Public Administration PhD Comprehensive Exam

Perrow (1967)

"A Framework for the Comparative Analysis of Organizations". This article was one of three independent statements in 1967 of what came to be called 'contingency theory.' It held that the structure of an organization depends upon (is 'contingent' upon) the kind of task performed, rather than upon some universal principles that apply to all organizations.

Weick (1979)

"All you need to remember when thinking about organizing is that there's a bit of absurdity in all of us, theorists and managers alike." His unit of analysis is "contingent response patterns" based on "interacts," in which one person acts and another responds. He argues "ambivalent conceptual orientations toward the world will be more adaptive and accurate than unambivalent ones" because the world is complicated and dynamic. (p. 30) Weick seems similar to James Thompson here and departs, along with Merton, from the pursuit of unified theory.

Ostrom (1974)

"Intellectual Crisis in PA". From Bureau Admin to Demo Admin- there is no connection between current PA and the constitution. PA is trapped in Bureau Admin- blame Wilson and his training (empirical models). Main argument against trad PA was the assumption of a central power- hierarchy. Problematic because PA just wants to control (Prog Reforms- push power to the executive and one best way of admin via efficiency). Ostrom was competition- democracy.

Simon (1947)

"Rational" decision-making requires (1) comprehensive list of alternatives; (2) known consequences of each; (3) ability to compare these consequences Too many direct and indirect factors that can influence this process: cognitive abilities, authority structures, org identification/loyalty, personnel policies, training, procedures, etc. Two standards to measure decisions: (1) "adequacy": the degree to which its goals have been reached (2) "efficiency": the degree to which its goals have been reached relative the available resources. Decision should be the primary unit of analysis, vertical specialization, use of value decisions show needs for narrow options to decrease variability, instead should use fact-based decision-making.

Simon (1946)

"Rebutting the idea of administrative efficiency through strict hierarchy and rigid specializations. Conflicts between the proverbs (unity of command and specialization). Based on "logical positivism": asserted that philosophy can only deal with what "is" not what "ought to be"—fact/value dichotomy; dismisses values/ethics, emphasizes analysis, empiricism, and logic. Simon argued that public administration as a field should become more theoretically abstract and more consciously scientific. Two key concepts: (1) Bounded Rationality: all decision makers have cognitive and rational limitations (most are emotional and irrational to an extent, without enough information to make completely rational decisions to begin with) (2) Satisficing: Given these limitations, there is an inclination to choose the selection that covers and meets most needs rather than the perfect or optimal choice. "

Wildavsky (1969)

"Rescuing Policy Analysis from PPBS". Examined the politics of the budgetary process and concluded that the formulation of administrative budgets was inextricably linked to political concerns. Advanced a theory of incremental budgeting in which persons making budget decisions made marginal adjustments to prior year "base" budgets as a means of making decisions under conditions of great complexity and information uncertainty.

Sabatier and Mazmanian (1980)

"The Implementation of Public Policy: A Framework of Analysis*. Categorizing context using a matrix. "Unpacking the conventional wisdom"- synthetic essay. Four Issues with PI research: 1) Tractability of the Problem 2) Implementation Structures created by statutes 3) Sociopolitical environment needs to be included 4) Success is long-term with different solutions and changes overtime

Downs (1967)

"The Life Cycle of Bureaus" examines the genesis, growth, and death of bureaus. Most bureaucratic officials are "utility maximizers" who seek to attain goals rationally and efficiently, given limited capabilities and costs. Downs also state that the organizations tend to become more conservative and face some problems as the average age of the bureau's members increases. Finally, Downs asserts that a bureau will rarely disappear and instead it will transform itself from its original purpose and functions. Although he mildly agrees with public choice that citizens tend to get more bureaucracy than they bargain for, he is more interested in defending bureaucracy, making clear that they don´t destroy individual freedom and actually have helped to increase choice.

Long (1949)

"power is the lifeblood of administration."- expands or reduces governmental power.

Appleby (1945)

Added PA as one of the eight distinct political processes, provided guidance for public practitioners and the values that they should hold include being free of politics, possess a business-like or private sector approach, and share a distrust of the people they serve. Aspects that distinguish public from private sector: (1) breadth of scope, impact, and consideration; (2) public accountability; (3) political character Theoretical Argument: It is impossible to be a rigid bureaucracy that followed the "scientific law" in a democratic society; in reality, public administration was more reflective of an administrative pluralism. Appleby believes firmly in the effectiveness of the "top down" approach to government, and the influence that aggressive federal mandates and guidance can have on the successful adoption and integration of new attitudes, approaches, and policies at the local and state levels.

Bozeman (1987)

All organizations, whether they are governmental, business, or not-for-profit, are to one degree or another subject to public authority. Thus, they are all "public" in their basic nature, as they are constrained or empowered by such public authority. In Bozeman's conception, "publicness refers to the degree to which the organization is affected by political authority." Moe (1987) responded critically, saying that such an opinion abdicates the ever-important sovereignty of the state.

Blau (1955)

Another sociologist who attempts to formulate and test hypotheses based on Weber's theories and expands Merton's. Studied government employment and regulatory agencies. "Admin exists in a social setting, therefore pattern of admin is theoretically determined by society." "Classic [org] theory is behavior is static is structures." Should focus on values and belief systems (Anti-Simon). Introduces the concept of "Open system" by explaining differentiation.

Hackman & Lawler (1971)

Application of Herzberg's theory of motivation. Job characteristics instead of job enrichment. Identified four core dimensions of job descriptions that are related to increased satisfaction and motivation and less absenteeism: variety, autonomy, task identity, and feedback.

Cyert and March (1964)

Attempts to predict firm behavior with regard to pricing, output, resource allocation by focusing on actual processes of organizational decision making. Building on Simon's work, determined that people tend to satisfice when making decisions in complex, uncertain situations. Firm cannot be regarded as a monolith because different individuals and groups within it have their own aspirations and conflicting interests, and that the firm behavior is the weighted outcome of these conflicts. Organizational mechanisms (such as satisficing) exist to maintain conflict at levels that are not unacceptably detrimental. Compared to the ideal state of productive efficiency, there is organizational slack (difference between total resources and total payments)

Elmore (1979)

Backward mapping: Implementation research and policy decisions. Implementation research is long on description and short on prescription. Forward mapping begins with an objective, it elaborates an increasingly specific set of steps for achieving that objective, and it states an outcome against which success or failure can be measure. Backward mapping begins with a statement of the specific behavior at the lowest level of the implementation process that generates the need for a policy. Based on this behavior an objective is developed which is stated as a set of organizational operations and then as a set of effects, or outcomes, that will result from these operations.

Adams (1963)

Based on Festinger's (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance. Motivation is a uniquely individual concept and perception matters. Employees react to how fairly they believe they are treated and adjust their inputs accordingly to achieve more equitable outcomes. Transparancy matters. Perception is powerful.

Hamilton (1787-88)

Before the politics-administration dichotomy was a founding principle in public administration, He wrote "It is one thing to be subordinate to the laws, and another [for the Executive] to be dependent on the legislative body. The first comports with, the last violates, the fundamental principles of good government; and, whatever may be the forms of the Constitution, unites all power in the same hands."

Lewin (1946)

Behavior and Development as a function of the total situation. Behavior is a function of the person and the environment- not independent indicators. Sensititivity training and "small group" settings are a result of Lewin's work.

Landau (1969)

Believes that duplication of important functions increases reliability and protects against risk. Efficiency should not be the singular goal of an organization. Too much emphasis on efficiency will imperil effectiveness. Only after an organization realizes effectiveness should it begin focusing on efficiency. Disputed the premise of scientific management because the redundancy it tried to eliminate was frequently vital to effective operations. For example, back-up landing gear on a plane. Described the implementation of redundancy in an organization as failure-avoidance management."

Long (1952)

Bureaucracy had more of a democratic character than the legislature because the ranks of the federal civil service were much more reflective of the American public. Normative claim: the bureaucracy actually made up for the representative deficiencies of the legislature.

Bennis (1966)

Bureaucracy is out of line with contemporary culture and not responsive to change. "Adhocracy" (i.e., orgs as temporary, flat, democratic, and authority based on ability rather than office). Bennis recognizes an important trend in four threats to bureaucracy: (1) Rapid and unexpected change (2) Growth in size to the extent that merely increasing the volume of the organization's traditional activities is not enough (3) The complexity of modern technology and the increasingly specialized skills required. (4) A fundamental change in the basic philosophy of managerial behavior Five Key Problems Confronting Contemporary Organizations: (1) Integration of individual needs and org goals; (2) Social Influence- distribution of power; (3) producing mechanisms of Collaboration to control conflict; (4) Adaptation to environmental changes; (5) Revitalization- problem of growth and decay.

Redford (1969)

First person to aggressively evaluate the relationship between democracy and the admin state. Identified a real problem between democracy and efficiency. Administrative State: "political-administrative system which focuses on its controls and renders its services through administrative structures" Administration can perpetuate Democracy through 3 ideals: (1) individual realization (Rosenbloom's legal); (2) equality (DR's legal); (3) universal participation in order to ensure liberty (DR's political)

Allison (1979)

Case studies of private and public managers, sorts similarities and differences in the sectors (more business-like is not always better). Calls for a comparative studying of private/public management. Found 1) Government managers rarely have a clear bottom line, while that of a private business manager is profit, market performance and survival. 2) Goals that are more multiple, conflicting, and vague than the goals of business firms (due in part to political influence and electoral politics schedules). 3) Greater challenges measuring performance. 4) Greater challenges in organizational control, avoiding red tape, and monitoring employees. At-will employment of private sector vs civil service protections of the public sector. "public and private institutions are alike in only unimportant ways."

Rosenbloom (1983)

Challenges the dominance of the managerial model, instead there are managerial, legal, and political approaches to PA, in modern admin state, an admin agency sometimes must wield executive, legislative, and adjudicative powers.

Gaus (1950)

Changes in People, Place, Technology (Physical and Social), Philosophy, and Crises

Sayre (1951, 1958)

Coined the phrase "High Noon of Orthodoxy" referring to the Brownlow Committee.

Cater (1964)

Coined the term "Iron Triangle" used by Heclo, 1978 and Melnick- critique concept

O'Toole (1986)

Conceptual vagueness- proverbs are problematic- variables drift into PM literature "everything is unique", Top-Down and Bottom-Up are going in different directions, Translating the proverbs for practitioners (utilization of the research for this purpose)

Rizzo, House, & Lerzman (1970)

Construct validation of scales designed to measure role conflict and ambiguity against demographic data (survey). Role theory- expected behaviors are inconsistent and experience stress- therefore become dissatisfied and perform less effectively. Role ambiguity- lack of necessary info available to a giver position within the organization. Role-set of expectations about behavior for a position within a social structure.

Hummel (1977)

Contrary to Goodsell's work on the benefits of bureaucracy, he argues that "bureaucracy is a necessary evil" and the consequence of the need for rational rulemaking in modern society. He argues that bureaucracy may be understood by comparing it to where we would be without it: ex post facto rulemaking, arbitrariness, and inefficiency.

Levine (1978)

Cutback Management, Negative budgeting, managers charged to do more with less with reduced government

Mosher (1968)

Defined Active vs Passive representation. Emphasizes the need to account for historical change and development in the field of public administration; the role of professionals in governance; and the role of public service in society.

Sanford (1967)

Defined Picket-fence federalism- later expanded on by Wright 1974

Arrow (1951)

Demonstrates that the aggregation of collective preferences is likely to lead to irrational social action. Social interaction necessitates conformance to preferences that often do not align with the priorities of the individual. Ironically, with this acceptance, he directly attacked the neoclassical base from whence he came (i.e., idealization of markets). His work demonstrates importance of org behavior.

Heclo (1978)

Development of specialized subcultures composed of highly knowledgeable policy-watchers. These policy-watchers thrive in "issue networks" (i.e., webs of influence that provoke/guide exercise of power) Issue network: A shared knowledge group having to do with some aspect (or as identified by the network, some problem) of public policy. He shows how politicized organizational culture increases the influence of political appointees, who are becoming more like "journeymen of issues" than technocrats. They are, rather, leaders of "proto-bureaucracies"—the supportive structures and institutions within networks: academia, government, business, and elective politics.

Elmore (1982)

Direct attack to Top-Down approach, critical of control (The more you adhere to rules, the less successful you will be.) Legislators rarely use the backward mapping process, therefore they miss out on the diversity of the target population. Conflict and bargaining=good

Ouchi (1978)

Equity is mediated by organizations. Markets (under certain conditions can offer lower transaction costs), bureaucracy, and clans/orgs (not based on rational/legal but socially shared norms-- socialization is necessary to get things done)

Tullock (1977)

Examines the increased centralization and growth of the federal government in the twentieth century. He questions whether the government expands in direct response to the demands of ordinary people or if government operates independently of the people. In sum, the overinvestment produces more government than is needed and wanted by the average voter. Buchanan's proposed solution to reduce excessive governmental spending is to address the motivational structure of bureaucracy rather than aggregate budgetary or tax levels.

Taylor (1911)

FOUR KEY PRINCIPLES: (1) development of science to obtain permanent record for best practices; (2) scientific selection, targeted training, and progressive development of each worker; (3) "bringing together" of the scientific practices and the trained employee; (4) new division of labor; equal work of the institution between workers and management. "Soldiering"

White (1926)

Four Main Pillars of PA: 1) Admin is a single process. 2) The study of admin should start from the base of management rather than the foundation of law. 3) Admin is primarily an art, but has the potential to transition to a science. 4) Admin has become and will continue to be at the heart of problem of modern government.

Lipsky (1980)

Front-line bureaucratcs are policy makers to due their discretion, accountability of these individual is challenging especially when front-line services are contracted out

Cohen, March, and Olsen (1972)

Garbage Can Model- Organized anarchy- incremental and rational choice. Problem stream (problematic preferences, ex university setting and decision making) Policy Stream (uncertain technologies- different tools, rarely communicate with each other) and Political Stream (fluid participation of actors)

Dahl and Lindblom (1953)

Goals are more multiple, conflicting, and vague than the goals of business firms. Agencies are distinct from private firms in the greater multiplicity and diversity of the agencies objectives.

Locke (1968)

Goals that are specific, challenging, reachable, and acceptable to employees lead to higher performance than goals that are unclear, unchallenging, and attainable. How the organization sets goals matters for employee motivation, this is particularly true when goals are linked to autonomy and discretion which have shown have the greatest impact on motivation and performance.

Mayo (1933)

Hawthorne Experiments- treat workers with respect, foster a sense of community to increase commitment and productivity. Several studies and theories have drawn upon the Hawthorne experiments, including Maslow's "hierarchy of needs" and McGregor's "Theory X and Theory Y." The Hawthorne experiments provided the first empirical challenge to Frederick Taylor's notions of scientific management by demonstrating that there are many complex and interconnected variables that can help develop a highly motivated workforce to improve overall productivity. The basis for the human relations school of management

Downs (1957)

He aims to present a government decision-making theory by applying microeconomic analysis concepts. He provides rational behavior explanations to the actions of parties, government and individuals. The social function of government -which is to formulate and carry out policies when in power as the government-- is actually a by-product of their private motive --which is to attain the income, power, and prestige of being in office. A truly useful theory of government action in a democracy-or in any other type of society must be both economic and political in nature.

Maslow (1943)

Hierarchy of needs: physiological, security, social, esteem, and self-actualization; explains why employees respond differently to different incentives.

Gareth Morgan (1986)

His book "Images of Organization" describes the main ideas underlying Contingency Theory in a nutshell 1) Organizations are open systems that need careful management to satisfy and balance internal needs and to adapt to environmental circumstances. 2) There is no one best way of organizing. The appropriate form depends on the kind of task or environment one is dealing with. 3) Management must be concerned, above all else, with achieving alignments and good fits. 4) Different types or species of organizations are needed in different types of environments. Describes the organization as (1) machines, (2) organisms, (3) brains, (4) cultures, (5) political systems, (6) psychic prisons, (7) flux and transformation, and (8) instruments of domination.

McGregor, Jr. (1988)

Human capital is not a commodity like other types of capital that is easily priced and purchased because it relies on the intangible capabilities of the workers in an organization

Lasswell (1936)

In a broad sense, all administrative decisions involving the allocation of public resources are essentially "political" in that they determine, "who gets what, when and how"; and they ultimately rest on interpretations and judgment exercised by individual public employees.

Wood (1988)

Quest for parsimony- Hierarchy model and Principal-Agent theory (not completely able to explain behavior). 3rd generation with a focus on a single organization- EPA—is it really 3rd gen? Responsiveness of EPA to elected political institutions (Pol have little manipulation over bur). Quantitative version of P&W.

March and Simon (1958)

In rapidly changing environments specialization carries much higher risks. Thus organizations attempt to stabilize their environments by homogenizing materials, using interchangeable parts, holding buffer inventories in order to maintain specialization. The concept of bounded rationality provides a rational not only for the division of work but also for the decentralization of decision making. Given existing limits on human capacity, decentralized systems in which decisions are moved down and out to larger numbers of individuals are preferred over centralized systems.

Madison (1787-88)

In the Federalist Papers, he wrote on the topic of implementation saying, "A good government implies two things; first, fidelity to the object of the government; secondly, a knowledge of the means, by which those objects can be best attained."

Gulick (1937)

Largely drawn from the work of French industrialist Henri Fayol, established the management philosophy PODSCORB. It first appeared in a staff paper by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick written for the Brownlow Committee. The acronym stands for steps in the administrative process: Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.

Mintzberg (1979)

Management and coordination oriented, divisions of labor. Used the concept of roles to identify the three primary managerial roles: Symbolic, Relationship building, External Enviro Liasion

Drucker (1954)

Management by Objectives- The essence of MBO is participative goal setting, choosing course of actions and decision making.

Wildavsky and Pressmen (1973)

Most of the implementation literature, however, quickly moved to the analysis of failure. In one early book, their book describes their investigation into one Oakland, California, federal grant program with a famous subtitle: "How Great Expectations in Washington Are Dashed in Oakland; Or, Why It's Amazing That Federal Programs Work At All." Students of implementation concentrated on why so often government programs failed to achieve the goals that Congress set for them.

Mary Parker Follett (1926)

Move beyond top-down authority, autonomy and discretion for employees in the most important (well before its time), analysis of Matrix organizations, situation evolves showing need for participatory management and feedback

Olson (1971)

Nail in the pluralist coffin was the introduction of the collective action problems. If everyone in a group (of any size) has interests in common, then they will act collectively to achieve them; and in a democracy, the greatest concern is that the majority will tyrannize and exploit the minority. individuals in any group attempting collective action will have incentives to "free ride" on the efforts of others if the group is working to provide public goods. Individuals will not "free ride" in groups which provide benefits only to active participants.

Hood (1990)

New Public Management tenants: Move toward greater competition in the public sector, needs to be more like the private sector, focus on outputs-- development of "explicit standards and measures of performance" according to which government agencies are to be assessed, professionalization. NPM methodology based on case study and inductive logic. Modern concepts of public mgmt work in practice but not in theory. Doctrines: Contracting out, Decentralizing, Greater discretion to managers, Citizen or customer choices, Deregulating, Organizing so there is competition, Determining effectiveness according to outcome measurement. In applying these doctrines, the public manager must be a leader, an entrepreneur, and practice governance (but he is still a bureaucrat)

Kingsely (1944)

Normative theory that calls for bureaucracy's social composition to reflect that of the general population. Coined the term Representative Bureaucracy

Rainey (1983)

One of the first empirical papers testing differences between public and private organizations. Public organizations more likely for formalization ("rule-bound"), state sets context for ownership and funding. The public managers perceive a weaker relationship between performance and extrinsic rewards (weaker "expectancies'") and regard formal personnel procedures (e.g., civil service systems) as constraints on the administration of such rewards. They show higher scores on formalization scales, and are lower on certain dimensions of work satisfaction. There are no differences on scales of organizational goal clarity, role conflict, role ambiguity, and motivational variables.

Merton (1940)

One of the first scholars to criticize bureaucracy shortcomings. Claimed an overreliance on rigid procedures and structures is not conducive to environmental changes, afraid that rules become values overtime.

DiMaggio and Powell (1983)

Others ask Why do these organizations look alike in comparative studies? They ask "Why do these organizations look the same?" Policy Areas- shared resources and operating philosophies. Bureaucracies subject to "isomorphism"- a "constraining process that forces one unit in a population to resemble other units that face the same set of environmental conditions." Subject to powerful homogenizing forces, which may enhance org effectiveness in the short run but will eventually hamper performance by reducing organization innovation.

Goodsell, Rohr, Wamsley (1979)

Part of the Blackburg Manifesto Project structural design of govt should adhere to moral standards of Const; not efficiency-enhancing, but rather protective of civil liberties.

Max Weber (1922)

Principle characteristics of bureaucracy: Fixed authority- jurisdictions are clearly specified; activities are distributed as official duties Hierarchy of Officers- Subordinates follow orders of superiors, but have right of appeal- Means of production or administration belong to office, not the person in the office Career Service- Employment by the organization is a career; job stability; tenure of position; protects from arbitrary dismissal Principal of Rules- Rules are stable, exhaustive, and can be learned; Decisions are recorded in permanent file.

Waldo (1948)

Rejects the notion that administration is free from politics- no ideal form of organization. Being politically savvy is important for admins, Scientific management doesn't work in public sector because it's a private sector ideal- public sector has politics (a threat to efficiency)

Merton (1957)

Role of individual personalities in the decision-making process. Depersonalization in bureaucracy and the negatives. People are rewarded for following the rules, that they lose sight of the mission of the organization. Rules ceased to be a means to an end and become ends in themselves (goal displacement).

Perrow (1979)

Rules protect as well as restrict; coordinate as well as block; channel effectiveness as well as limit it; permit universalism as well as provide sanctuary for the inept; maintain stability as well as retard change; permit diversity as well as restrict it.

Lindblom (1959)

Science of Muddling Through, policy-making process consists of small, incremental changes in response to short-term political conditions.

March and Olsen (1989)

Sees organizations as bounded social constructs of rules, roles, norms, and the expectations that constrain individual and group choice and behavior. "Preferences are inconsistent, changing, and at least partly endogenous, formed within political institutions" Emphasize the logic of appropriateness is based on the assumption that institutional life is organized by sets of shared memories and practices that come to be takes as given.

Frederickson (1971)

Spirit of PA is linked to NPA, calls for second-generational behavioralism- admin more responsive to public, more prescriptive, more client-oriented boundary exchange, more normative, but still scientific. It emphasizes that social equity is necessary and representative democracy is too slow.

Romzek and Dubnick (1987)

Study of NASA post-challenger tragedy, identify four types of accountability- (legal, political, bureaucratic, and professional). Public Administration accountability involves the means by which public agencies and their workers manage the diverse expectations generated within and outside the organization. Political pressure was in the form of meeting unofficial deadlines for launch, this pressure rippled through the agency. The Bureaucratic pressure was a shift form a decentralized matrix configuration to one that was hierarchical and vertical in communication channels, in this arrangement there was essentially no incentive for lower and middle managers to communicate issues up the chain, but try to deal with them at their level. Units at NASA were in competition with each other, not coordination.

Selznick (1949)

Study of TVA and the grassroots, notion of cooptation, refers to an organization's act of "bringing in" and subsuming a threatening actor. First major sociological treatment of "powers" of admin orgs and their impacts upon democratic society and public participation in policy-making. Launched the study of "systems" via organizations interacting with their environment.

Ammons & Rodriguez (1986)

Survey responses of officials in 122 major U.S. cities to examine the methods and objectives of, and satisfaction with, appraisal practices affecting Upper management in city governments. observed trends toward attempting to tie both appraisal and pay more closely to measurable performance, toward more collaborative appraisal systems and greater employee participation in the establishment of performance targets, and away from "person-based" or "trait-based" rating system.

Berman (1978)

Synthesis essay- loose-coupling within hierarchy, effectiveness versus validity, Presents an alternative to the stages model- macro and micro implementation (social policy arena), Although the new PI analysis are moving away from the single-policy case studies to provide more generalizable theories, we cannot expect a theory of implementation that is "context free."

Stoker (1989)

Synthetic essay that presents a conceptual framework of PI with Three models of Federalist Governance: Instrumental (Top-Down)- efficiency, Accommodation (Bottom-Up)- exchange relationships, cooperation and defections, Regime Model (Combination)- cooperation through hierarchy"

Ingraham and Schneider (1990)

The Behavioral Assumptions of Policy tools/ design- implementation failures just need to write better policy on the front end. Sandford (2000)- doesn't work because st level bureaucrats still have discretion in making policy. Also introduces the social construction of target populations for policy design (1993).

Kaufman (1960)

The Forest Ranger, He uses field research to analyze what influences a forest ranger's "decisions and behaviors" when removed from their superior/direct line of command. Documented the ability of an organization to socialize its members by structuring personnel policies. Rangers were effectively taught to think the same way. The Forest Service used several strategies to develop the will and capacity to conform. Power of organizational culture as force constraining decisions. Behavior of public servants in the field, well removed from constraints of formal central control; also developed population ecology model.

Willoughby (1918)

The Movement for Budgetary Reform in the States - rejects the dichotomy. Member of Taft Commission of 1912, first call for a national executive budgeting system, and key role in writing the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, which established an executive budgeting system, the Budget Office, and the General Accounting Office.

Dahl (1947)

The Science of PA- "Administration is politics" 1) complex human behavior 2) normative values 3) relationship between PA and the social setting

O'Toole (1984)

The conventional wisdom concerning American public administrative thought suggests that a naive orthodoxy in vogue during the first portion of this century, was exposed as ideology a few decades ago and that the demise of the orthodoxy signaled the rise of innumerable perspectives. In this article, however, it is proposed that American public administration has retained an orthodoxy of reform in its continuing series of attempts to reconcile the tensions between democracy and bureaucracy. An analysis of the idea of reform as reflected in several significant administrative writings suggests one reason why the efforts of American administrative theorists have been consistently unsatisfying.

Romzek (1985)

The effects of public service recognition, job security, and staff reductions on organizational involvement.

Bardach (1977)

The implementation game: What happens after a bill becomes a law. Contingency theory of implementation. Implementation is too context heavy to have a general theory. Attempts to gain parsimony in PI research by studying gaming. Types of Games: Delay as a game-good from the Bottom-Up perspective (negotiation), different than P&W who says delay=failure. Management Games, and Diversion of Resources Games"

Thompson (1967)

The rational, closed-system approach concerned with goal achievement-characteristic of theorists such as Weber and Taylor-and the natural, open-system approach concerned with survival--characteristic of theorists such as Barnard and Selznick. Thompson argues that both conceptions miss important elements of organizational behavior: On the one hand, the closed-system approach ignores uncertainty to see rationality; on the other hand, the open-system approach ignores rational action to see spontaneous processes (p 10). Thompson co-opts both approaches, conceiving of complex organizations as "open systems, hence indeterminate and faced with uncertainty, but at the same time as subject to criteria of rationality and hence needing determinateness and certainty" (p 10). "Contingency Theory"

Woodrow Wilson (1887)

The study of Administration. Admin questions are not political questions. "Its getting harder to run a constitution than to frame one." Needs more aggressive administrative state because industrialization provides jobs to more immigrants, larger urban populations, admin state to provide centralized decision-making. 1) Establishes Progressive Reform, End Patronage 2) Separate Politics from Admin (officially establish the dichotomy) 3) Admin of Elite Experts 4) Efficiency like a Business- Figure out what government can do and how it can do it more efficient and lower costs.

Berger and Luckmann (1966)

Their book introduced the term social construction into the social sciences. Their work emphasizes that individuals that interact in a social system are institutionalized via habituation. In the process of this institutionalization, knowledge and people's conception of what reality is becomes rooted in the institutional fabric of society. Thus they claim, as the title of their book suggests, that reality is socially constructed.

Barnard (1938)

Theory of the organization as a cooperative system. Organizations are "consciously coordinated activities of forces of two or more persons". Counters Gulick. 1st comprehensive behavioral theory of management. Authority comes from the ability to communicate. Zone of Indifference: comprised of tasks that a subordinate would unquestionably accept as opposed to orders that might be rejected because the burden exceeds the motive. Exec must be cognizant of this zone. Like Simon's "zone of acceptability" and March and Olsen's "logic of appropriateness".

DeHoog (1984)

Three Models for Service Contracting: Competition, Negotiation, or Cooperation. Public managers should consider the 1) external (e.g. number of competitors), 2) internal (expertise on staff), and 3) resource environments before deciding whether to contract out and which contracting model to use. The main point is that there is no one best way to contract for services; rather, government units should adapt their contracting procedures to both internal external conditions to implement service contracting in an effective manner.

Lowi (1969)

Three charges against pluralism: 1. Propagates and perpetuates the faith that a system built primarily upon groups and bargaining is perfectly self-correcting 2. Failed to grapple with the problem of oligopoly or imperfect competition as it expresses itself in the political system 3. Depends on the idealized and almost miscast conception of the group—ignoring Madison's conception that factions are "adverse to the right of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community" To Madison and early progressives, groups were evils much in need of regulation. To the modern pluralist, groups are good and require accommodation."

Goodnow (1900)

Two functions of government: Politics (policies or expressions) and Administration (execution of the state's will). Popular government requires that the executing authority (Admin) be subordinate to the expressing authority (Politics) because under democratic society, politics can be made more representative of the people.

McGregor (1957)

Two methods of motivation: Theory X (top-down, command-and control); Theory Y (integration and self-direction)

Lowi (1964)

Typology of agencies are based on four primary categories of agencies--Regulatory, Distributive, Redistributive, and Constituent. Each type of agency develops ''its own characteristic political structure, political process, elites, and group relations''"

Vroom (1964)

Under certain conditions Theory X vs Theory Y may be more applicable. Defines motivation as a "process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activity, a process controlled by the individual". Expectancy theory- employees are motivated by expected outcomes and the likelihood that those outcomes will occur.

Tullock (1962)

Uses an economic approach in an attempt to explain the rules governing public administration as well as its outcomes, which is a seminal work in public choice theory. Public choice theory applies this cost-benefit analysis seen in private decision making to political decision making.

Goodsell (1983)

Uses empirical data from citizen surveys, inquiries about client satisfaction and bureaucrats' performance records to make his case for bureaucracy. Based on the results, he attempted to debunk four myths about bureaucracy: (1) the implicit assumption that all bureaucracies are the same; (2) the suspicion that bureaucracy is a middle-class institution that is biased against minorities and the poor; (3) the notion, previously discussed that the private sector is more efficient than the public sector; and (4) the idea that bureaucracy is not innovative and fights change. Demonstrated that American public servants and bureaucracy perform well and people were overall satisfied with public servants, services, and performances. That is, contrary to popular beliefs, bureaucracies are neither great waste nor a threat to liberty, but social assets of critical value to a functioning democracy.

Argyris (1954)

Variances between an employee's goals and the organization's goals can lead a good employee to become passive, dependent, and submissive over time. Employee may leave the organization; Attempt to move to a higher level w/in the org; Become apathetic and uninvolved. When individual members and organizations fit each other—when their goals are congruent—organizational effectiveness will be fostered because members will devote their efforts to organizational goal achievement. Assumed congruence between person and organization to be rare.

Herzberg (1968)

Wages are not influential or motivational. Job enrichment (good for motivation) vs job enlargement (bad for motivation). People are motivated by work that actually challenges and engages them. Established Two-factors: hygiene (environment) and motivating (satisfying) factors

Rohr (1979)

Written in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal, administrators should adhere to "regime values", in constitutional systems, these values derive from the constitution itself

Friedrich and Finer (1941-42)

autonomy and discretion (Fred) vs accountability (Finer). The consequences of focusing on autonomy and discretion (especially for public/political situations) is the extent to which democratic principles matter. True responsibility is a system of providing direction, correction, punishment and dismissal; this according to Finer was true democracy-management by the people through elected representatives.