Public Speaking Exam 2
Antithesis
A juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, usually in parallel structure "Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country"
Invalid analogy
An analogy in which the two cases being compared are essentially alike "Employees are like nails. Just as nails must be hit on the head to get them to work, so must employees."
Fallacies
An error in reasoning, avoid
Appealing to emotions
Are intended to make listeners feel sad, angry, guilty, afraid, happy, proud, sympathetic, etc. These are often appropriate reactions when the question one of value or policy - Don't over do it, develop vivid examples - Speak with sincerity and conviction - But keep it ethical
Three most important qualities of acceptance speech
Brevity, humility, and graciousness
Derived
Credibility produced by everything they say or do during the speech
Character
How an audience regards a speaker's sincerity, trustworthiness, and concern for the well being of the audience
Competence
How an audience regards a speakers intelligence, expertise, and knowledge of a subject
Reasoning from principle
Reasoning that moves from a general principle to a specific conclusion a. Begin with a general statement, move to a minor premise, and end with a specific conclusion
Analyzing questions of value
You must justify your claim, be sure to give special thought to the standards for your value judgment
Topic
You would not use a metaphor or alliteration in an instructional speech
Factors of credibility
sociability, dynamism, physical attractiveness, and perceived similarity between audience and speaker - Competence - Character
Terminal
Credibility of a speaker at the end of a speech
Familiar words
Everyday words, not overly technical
Enhancing credibility
- Explain your competence - Establish common ground with your audience o Creating common ground: a technique in which a speaker connects themselves with the values, attitudes, or experiences of the audience - Deliver your speeches fluently, expressively and with conviction o If you want others to believe and care about your ideas, you must believe and care about them yourself
They assess speakers...
Credibility Delivery Supporting materials Language Reasoning Emotional appeal
Metaphor
A comparison no using like or as
Simili
A comparison using like or as
Hasty generalization
A fallacy in which a speaker jumps to a general conclusion on the basis of insufficient evidence "Throughout American history, military leaders have always made excellent Presidents. Look at the examples of Washington, Jackson and Eisenhower."
False cause
A fallacy in which a speaker mistakenly assumes that because one event follows another, the first event is the cause of the second. - Post hoc, ergo propter hoc
Appeal to tradition
A fallacy in which assumes that something old is automatically better than something new
Ad hominine
A fallacy that attacks the person rather than dealing with the real issue in dispute "The head of the commerce commission has a number of interesting economic proposals, but let's not forget that she comes from a very wealthy family."
Either or
A fallacy that forces listeners to choose between two alternatives when more than two alternatives exist, AKA false dilemma "The government must either raise taxes or eliminate services for the poor."
Red herring
A fallacy that introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the subject under discussion "How dare my opponents accuse me of political corruption at a time when we are working to improve the quality of life for al people in the United States."
Bandwagon
A fallacy, which assumes that because something is popular, it is therefore good, correct, or desirable
Appeal to novelty
A fallacy, which assumes that something new is automatically better then something old
Slippery slope
A fallacy, which assumes that taking a first step, will lead to subsequent steps that cannot be prevented.
Comparative Advantages Order
A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which each main point explains why a speaker's solution to a problem is preferable to other proposed solutions - Your audience already knows the problem exists - Compare the advantages and disadvantages
Problem-Solution Order
A method of organizing persuasive speeches in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem
Monroe's Motivated Sequence
A method of organizing persuasive speeches that seek immediate action. The five steps of motivated sequence are attention, need, satisfaction, visualization and action - Attention: gain it - Need: make them feel a need for change, show them there's a serious problem and evidence- psychologically primed to hear your solution - Satisfaction: solution to problem, with details - Visualization: visualizing benefits - Action: call for action, say exactly what you want them to do
Problem-Cause-Solution Order
A method of persuasive speeches in which the first main point identifies the problem, the second main point analyzes the causes of the problem, and the third main point presents a solution to the problem
Speeches to gain passive agreement
A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience that a given policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of the policy
Speeches to gain immediate attention
A persuasive speech in which the speaker's goal is to convince the audience to take action in support of a given policy - Seek action from your audience whenever possible - Action reinforces belief - Make recommendations as specific as possible
Question of fact
A question about the truth or falsity of an assertion - Many questions of fact cannot be answered absolutely
Question of value
A question about the worth, rightness, morality, and so forth of an idea or action - Value judgments based on a persons beliefs about what is right or wrong, good or bad, moral or immoral, proper or improper, and fair or unfair
Questions of policy
A question about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken - Questions of policy inevitably involve questions of fact (& sometimes value too)
Clearly
A speakers meaning must be immediately comprehensible, no chance of misunderstanding
Speeches of acceptance
A speech that gives thanks for a gift, an award or some other form of public recognition
Speech of introduction
A speech that introduces that main speaker to the audience - Be brief - Make sure your remarks are completely accurate - Adapt your remarks to the occasion - Adapt your remarks to the main speaker - Adapt your remarks to the audience - Try to create a sense of anticipation and drama
Speeches of presentation
A speech that presents someone a gift, award, or some other form of public recognition, usually brief. - Main purpose to tell the audience why they are receiving the award, point out contributions, explain the award if the audience is unfamiliar, praise the losers
Use language...
Accurately Clearly Vividly
Speaker
Do not try to become someone when you speak - stay true to you
Ethics and persuasion
Ethically sound goals, know the facts, be honest
Types of speeches
Goal to gain passive agreement or motivate immediate action from your listeners
Types of fallacies
Hasty generalization False cause Invalid analogy Bandwagon Red herring Ad hominine Either or Slippery slope Appeal to tradition Appeal to novelty Appeal to emotions
What is more important in commemorative speeches?
INSPIRE
Using language vividly
Imagery Simili Metaphor Rhythm
Types of credibility
Initial Derived Terminal
Reasoning
Is the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence. First make sure your own reasoning is sound; second try to get listeners to agree with your reasoning
Speakers body
Kinesics Personal appearance Movement Gestures Eye contact
Inclusive language
Language that does not stereotype, demean, or patronize people on the basis of gender, race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or other factors
Name Aristotle gave evidence
Logos
The challenge of persuasive speaking
Most complex and challenging form of public speaking, no matter how good you do- some people will still not agree with you - Speech is a success if it leads to even just a few reexamining their views - It's a moving scale of degrees of persuasion strongly in favor to strongly opposed
Analyzing questions of policy
Need Burden of proof Plan Practicality
Using language appropriately
Occasion Audience Topic Speaker
Commemorative speeches
Pays tribute to a person, group, institution or idea; speeches of praise or celebration, informative speech, essence of your subject to generate deep sense of respect, depends the most on creative and subtle use of language
How listeners process persuasive messages
Persuasion is something a speaker does with an audience, listeners engage in a mental give and take with the speaker, they assess speakers creditability, delivery, supporting materials, language, reasoning and emotion appeals, mental give and take is strongest if listeners are highly involved with the topic
Analyzing questions of fact
Persuasive speeches are partisan (as opposed to informative which are nonpartisan) - Advocate - Impartial- when still presenting one side persuasively
What affect the way a listener responds to a speaker?
Posture Facial expression Gestures Eye contact
Organizing speeches on question of policy
Problem solution Problem cause solution Comparative advantages
Methods of delivery
Reading verbatim from a manuscript Reciting a memorized text Speaking impromptu Speaking extemporaneously
Analogical reasoning
Reasoning in which a speaker compares two similar cases and infers that what is true for the first case is also true for the second a. You are more likely to persuade your audience if the analogy shows a truly parallel situation
Reasoning from specific instances
Reasoning that moves from particular facts to a general conclusion a. Beware of jumping to conclusions on the basis of insufficient evidence b. Make sure your sample of specific instances is large enough to justify your conclusion c. Make sure the instances you present are fair, unbiased and representative d. Reinforce your argument with statistics and testimony
Causal reasoning
Reasoning that seeks to establish the relationship between causes and effects a. The relationship between cause and effect is not always clear and usually there are many causes
Repetition
Reiteration of the same word or set of words at the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences
Alliteration
Repetition of the initial consonant sound of close or adjoining words
Accurately
Right word vs. almost right word
Types of reasoning
Specific instances Principle Causal Analogical
Credibility
The audience's perception of whether a speaker is qualified to speak on a given topic. The two major factors influencing a speaker's credibility are competence and character. It is an attitude.
The psychology of persuasion
The challenge of persuasive speaking How listeners process Mental dialogue with audience Target audience
Initial
The credibility of a speaker before they start to speak
Need
The first basic issue in analyzing questions of policy: is there a serious problem or need that requires a change from current policy?
Denotative meaning
The literal or dictionary meaning of a word or phrase
Connotative meaning
The meaning suggested by the associations or emotions triggered by a word or phrase
Mental Dialogue With Audience
The mental give-and-take between speaker and listener during a persuasive speech
Ethos
The name used by Aristotle for what modern students of communication refer to as credibility; aka: source credibility (who's saying it)
Pathos
The name used by Aristotle what modern students of communication refer to as emotional appeal
Burden of proof
The obligation facing a persuasive speaker to prove that a change from current policy is necessary
Rhythm
The pattern of sound in a speech created by the choice and arrangement of words Parallelism Repetition Alliteration Antithesis
Persuasion
The process of creating, reinforcing or changing peoples beliefs or actions
Plan
The second basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: if there is a problem with current policy, does the speaker have a plan to solve the problem?
Parallelism
The similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words, phrases or sentences
Practicality
The third basic issue in analyzing a question of policy: will the speaker's plan solve the problem? Will it create new and more serious problems? - Must be prepared to show it is workable- assurance
Imagery
The use of vivid language to create mental images of objects, actions, or ideas. You want listeners to see or hear what you are describing. - concrete words enhance clarity and are key to effective imagery, they call up mental impressions of sights, sounds, smells, tastes - bring color to speech
Organizing speeches of questions of value
Topically
Organizing speeches on questions of fact
Topically
Concrete words
Words that refer to tangible objects (people, place, things)
Vividly
Use right words, but must be interesting
Audience
Very important with technical topics, avoid offensive language
What are the aspects of voce you should work to control?
Volume Pitch Rate Pauses Vocal variety Pronunciation Articulation Dialect
Abstract words
Words that refer to an idea or concept
Using evidence
supporting materials used to prove or disprove something, examples, statistics, testimony, etc. - Crucial when your target audience opposes your point of view - Use specific evidence: statistics, examples, testimony - Use novel evidence: new to audience - Evidence from credible sources - Make clear the point of your evidence