Pressure to change may cause boomerang effect (reactivity) Training may be seen as irrelevant Poorly conducted training Properly designed and implemented programs succeed Managing Diversity Programs aimed at analyzing and changing organizational systems to create an environment appropriate for utilization of a diverse workforce Making organizational systems more responsive to needs of women and minority groups Targeting groups for recruitment Ensuring that members of under-represented groups receive training for success Changing organizational culture to create climate where diversity is normative and valued: Reward people who value diversity Making diversity compliance part of performance reviews

What is prototypicality? How does it affect stereotype activation?

The more prototypical the person the more quickly we stereotype that person (indicating quicker activation) Blair et al. (2002): Black males with prototypical African facial features judged to act in a more negative stereotypic way.

Define organizational discrimination. Give an example.

The practices, rules, and policies of formal organizations (e.g., corporations, government agencies) -Women and minority members underrepresented in management positions, overrepresented in laborer and clerical positons.

Define the term "basic social category" and give an example.

The social categories of race, age, and gender, for which people have a wealth of information available in memory ex: Jelita McLeod (2012), who is Caucasian and Asian, explains that people have been asking about her ethnicity for as long as she can remember, sometimes straight out, but sometimes indirectly with questions such as "What's your background?" and "Where are you from?

Describe the colorblind perspective on intergroup relations. Describe one potential negative effect that the colorblind perspective can have at the interpersonal level and one potential negative effect that it can have at the institutional level.

Use colorblind approach to offset multiculturalism's focus on differences Finally, some writers have suggested that the color-blind perspective, despite its appearance of egalitari- anism, is actually a form of contemporary prejudice (Bonilla-Silva, 2009; Neville et al., 2001). Recall from Chapter 5 that people who experience aversive prejudice tend to see themselves as unprejudiced, but act in a prejudiced manner when their behavior can be attributed to causes other than prejudice. Discussing racism can also raise concerns about how one is perceived by others. For example, White American college students believe that discussing racism could result in their being seen in a negative light or that it might reveal their own prejudices (Sue et al., 2010); conversely, students of color believe that expressing strong emotions when discussing racism would confirm others' stereotypes of their groups (Sue, Lin, Torino, Capodilupo, & Rivera, 2009).

Explain why researchers can draw causal conclusions from the results of experiments but not from the results of correlational studies.

Used to determine cause and effect Independent variable = Proposed cause Researchers manipulate the independent variable by creating two or more conditions Example: Snyder et al. (1979) - just 1 movie being shown or 2? Dependent variable = Proposed effect Example: Snyder et al. (1979): Where do participants sit? whereas... Correlational research can only show that two variables are related; it can NOT show that one variable causes the other.

Explain how researchers use priming in research on stereotyping and prejudice. Explain the principle of response competition. Explain how response competition is used to assess prejudice.

Uses a prime - a stimulus (such as a picture of a person) associated with a stigmatized group which activates concepts associated with that category Uses Response Competition - two responses compete against one another A habitual response and an opposing response The stronger the habitual response, the longer it takes to suppress it and make the opposing response In prejudiced people, negative responses to a stigmatized group are more likely to be habitual and so take longer to suppress

Explain the value difference hypothesis and how it relates to prejudice.

Value Difference Hypothesis (Milton Rokeach, 1972) Prejudice is based on perception that the outgroups' values differ from the ingroup's "They don't value our way of life" (Blacks, immigrants, overweight, lesbians & gay men) Also related to minority group members attitudes toward the majority group Why do perceived value differences produce prejudice? Two theoretical explanations Attribution-Value Model Terror Management Theory

What is an illusory correlation and how is it created in perceivers?

We tend to notice the "unusual", the "distinctive", the "out-of-the-ordinary". Are Minority group members distinctive for majority group members? Are negative behaviors distinctive? Thus, because of increased attention, we associate minority group members with negative behaviors Once these associations are made Are difficult to change Once in place, cognitive processing tends to work to maintain the bias rather than correct it

What is the stereotype fit hypothesis, and how does it account for women's and minority group members' representation in management and executive positions in organizations?

certain characteristics are better for certain things. white men are assertive therefore they are better for managerial jobs

Explain how majority group children's racial attitudes change with age. What role does intergroup contact play in that process? Explain how minority group children's racial attitudes change with age. How does that pattern of development differ from that of majority group children?

depends on amount of contact with minority children. little contact-slightly prej. and showed steady increase with age high contact -slightly prejudice and increased (not as much as the above) yet decreased after age 7 minority -start out not prejudice but increases with time

Define the concept of prototypicality and explain how it affects observers' categorization of others.

how well a person "fits" the observers concept of the essential features of a particular category Prototypes for race based on the physical features similar to "typical" category member Racial Phenotypical Bias Prototypical category members are categorized more easily

Distinguish between explicit and implicit awareness of social categories. Give an example of each. Explain how researchers assess infants' implicit awareness of social categories. List two social categories that infants are implicitly aware of.

implicit : unconscious, unaware explicit: conscious, aware children implicitly recognize differences among basic social categories without being able to verbalize those differences explicitly. habituation paradigm with 5- to 6-month-old infants -contin presented w/ same pic, then original and new photo presented at same time, white kids preferred white ppl pics -attractiveness -gender -race

Compare and contrast the personalization and salient categorization models of intergroup contact.

personalization: Brewer and Miller (1984): The ideal intergroup contact experience is person to person Get to know one another as individuals which may lead to "decategorization" Awareness that members of both groups have complex social identities lessens the importance of group boundaries Emphasize similarities: I'm White and you're Black, but we're both CSUSM students, we're both Chargers fans, etc. Group categories become less useful sources of information Shortcoming? Increased liking may not generalize to entire outgroup What if the outgroup member is perceived as atypical? Salient categorization model Positive attitudes from intergroup contact will generalize to the entire group only if the outgroup members are seen as typical of their group One way to accomplish this is to give groups distinct but complementary roles to play in achieving a common goal Problem: Might this type of contact reinforce perceptions that the groups are distinctly different?

Summarize role congruity theory and describe the two factors proposed that prohibit women's entry into leadership positions.

prevent from maintaining high level positions 1. women less likely to be successful lack agentic traits 2. once woman gets leadership role, higher prob to receive neg evaluations

List three of the beliefs that characterize modern-symbolic racism. Describe three of the psychological factors that underlie modern-symbolic prejudice.

racial prejudice does no longer exist blacks lazy therefore thats why they are in that situation blacks unwilling to work, blame unsuccess on prejudice seek special favors rather than just working mild to moderate anit-vlack emotions belief in traditional values...individualism, hard work, self-reliance low-outcome based egalitarianism *reject equality of outcome, endorse equality of opportunity

Describe the basic principles of the relative deprivation theory of prejudice. In your response include the concepts of distributive justice, procedural justice, personal relative deprivation, and group deprivation. When, according to the theory, is prejudice most likely to occur?

rdt- when compare other groups to theirs, conclude they aren't getting what they deserve -distributive justice: unfairness, not being distributed to ppl who deserve it but instead on in-group favoritism -procedural justice- fairness based on how rewards are distributed, some girl got a on test when i get c, think she may be cheating -personal relative deprivation: feels deprived as individual -group deprivation: feels group he or she belongs to is deprived of something -groups deprived or double deprived more likely to be prejudice

What are the two dimensions of the Stereotype Content Model? Name one group that is stereotypically described by each of the four categories that are created by these dimensions.

the stereotype content model classifies group stereotypes along two broad dimensions. The first dimension is warmth; groups can be stereotyped as warm and friendly or as cold and unfriendly. The second dimension is competence; groups can be stereotyped as competent and successful in dealing with the world or as incompetent and unsuccessful.

Define descriptive and prescriptive stereotypes and give an example of each.

what characteristics group members possess vs. what group should be like, should do ex: Women are kind and nurturing vs. women SHOULD be kind and nurturing

What is self-categorization? Briefly describe one factor that influences self-categorization. Explain the concept of optimal distinctiveness.

when there is perceived difference, and when this diff becomes greater between in-group and outgrip., more likely to identify with your (asian more likely to identify as asian when she is around mostly white people) ———distinctiveness or need for certainty influences this -most likely to identify with groups that provide best balance between personal and group identity