psychology -thinking PSYC 1113

Creativity involves ?

using cognitive processes to manipulate or act on stored knowledge.

confirmation bias

which is the tendency to stick to an initial hypothesis even in the face of strong contrary evidence (Cook & Smallman, 2008)... leads us to place greater weight on information that confirms our prior beliefs and expectations than on information that disputes it (Hernandez & Preston, 2012). Consider a juror who decides whether a defendant is guilty based on the preliminary evidence and then fails to reconsider that decision even when strong contradictory evidence is presented at trial.

examples of An analogy

—for example, likening the actions of the heart to those of a pump. Alexander Graham Bell showed a creative use of analogy when he invented the telephone (Levine, 1994).

Cognitive Proces- Mental imaging

Forming mental representations of objects or events.... Images can be formed based on various sensory experiences, including vision, hearing, taste, and touch. Mental images can be manipulated to help us solve certain kinds of problems.

Cognitive psychologists classify concepts in two general categories?

logical concepts and natural concepts.

functional fixedness

the inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways (German & Barrett, 2005).

Conceptual combination.

Combining two or more concepts into one can result in novel ideas or applications that reflect more than the sum of the parts.

Concepts are mental ?

Concepts are mental categories we use for grouping objects, events, and ideas.

Describe the basic processes of creative thought and explain the difference between divergent and convergent thinking.

Convergent thinking involves finding the one right answer or solution to a problem, whereas divergent thinking taps into creative thinking involved in finding new ways of thinking about problems or using familiar objects. Cognitive processes in creative thinking include analogy, conceptual combination, and conceptual expansion.

examples of Conceptual combination.

Examples of conceptual combinations include "cell phones," "veggie burgers," and "home page." Can you think of other ways in which concepts can be creatively combined?

examples of Conceptual expansion.

Examples of conceptual expansion include an architect's adaptation of an existing building to a new use, a writer's creation of new scenes using familiar characters, and a chef's variation on a traditional dish that results in a new culinary sensation.

natural concepts

, in which the rules for determining how they are applied are poorly defined or fuzzy. Abstract concepts such as justice, honor, and freedom are classified as natural concepts because people typically use them without relying on a strict set of rules to determine how the concepts are applied.

A heuristic

A rule of thumb used to solve problems or make judgments or decisions . it doesn't guarantee a solution, but they may help you arrive at one more quickly (Schwab, 2009)

Explain the difference between logical and natural concepts.

Logical concepts have clearly defined rules for membership, whereas natural concepts have poorly defined or fuzzy criteria for membership.

Conceptual expansion.

One way of developing novel ideas is to expand familiar concepts.

Identify and describe mental strategies we can use to solve problems more effectively.

Problem-solving strategies involve use of insight (sudden realization of a solution), trial and error (trying out one possible solution after another), algorithms (a step-by-step set of rules for solving a problem), and heuristics (rules of thumb used to solve problems).

There are three general rules for brainstorming:

Rule 1:WRITE DOWNas many solutions to the problem as you can think of. Quantity counts more than quality. Rule 2:SUSPEND JUDGEMENT-. Don't evaluate any of the possible solutions or strike them off your list. Rule 3:SEEK unusual, remote, or even weird ideas. Today's strange or oddball idea may turn into tomorrow's brilliant solution.

Two strings hang from the ceiling but are too far apart to be touched at the same time. The task is to tie them together. Except for the string and the pliers on the table, the room is empty. How would you tie the strings together?

The solution? Think of an alternate use for the pliers. By attaching them as a weight to the end of one of the strings, you can swing the string as a pendulum. Then move to the other string and wait for the swinging string to come close enough to catch it so that you can tie the two strings together.

mental set.

The tendency to rely on strategies that worked well in similar situations in the past

A farmer has 18 cows and all but 11 of them died. How many were left?

There are 11 cows left. All but 11 died

How many two-cent stamps are there in a dozen?

There are 12 two-cent stamps, because a dozen of anything is 12.

Describe several ways in which we represent information in our minds.

These include use of mental images (picturing information in mind), use of words ​(naming an object or a person), and concept formation (classifying an object in a particular category).

Identify and describe mental roadblocks that impede problem solving and decision making.

These roadblocks include mental sets (preset ways of solving problems that may apply to the present situation) and functional fixedness (failure to recognize alternate uses for objects). The confirmation bias leads people to discount evidence that contradicts their prior beliefs and expectations. The representativeness heuristic leads people to make more of a given sample than they should. The availability heuristic leads people to make snap decisions based on whatever information comes most readily to mind.

Apply skills of problem solving to become a creative problem solver.

These skills include adopting a questioning attitude, gathering information, avoiding getting stuck in mental sets, generating alternatives, sleeping on it, and testing out possible solutions.

You are holding two U.S. coins that total 55 cents. One of the coins is not a nickel. What are the coins you are holding?

You are holding a 50-cent piece and a nickel. One of the two coins (the 50-cent piece) is not a nickel.

A category with clearly defined rules for membership is called__________ ______________, whereas a category with poorly defined rules for membership is ____________ _____________

a logical concept and a natural concept.

One mental roadblock to problem solving is the inability to see how a familiar object can be used in new ways. This impediment is known as

a mental set. functional fixedness. an incubation period. confirmation bias

two problem-solving strategies—are problem-solving strategies that can help you solve problems more efficiently.

algorithms and heuristics

the representativeness heuristic

and the availability heuristic are examples of biases in thinking that can lead us to make bad decisions.

thinking

as the process of representing and manipulating information in our mind

Mental set and functional fixedness are examples of

cognitive tendencies that can impede problem solving.

When we think, we form mental representations of information in the form of images, words, and __________?

concepts

Merging two or more concepts to produce novel ideas or applications is called

conceptual expansion. creative combination. divergent thinking. conceptual combination.

Brainstorming

encourages people to propose as many solutions to a problem as possible without fear of being judged negatively by others, no matter how far-fetched their proposals may seem.

Logical concepts

have clearly defined rules for determining membership. Schoolchildren learn that the concept of a triangle applies to any three-sided form or figure. If a figure has three sides, it must be a triangle.

Mental images helps with what

help us perform various cognitive functions, such as remembering directions and seeking creative solutions to problems.

Cognitive psychologists

investigate how we think, process information, use language, and solve problems.

Creativity

is a cognitive ability found in varying degrees in most people.

Problem solving

is a cognitive process in which we employ mental strategies to solve problems.

An analogy

is a comparison between two things based on their similar features or properties

Decision making

is a form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from among the available alternatives. What should I wear?" and "What should I have for dinner?"

Creativity

is a form of thinking that leads to original, practical, and meaningful solutions to problems or that generates new ideas or artistic expressions.

A mental image

is a mental picture or representation of an object or event. We can form mental images of many different objects— faces of familiar people, the layout of the furniture in their homes, the letters of the alphabet, a graduation or religious ceremony.

An algorithm

is a step-by-step set of rules for solving a problem. ex... You probably first became acquainted with algorithms when you learned the basic rules (algorithms) of arithmetic, such as carrying the number to the next column when adding columns of numbers.

The availability heuristic

is the tendency to base decisions on examples we most easily recall or bring to mind. *For example, we might buy a particular brand because we recall having seen it advertised on TV.

Define thinking. Psychologists generally define thinking as the mental (a)------- and (b)------- of information.

representation and manipulation