Psychology Test 1

Why learn about psychology?

1. To understand ourselves 2. To understand other people and groups 3. To be better able to influence others, for example, in socializing children or motivating employees 4. To learn how to better help others and improve the world, for example, by doing effective psychotherapy 5. To learn a skill that will lead to a profession such as being a social worker or a professor 6. To learn how to evaluate the research claims you hear or read about 7. Because it is interesting, challenging, and fun!

What is science?

An organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world. Most if not all medical advances and technological innovations are a direct result of scientific research and understanding science is the use of systematic observation in order to acquire knowledge •Ex. Combining vinegar and baking soda to observe a bubbly reaction -> empirical method •Essential elements of science •Systematic observation -> observe under controlled conditions and vary conditions of our observations to see variations in the phenomena •Observation leads to the hypothesis that we can test --Hypothesis and theories are stated in a way that can be tested •Science is democratic -> open discussion about observations and theories •Science is cumulative -> we learn from earlier advances and build upon them

Nervous system

Central nervous system (CNS) •Nervous system encased in bone -> brain and spinal cord •Primarily responsible for processing sensory information •Individual cells -> neurons -> each neuron has many contact "synapses" --Dendrites -> receive information --Soma -> cell body --Axon -> transmits action potential --Cell to cell communication is helped by axon being covered by a myelin sheath --Axon terminals/buttons of neuron connect to dendrites of other neurons --Space between neurons "synaptic gap" --Action potential -> reach axon -> release neurotransmitters from vesicles on terminal buttons ----Serotonin -> sleep, hunger, mood ----dopamine -> attention, learning, and pleasure SSRI -> selective serotonin uptake inhibitor -> keeps serotonin in synapses longer -> helps with depression Brain Stem •oldest part of the brain -> similar in all species •life support systems •structure --medulla (bottom) --pons (middle) --midbrain ( top) •Function --survival --sleep/wake cycle --sensory/motor function --growth/hormonal behaviors •very serious problems arise when damaged -> issues with medulla are what causes dizziness when you stand up Limbic system (emotion) •sits on top of brain stem (midbrain) and regulates emotion •includes amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus, insula cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the prefrontal cortex, and pituitary gland (apparently) •influence hunger, sleep-wake cycle, sexual desire, fear and aggression, and even memory Cerebellum •"small brain" -> due appearance •coordinates actions w/o the need for any conscious awareness Cerebrum •"newest" portion •associated with awareness, voluntary control, and traits such as speaking, planning, seeing, hearing, feeling •hemisphere are connected by corpus callosum (splitting is temporary due to neuronal plasticity) --split-brain patients have allowed us to see the impact of brain separation -> allowed us to learn about the contralateral/opposite sided linking lobes of brain •Occipital lobe -> visual area •Temporal lobe -> sounds and smells are processed •Parietal lobe -> touch and taste are processed •Frontal lobe -> behavioral motor plans -> speech and language use, creative problem solving, planning and organization Central Sulcus •strip that is in charge of voluntary movement (largest part goes to lips then hands) peripheral nervous system •split into somatic and autonomic nervous system -- somatic splits into cranial nerves and spinal nerves --autonomic splits into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems Broaca's area -> left inferior frontal gyrus -> found after Broca performed an autopsy on this region

Research design types -> strengths and weaknesses

Correlational designs •We do not intervene or change behavior -> identify patterns of relationship •Can only examine 2 variables at a time, no more and no less •A correlation provides information about the direction and strength of association between 2 variables --Positive -> go up together -> the correlation value ( r ) is + --Negative -> values move in opposite direction -> r is - •Strength of correlation has to do with how well values align to a straight line -> r value will be close to -1 or 1 (disregard the - or + ) •Correlation does not mean causation Qualitative designs •Include participant observation, case studies, and narrative analysis --Particpant observation -> usually researcher lives in culture --Case study -> examination of specific individuals or specific contexts ----Ex. Sigmund freud ---- Ex. Brain injuries -> impact on life --Narrative analysis -> study personal accounts ----Look at themes, strucutre, dialogue, personal testimonies ----Can be written, audio, or video Quasi-experimental design •Similar to experimental research except random assignment to conditions is not used (ex. You can't force people to marry each other, you should just use married couples) •Hard to make accurate determination due to lack of randomness •Ex. Looking at one professor over another •ex. you can't force students to take one student instead of another -> harder to draw conclusions longitudinal studies •track the same people over time -> can be costly Surveys •can reach a large number of people for a low cost Tradeoffs in research •Many factors are at play when choosing your research method ----Ex. Resource availability -> time and money invested •Ethics -> Can't inflict brain injuries on people, you just need to wait Research methods •by knowing them you can better understand conclusions and limitations

Ethics of scientific psychology

Ethics -> specific set of guidelines •Informed consent -> people must know what they are involved in •Confidentiality -> no information about individuals can go public w/o consent •Privacy -> researchers should not seek confidential information from others •Benefits -> do benefits outweight potential risk to participants? •Deception -> researchers must debrief participants after the study if they must deceive them in the actual study

Results of nature-nurture questions

Everything has at least some genetic basis (everything even how much television people watch) But also no behavior traits are completely inherited ->can't leave environment out To look at experiments you can't conclude data unless you find a way to randomly assign children a experiment (1 of the twins does one thing and another does a diff.) or adoptive studies are needed Nothing has been found to be absolutely heritable -> not much consistency on which are more or less heritable either Errors arise in definition when traits don't seem to be impacted by either such as having 2 arms •Complex interactions known as gene-environment interaction (GXE) also make things trickier -> genetic diff. that affect behavior under some environments and not others Has demonstrated that genetic differences among people are vital to human moral equality, freedom, and self-determination, not opposed to them Some traits are malleable -> increase in height and intelligence with time due to nutrition and other environmental things •Too fast to be solely genetic

Classical and instrumental conditioning pyrimid

Generally speaking, any reinforced or punished operant response (R) is paired with an outcome (O) in the presence of some stimulus or set of stimuli (S).

Interpretation of research results

If results reveal that the caffeine group performs better -> shows that caffeine is associated with better memory, it does not prove caffeine is associated with better memory -> still many questions left unanswered and uncertainties •it supports hypothesis rather than proving •inductive reasoning is based on probabilities (ex. weather forecasts) deductive reasoning is based on proof -> if general principles are true the structure of the argument is valide and conclusion by default is proven •ex. all living cells contain DNA -> so cells in a human have DNA •difficult to make these types of broad statements with certainty one study that contradicts many does not falsify the hypothesis -> many studies needed •Factors of interpretation --representative sample --anecdotal evidence -> personal experience -> limited by quality and human shortcoming

Observational learning

Learning through observation -> you can watch someone play uno and then play yourself Component of social learning theory by albert banduras -> this learning hinges on the presence of others known as social models (typically of higher status such as parents or policemen) Consists of 4 parts •Attention -> must pay attention to task at hand •Retention -> to learn one must be able to retain the behavior they observe •Initiation -> learner must be able to execute the behavior •Motivation -> the learner must want to learn how to do the task Bobo doll experiment •Adult interacted aggressively with bobo and children watched -> children acted aggressively •Adult was passive -> children who observed were passive •Vicarious reinforcement -> children in aggression group showed less aggressive behavior if they witnessed the adult model receive punishment for aggressing against Bobo

3 sections at the center of philosophy and science

Mind-body problem Free will problem (genetic)Nature-nurture(environment) problem •Only one referred to as a debate --Controversial --Fascinating ----Ease of animal study -> history of mating experiments and fast replication (ex. Tamed foxes) ----Obstacles to human study -> random assignment impossible (moving children) and unethical: eugenics --consequential •How do you set up an experiment? -> can take offspring and switch their parents and see if nature or nurture differ --Can't do this with humans

Building blocks of nervous system

Neurons •specialized cell within nervous system -> receives and send messages in system glial cells •Directions growth of neurons, provides nutrients, and restores damage to neurons

Why should be trust science if we can't prove anything?

Null-hypothesis significance test (NHST) •null hypothesis -> statement that two variables are not related •alternate hypothesis -> two variables are related/correlated distribution •spread of values 4 possible hypothesis outcomes of a test •reality •what the researcher finds •Accurate detection -> 1 and 2 align •no evidence for a phenomenon errors •type I error -> researcher concludes there is a relationship between two variables when there is not •Type II error -> researcher's data fails to show a relationship that does indeed exist P-values (probability values) •significant at a p < .05 level -> if the study was repeated 100 times we expect this result to occur by chance fewer than 5 times

neuroimaging techniques with advantages and disadvantages

Positron emission tomography (PET) •Metabolic activity measurements •Allows us to see what regions of the brain are active Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) •Relies on blood flow •Measures brain activity based on oxygen use •Does not require a foreign substance to be injected as seen in PET Both PET and fMRI have poor temporal resolution due to delay in an active part of the brain and uptake of oxygen or substance Electroencephalography (EEG) •Measures electrical brain activity •Good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution -> not accurate to the location Diffuse optical imaging (DOI) •High temporal and spatial resolution •Use IR light

Experimental Research

Researcher manipulate/cause changes to the independent variable -> observe impact of changes in dependent variable •the independent variable is under the experimenter's control Random assignment -> participants don't get to pick what they would like most they are randomly assigned •allows us to predict that the only diff. between groups is the independent variable Avoid confounds -> things that undermine your ability to draw casal inferences •placebo effect •participant demand -> participants behave in a way they think the experimenter wants them to behave in •experimenter expectation -> can also influence the outcomes of the study -> might perceive something that isn't there •use of a double blind -> neither the participant or the experimenter know which condition is set forth

Instrumental (operant) conditioning -> voluntary

Studied by Thorndike and extpanded by B.F. Skinner •Occurs when a behavior (not stimulus) is associated w/ the occurrence of a significant event --Ex. Skinner box -> no natural association with a lever and food ----A rat pressing the level or oberant behavior (it is an action that the animal itself makes) ----Once rat has noticed the lever is associated with food the food pellets serve as reinforcers as they strengthen the rat's desire to enage with the environment by pressing the level Thorndike's law of effect -> when a behavior has a positive effect or consequence it is likely to be repeated in the future •When a negative effect occurs it will be repeated less -> known as punishers Compared to classical conditioning, operant responses are said to be emitted -> conveys idea that operant behaviors are essentially voluntary in nature Two types of reinforcement •Positive reinforcement ----Good thing added -> future response more likely (ex. Giving a dog a treat for doing a trick) •Negative reinforcement ----Bad thing removed -> future response more likely Two types of punishment •positive punishment ----bad thing added -> future response less likely (ex. spanking) •Negative punishment ---- good thing removed -> future response less likely (ex. grounding from phone) 3 things to know about instrumental (operant) conditioning •instrumental responses can occur under stimulus control •involves choice •reinforcers are not made equal

Quantitative law of effect

The effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviors. ex. if a pigeon learns that pecking one light will reward two food pellets, whereas the other light only rewards one, the pigeon will only peck the first light -----What happens if the more beneficial one is harder to get to? -> will the cost outweight the benefit

Reinforcer devaluation effect

The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable. ex. A rat is first trained to perform two instrumental actions (e.g., pressing a lever on the left, and on the right), each paired with a different reinforcer (e.g., a sweet sucrose solution, and a food pellet). At the end of this training, the rat tends to press both levers, alternating between the sucrose solution and the food pellet. In a second phase, one of the reinforcers (e.g., the sucrose) is then separately paired with illness. This conditions a taste aversion to the sucrose. In a final test, the rat is returned to the Skinner box and allowed to press either lever freely. No reinforcers are presented during this test (i.e., no sucrose or food comes from pressing the levers), so behavior during testing can only result from the rat's memory of what it has learned earlier. Importantly here, the rat chooses not to perform the response that once produced the reinforcer that it now has an aversion to (e.g., it won't press the sucrose lever). the behavior is said to be goal oriented -> because it is influenced by the current value of its associated goal a once goal directed action can become a habit whether not a reward is present

Psychology as a science

Through the use of tests, measure, and rating scales it is possible to measure thoughts and feelings -> allows researchers to explore "invisible" phenomena •ex. Galton -> found that genetics and social factors contribute to personality looking at twins (ex. nurture vs. nature) Other methods •peer report measures -> use of those close to individual to see individuals bias •biological functions -> ex. cortisol samples or fMRI images of brain psychology as a science is only 150 years old with the major finding occurring less than 60 years ago

Learning process

cognitive phase:learn general skill concepts associative phase: practice and refine automatic phase: skill is developed and consistent blocking -> occurs when an animal learns to association one CS with a US •Ex. he sound of a bell (stimulus A) is paired with the presentation of food. Once this association is learned, in a second phase, a second stimulus—stimulus B—is presented alongside stimulus A, such that the two stimuli are paired with the US together. In the illustration, a light is added and turned on at the same time the bell is rung. However, because the animal has already learned the association between stimulus A (the bell) and the food, the animal doesn't learn an association between stimulus B (the light) and the food. classical conditioning always has to some degree prediction error -> chance the CS won't lead to expected outcome •ways to improve process -> intense CS and US as well as new signals blocking allows you to associate one concept with a response and ignore other items -> it doesn't matter where you go in the world if you see a star sticker on a price tag you associate with a bargain even if the star's color changes or size preparedness -> association of one concept with another -> if a food makes you sick you'll avoid

Erasing classical learning

extinction -> elimination of CS by presenting CS repeatedly without US •spontaneous recovery -> can also occur after a large time following elimination that brings back the CR renewal effect -> following extinction if the CS is tested in a new context such as location the CR can also return

Scientific theory

knowledge generated from research is organized according to scientific theories •scientific theories are supported by research studies that collectively provide evidence •they predict a way that can be empirically tested and potentially falsified •can be open for revisions -> ex. The sun is not rotating around the earth, we are rotating around it

is science objective?

no such thing as objective theory or data -> all is informed by values •bias will always exist •difference between facts (info on world) and beliefs (what the world ought to bed) is distinct but not always clear -> ex. global warming science works best with people from diverse backgrounds levels of analysis -> hope of achieving multiple perspectives •one level is not more important than another or truer -> their appropriateness depends on the specifics of the question

nervous system structural differences

particularly between mice and humans •The brain stem is consistent across other animals -> old brain •Bulb on back of brain -> cerebellum •Creases of brain -> due to space limited by skull -> folds allow for increases surface area •Big olfactory bulb in mice - dog (large bulb on front of brain) •Increase in cerebral volume over evolution

Ernst Weber

perception; identified just-noticeable-difference (JND) that eventually becomes Weber's law just noticeable differences -> thresholds of sensitivity are diff. depending on where you put the tool on the body

Phineas gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function •we are not sure if his personality was in fact changed due to no prior tests

Instrumental responses come under stimulus control

stimulus control -> when an operant behavior is recognized and under control •stimulus controlling the operant is called discriminative stimulus -> does not elicit the response the same way a classical CS does -> rather it sets the occasion allows for tests such as identifying UV and frequencies animals can hear or not

Classical conditioning (pavlov conditioning)

the process by which an organism learns a new association between two stimuli- a neutral stimulus and one that already evokes a reflexive response Unconditioned stimulus •This was the food in pavlov's experiment Unconditioned response •Salvation in dogs Conditioned stimulus •Bell (originally a neutral stimulus) Conditioned response •Salvation at sound of the bell Step 1 -> before conditioning •US -> UR •NS -> no response Step 2 -> during conditioniing •NS -> UC -> UR Step 3 -> after conditioing •CS -> CR *A conditioned stimulus (CS) has no importance to the organism until it is paired with something that does have importance Another could be a conditioned stimulus (song you liked)(CS) being disliked(CR) because you set it as your alarm(CS) 4 things to know about classical conditioning •generates multiple responses •establishes preferences and aversions •underlies various psychological conditions •pairing of US and CS is not (always) sufficient for conditioning to occur

Behavior genetics

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior Easiest observed under adoption studies -> children put up for adoption are no longer raised by the parents that gave birth to them twin studies -> two types of monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) both adoption and twin studies are part of quantitative genetics -> similarities among individuals based on how biologically related they are -> results in a number known as heritability coefficient •varies from 0-1 -> how strong diff. among individuals are due to their genes •method of measuring the contribution of genes on anything •far from perfect

science in context

the systematic nature of science and testable/reliable data allows us to determine causality and can help us generalize our conclusions

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). not interested in cognition -> solely focuses on what is directly observable (ex. pavlov and skinner)

Psychological science is useful

which therapy is the most useful? -> some studies show cognitive behavior therapy can help those with depression while other studies show some therapies are harmful organizational psychology •led to production of greater workplace production and satisfaction (ex. cockpit redesign -> less accidents) court cases -> eyewitness testimony and memory

Scientific vs. everyday reasoning

•Hypothesis -> people often offer these in the form of a statement said about the world •scientific claims -> use less certain language and more likely associated with probabilities (ex. there is a 80% chance of rain) •Both forms of reasoning use induction -> draw conclusions from specific observation -> conclusions can be limited by sample size What makes a scientific conclusion more respected than an individual's statement? •Accuracy -> explanations and theory match •consistency -> few exceptions •scope -> extent to which theory extends beyond currently available data •simplicity -> when multiple explanations can explain the data the simplest is chosen •fruitfulness -> usefulness of the theory in guiding new research •Scientific claims are capable of being falsified (testable) -> claims rely on what the data tells at the time --unscientific claims cannot be tested (ex. a magician blaming the audience for not believing enough, & freud's theory on childhood trauma -> both are too vague to be testable) popper's view -> if science showed all the possibilities that are wrong we are left with the true answer •not always possible -> scientists aren't solely interested in demonstrating what isn't -> they also look for the way things are

research designs

•Science is the result of systematic and intentional study of the natural world -> "show me the data" •We need to test our research questions/hypothesis •Most psychological research can be divided into two types: experimental and correlational research