Quiz Week 2 questions + chap 3 and 4

cytoskeleton

"skeleton" of a cell; formed by rod-like proteins that support the cell's shape and provide, among other functions, locomotive abilities--- group of fibrous proteins that makes structural support for cells --- cell motility, cell reproduction, transportation substances within the cell

body contains

200 distinct cells

How many "letters" of an RNA molecule, in sequence, does it take to provide the code for a single amino acid?

3

What are cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases, and how do they interact?

A cyclin is one of the primary classes of cell cycle control molecules, while a cyclin-dependent kinase (is one of a group of molecules that work together with cyclins to determine progression past cell checkpoints. By interacting with many additional molecules, these triggers push the cell cycle forward unless prevented from doing so by "stop" signals, if for some reason the cell is not ready.

Why does an injury to cartilage, especially hyaline cartilage, heal much more slowly than a bone fracture?

A layer of dense irregular connective tissue covers cartilage. No blood vessels supply cartilage tissue. Injuries to cartilage heal very slowly because cells and nutrients needed for repair diffuse slowly to the injury site.

Discuss changes that occur in cells as a person ages.

All cells experience changes with aging. They become larger, and many cannot divide and regenerate. Because of alterations in cell membranes, transport of oxygen and nutrients into the cell and removal of carbon dioxide and waste products are not as efficient in the elderly. Cells lose their ability to function, or they begin to function abnormally, leading to disease and cancer.

One of the main functions of connective tissue is to integrate organs and organ systems in the body. Discuss how blood fulfills this role.

Blood is a fluid connective tissue, a variety of specialized cells that circulate in a watery fluid containing salts, nutrients, and dissolved proteins in a liquid extracellular matrix. Blood contains formed elements derived from bone marrow. Erythrocytes, or red blood cells, transport the gases oxygen and carbon dioxide. Leukocytes, or white blood cells, are responsible for the defense of the organism against potentially harmful microorganisms or molecules. Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. Some cells have the ability to cross the endothelial layer that lines vessels and enter adjacent tissues. Nutrients, salts, and waste are dissolved in the liquid matrix and transported through the body.

Which of the following sequences on a DNA molecule would be complementary to GCTTATAT?

CGAATATA

The structure of a tissue usually is optimized for its function. Describe how the structure of individual cells and tissue arrangement of the intestine lining matches its main function, to absorb nutrients.

Columnar epithelia, which form the lining of the digestive tract, can be either simple or stratified. The cells are long and narrow. The nucleus is elongated and located on the basal side of the cell. Ciliated columnar epithelium is composed of simple columnar epithelial cells that display cilia on their apical surfaces.

Which of the following is not a difference between DNA and RNA?

DNA contains alternating sugar-phosphate molecules whereas RNA does not contain sugars

Explain in your own words why DNA replication is said to be "semiconservative"?

DNA replication is said to be semiconservative because, after replication is complete, one of the two parent DNA strands makes up half of each new DNA molecule. The other half is a newly synthesized strand. Therefore, half ("semi") of each daughter DNA molecule is from the parent molecule and half is a new molecule.

Place the following structures in order from least to most complex organization: chromatin, nucleosome, DNA, chromosome

DNA, nucleosome, chromatin, chromosome

Why is it important that DNA replication take place before cell division? What would happen if cell division of a body cell took place without DNA replication, or when DNA replication was incomplete?

During cell division, one cell divides to produce two new cells. In order for all of the cells in your body to maintain a full genome, each cell must replicate its DNA before it divides so that a full genome can be allotted to each of its offspring cells. If DNA replication did not take place fully, or at all, the offspring cells would be missing some or all of the genome. This could be disastrous if a cell was missing genes necessary for its function and health.

Discuss two reasons why the therapeutic use of embryonic stem cells can present a problem.

Embryonic stem cells derive from human embryos, which are destroyed to obtain the cells. The destruction of human embryos is an ethical problem. And, the DNA in an embryonic stem cell would differ from the DNA of the person being treated, which could result in immune problems or rejected of tissue.

Which of the following phases is characterized by preparation for DNA synthesis?

G1

What would happen if anaphase proceeded even though the sister chromatids were not properly attached to their respective microtubules and lined up at the metaphase plate?

One or both of the new daughter cells would accidently receive duplicate chromosomes and/or would be missing certain chromosomes.

What materials can easily diffuse through the lipid bilayer, and why?

Only materials that are relatively small and nonpolar can easily diffuse through the lipid bilayer. Large particles cannot fit in between the individual phospholipids that are packed together, and polar molecules are repelled by the hydrophobic/nonpolar lipids that line the inside of the bilayer.

Compare and contrast lysosomes with peroxisomes: name at least two similarities and one difference.

Peroxisomes and lysosomes are both cellular organelles bound by lipid bilayer membranes, and they both contain many enzymes. However, peroxisomes contain enzymes that detoxify substances by transferring hydrogen atoms and producing H2O2, whereas the enzymes in lysosomes function to break down and digest various unwanted materials.

learn about the endomembrane system, which includes the rough and smooth ER and the Golgi body as well as lysosomes and vesicles. What is the primary role of the endomembrane system?

Processing, packaging, and moving (export) materials manufactured by the cell.

ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

RNA that makes up the subunits of a ribosome- attaches each new amino acid to the last building polypeptide chain

Why is receptor-mediated endocytosis said to be more selective than phagocytosis or pinocytosis?

Receptor-mediated endocytosis is more selective because the substances that are brought into the cell are the specific ligands that could bind to the receptors being endocytosed. Phagocytosis or pinocytosis, on the other hand, have no such receptor-ligand specificity, and bring in whatever materials happen to be close to the membrane when it is enveloped.

aspirin is a non-steriodal anti-inflammatory drug )NSAID- that inhibits the formation of blood clots and is taken regularly by individuals with a heart condition. steriods such as coritsol are used to control some autoimmune diseaes and severe arthritis by down-regulating the inflammatory repsonse. After reading the role of inflammation in the body's response to infection, can you predict an undesirable consequence of taking anti-inflammatory drugs on a regular basis

Since NSAIDs or other anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit the formation of blood clots, regular and prolonged use of these drugs may promote internal bleeding, such as bleeding in the stomach. Excessive levels of cortisol would suppress inflammation, which could slow the wound healing process.

You are watching cells in a dish spontaneously contract. They are all contracting at different rates; some fast, some slow. After a while, several cells link up and they begin contracting in synchrony. Discuss what is going on and what type of cells you are looking at.

The cells in the dish are cardiomyocytes, cardiac muscle cells. They have an intrinsic ability to contract. When they link up, they form intercalating discs that allow the cells to communicate with each other and begin contracting in synchrony.

Identify the four types of tissue in the body, and describe the major functions of each tissue.

The four types of tissue in the body are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. Epithelial tissue is made of layers of cells that cover the surfaces of the body that come into contact with the exterior world, line internal cavities, and form glands. Connective tissue binds the cells and organs of the body together and performs many functions, especially in the protection, support, and integration of the body. Muscle tissue, which responds to stimulation and contracts to provide movement, is divided into three major types: skeletal (voluntary) muscles, smooth muscles, and the cardiac muscle in the heart. Nervous tissue allows the body to receive signals and transmit information as electric impulses from one region of the body to another.

As an individual ages, a constellation of symptoms begins the decline to the point where an individual's functioning is compromised. Identify and discuss two factors that have a role in factors leading to the compromised situation.

The genetic makeup and the lifestyle of each individual are factors which determine the degree of decline in cells, tissues, and organs as an individual ages.

more about the anatomy of epithelial tissues. Where in the body would one find non-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium?

The inside of the mouth, esophagus, vaginal canal, and anus.

Explain why the structure of the ER, mitochondria, and Golgi apparatus assist their respective functions.

The structure of the Golgi apparatus is suited to its function because it is a series of flattened membranous discs; substances are modified and packaged in sequential steps as they travel from one disc to the next. The structure of Golgi apparatus also involves a receiving face and a sending face, which organize cellular products as they enter and leave the Golgi apparatus. The ER and the mitochondria both have structural specializations that increase their surface area. In the mitochondria, the inner membrane is extensively folded, which increases surface area for ATP production. Likewise, the ER is elaborately wound throughout the cell, increasing its surface area for functions like lipid synthesis, Ca++ storage, and protein synthesis.

The zygote *fertilized cell- egg and sperm) is described as totipotent because it ultimately gives rise to all the cells in your body including the highly specialized cells of your nervous system. Describe this transition, discussing the steps and processes that lead to these specialized cells.

The zygote divides into many cells. As these cells become specialized, they lose their ability to differentiate into all tissues. At first they form the three primary germ layers. Following the cells of the ectodermal germ layer, they too become more restricted in what they can form. Ultimately, some of these ectodermal cells become further restricted and differentiate in to nerve cells.

What do osmosis, diffusion, filtration, and the movement of ions away from like charge all have in common? In what way do they differ?

These four phenomena are similar in the sense that they describe the movement of substances down a particular type of gradient. Osmosis and diffusion involve the movement of water and other substances down their concentration gradients, respectively. Filtration describes the movement of particles down a pressure gradient, and the movement of ions away from like charge describes their movement down their electrical gradient.

Which of the following is a feature common to all three components of the cytoskeleton?

They are all polymers of protein subunits.

learn about ribosomes. The ribosome binds to the mRNA molecule to start translation of its code into a protein. What happens to the small and large ribosomal subunits at the end of translation?

They separate and move and are free to join translation of other segments of mRNA.

Briefly explain the similarities between transcription and DNA replication.

Transcription and DNA replication both involve the synthesis of nucleic acids. These processes share many common features—particularly, the similar processes of initiation (helicase-untwist&separate), elongation (DNA polymerase corrects bases), and termination (stopped and two new identical dna molecules complete). In both cases the DNA molecule must be untwisted and separated, and the coding (i.e., sense) strand will be used as a template. Also, polymerases serve to add nucleotides to the growing DNA or mRNA strand. Both processes are signaled to terminate when completed.

Explain how a transcription factor ultimately determines whether or not a protein will be present in a given cell?

Transcription factors bind to DNA and either promote or inhibit the transcription of a gene. If they promote the transcription of a particular gene, then that gene will be transcribed and the mRNA subsequently translated into protein. If gene transcription is inhibited, then there will be no way of synthesizing the gene's corresponding protein.

Contrast transcription and translation. Name at least three differences between the two processes.

Transcription is really a "copy" process and translation is really an "interpretation" process, because transcription involves copying the DNA message into a very similar RNA message whereas translation involves converting the RNA message into the very different amino acid message. The two processes also differ in their location: transcription occurs in the nucleus and translation in the cytoplasm. The mechanisms by which the two processes are performed are also completely different: transcription utilizes polymerase enzymes to build mRNA whereas translation utilizes different kinds of RNA to build protein.

The nucleus and mitochondria share which of the following features?

a double cell membrane

reactive oxygen species (ROS)

a group of extremely reactive peroxides and oxygen-containing radicals that may contribute to cellular damage (includes mitochondrial reactions that produce ATP andoxygen metabolism)

tumors, what is a tumor?

a mass of cancer cells that continute to grow and divide

necrosis

accidentatl death of cells and tissues - causes inflmmation

gene expression

active interpretation of the information coded in a gene to produce a functional (final) gene product- dictates structure and function of a cell by determining which proteins are made

Ion pumps and phagocytosis are both examples of ________.

active transport

four dna bases

adenine , thymine, cytosine, guanine ATCG

Which connective tissue specializes in storage of fat?

adipose tissue

mesenchymal cell

adult stem cell from which most connective tissue cells are derived- differentiate into any type of connective tissue cells needed for repair and healing of damaged tissue

cystic fibrosis

affects 30,000 people and new 1,000 cases each year. damage lungs , difficulty breathing and chronic lung infections

the free radical theory

aging was originally proposed- cellular damage from oxidative stress age related disease

striation

alignment of parallel actin and myosin filaments which form a banded pattern

somatic cell

all cells of the body excluding gamete cells - all human cells except for the cells that produce eggs and sperm cells

gap junction

allows cytoplasmic communications to occur between cells- intercellular passageway between membranes of adjacent cells to facilitate the movement of small molecules and ions between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells

learn about DNA replication. DNA replication proceeds simultaneously at several sites on the same molecule. What separates the base pair at the start of DNA replication?

an enzyme

organelle

any of several different types of membrane-enclosed specialized structures in the cell that perform specific functions for the cell (little organ)

A mutation in the gene for a cyclin protein might result in which of the following?

any of the above: a cell with additional genetic material than normal, cancer, a cell with less genetic material than normal

flagellum

appendage on certain cells formed by microtubules and modified for movement- larger than cilium, for cell locomotion--> ex:human sperm cells that propel to female egg cells

hand heal. over what period of time do you think these images were taken?

approximately one month

lamina propria - own layer

areolar connective tissue underlying a mucous membrane- support fragile epithelial layer

loos connective tissue

areolar tissue- tpe of connective tissue proper that shows little specialization with cells dispersed in the matrix

Which of the following central nervous system cells regulate ions, regulate the uptake and/or breakdown of some neurotransmitters, and contribute to the formation of the blood-brain barrier?

astrocytes

what are functions of astrocytes?

astrocytes regulate ions and update and or breakdown of some neurotransmitters and contribute to the formation of the blood-brain-barrier

what are the functions of astrocytes?

astrocytes regulate ions and uptake or breakdown some neurotransmitters and contribute to the formation of the blood-brain- barrier

Which of the following is part of the elongation step of DNA synthesis?

attaching complementary nucleotides to the template strand

The nerve impulse travels down a(n) ________, away from the cell body.

axon

differentiates cell

becomes more speicalized- major changes in its size, shape mtabolic activies and overall function

homeostasis example

blood pressure or blood oxygen moves far enough out of homeostasis (becomes high or low) then illness/disease then death

autolysis

breakdown of cells by their own enzymatic action- cell death controlled - self destruct -- uses mechanism called apoptosis

adhesion

cadherin- embededed int these patches projectsd cell mamrane link cadherin molecules adjacent cells

chondrocytes

cartilage cells, space they occupay are lacunae

tiny fluid filled sacs components responsbile

cell

cancer arises from hemeostatic imbalances

cell cycle control- homeostatic mechanism that maintains proper cell function and health

platelets

cell graments involved in blood clotting

stem cell

cell that is oligo-, multi-, or pleuripotent that has the ability to produce additional stem cells rather than becoming further specialized - can divide witout limit as needed and can differentiate into specialized cells

nucleus

cell's central organelle; contains the cell's DNA--- control center of the cell determines entire structure and function of that cell

clotting

celled coagulation, complex process by which blood components forma plug to stop bleeding- network of fibrin proteins that trap blood cells and bind the edges of wound together

what multipotent stem cells from children sometimes banked by parents

cells from the umbilical cord and from baby teeth

hepatocytes

cells in the liver detoxify many of these toxins

chondrocytes

cells of the cartilage

Connective tissue is made of which three essential components?

cells, ground substance, and protein fibers

Golgi apparatus

cellular organelle formed by a series of flattened, membrane-bound sacs that functions in protein modification, tagging, packaging, and transport, sorting, modify, ship off products that comes from rough ER . Cis receives and trans sends. modification happens inside the golgi.

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

cellular organelle that consists of interconnected membrane-bound tubules, which may or may not be associated with ribosomes (rough type or smooth type, respectively)--- nuclear membrane (envelope) covering nucleus and compose same lipid bilayer material

ribosome

cellular organelle that functions in protein synthesis --- composed ot two ribosomal RNA subunits that wrap around mRNA to start the process of tanslation

centrosome

cellular structure that organizes microtubules during cell division - a pair of centrioles together - side by side being to move apart uring prophase

polypeptide

chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds

mutation

change in the nucleotide sequence in a gene within a cell's DNA. potentially altering protein coded by that gene . (oxidative stress- damager to cellular compoenents cause by ROS- aging process ex. alzheimer's disease. etc)

histamine

chemical compound released by mast cells in response to injury that causes vasodilation and endothelium permeability

cytosol

clear, semi-fluid medium of the cytoplasm, made up mostly of water

In observing epithelial cells under a microscope, the cells are arranged in a single layer and look tall and narrow, and the nucleus is located close to the basal side of the cell. The specimen is what type of epithelial tissue?

columnar

hyaline cartilage

common cartilage consists of short and dispersed collagen fibers large amounts of proeoglycans

nerve cells

communicate with one another with body cells and send rapid signals to inform organism about environment

spliceosome

complex of enzymes that serves to splice out the introns of a pre-mRNA transcript- structure of various proteins and other molecules

which of the following is not a stage of transcription?

complimentation

chromosome

condensed version of chromatin -- composed of DNA and proteins-- humans have 22,000 genes dristributed onto 46 chromosomes

diploid

condition marked by the presence of a double complement of genetic material (two sets of chromosomes, one set inherited from each of two parents) - 23 homologous pairs of chromosomes in each of the somatic cells

primary union

condtion of a wound where the wound edges are close enough to be brought together and fasternded if necessary, allowing quicker and more throughouh healing

connective tissue proper

connective tissue containing a viscous matrix, fibers, and cells

synovial membrane

connective tissue membrane that lines the cavities of freely moveable joints, producing synovial fluid for lubrication - sholder , elbow and knee

dense connective tissue

connective tissue proper that contains many fibers that provide both elasticity and protection

connective tissue membrane

connective tissue that encapsulates organs and lines movable joints

triplet

consecutive sequence of three nucleotides on a DNA molecule that, when transcribed into an mRNA codon, corresponds to a particular amino acid

anticodon

consecutive sequence of three nucleotides on a tRNA molecule that is complementary to a specific codon on an mRNA molecule

codon

consecutive sequence of three nucleotides on an mRNA molecule that corresponds to a specific amino acid -- three base sequence - encode amino acid

A phospholipid molecule

consists of a polar phosphate "head," which is hydrophilic and a non-polar lipid "tail," which is hydrophobic. Unsaturated fatty acids result in kinks in the hydrophobic tails.

cell membrane

consists of two adjacent layers of phospholipids

phospholipid bilayer

consists of two adjacent sheets of phospholipids, arranged tail to tail. The hydrophobic tails associate with one another, forming the interior of the membrane. The polar heads contact the fluid inside and outside of the cell.

amphipathic molecule

contains both hydrophollic and hydrophic region )ex: soap

cleavage furrow

contractile ring that forms around a cell during cytokinesis that pinches the cell into two halves-

cholesterol

contributes to fluidity of the membrane, and there are various proteins embedded within the membrane that have a variety of functions

adenine binds with thymine

cytosine binds with guanine

A lysosome is most closely associated with which cellular activity?

damaged organele - break down and digest unneeded celular components

nervous tissue. what are the main parts of a nerve cell

dendrites, cell body and axon

what are the main parts of a nerve cell?

dendrites, cell body and axon

Ligaments connect bones together and withstand a lot of stress. What type of connective tissue should you expect ligaments to contain?

dense regular connective tissue

Tissue

describe a group of cells found together in the body

hypertonic

describes a solution concentration that is higher than a reference concentration

hypotonic

describes a solution concentration that is lower than a reference concentration

isotonic

describes a solution concentration that is the same as a reference concentration

pluripotent

describes the condition of being able to differentiate into a large variety of cell types - human tissue but cannot support full development of an organism

multipotent

describes the condition of being able to differentiate into different types of cells within a given cell lineage or small number of lineages, such as a red blood cell or white blood cell

unipotent

describes the condition of being committed to a single specialized cell type

oligopotent

describes the condition of being more specialized than multipotency; the condition of being able to differentiate into one of a few possible cell types- becomes few different cell types

homologous

describes two copies of the same chromosome (not identical), one inherited from each parent

concentration gradient

difference in the concentration of a substance between two regions

electrical gradient

difference in the electrical charge (potential) between two regions

undifferentiated cells

differentiate and become specialized in their structure and function. Speicalized tissues that work in concert to perform all functions necessary for living organism

The process by which a less specialized cell matures into a more specialized cell is called ________.

differentiation

osmosis

difficusion of water molecules down their concentration gradient across a selectively permeable membrane

facilitated difusion

diffusion of a substance with the aid of a membrane protein

mitosis

division of genetic material, during which the cell nucleus breaks down and two new, fully functional, nuclei are formed - divded into four major stages - prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase

receptor-ligand interaction is the receptors on nerve cells that bind neurotransmitters

dopamine

The diffusion of substances within a solution tends to move those substances ________ their ________ gradient.

down; concentration

homeostasis

dynamic state of balance within parameters that are compatible with life

Which germ layer gives rise to neurons?

ectoderm

Differentiated cells in a developing embryo derive from ________.

ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

elastic cartilage

elastif fibers as well as collagen and proteoflycans- rigid support as well as elasticity- just like our ear lobes

Which of the following is not a type of tissue?

embryonic

totipotent

embryonic cells that have the ability to differentiate into any type of cell and organ in the body

totipotent

embryonic cells that have the ability to differentiate, divide, develop into any type of cell and organ in the body - enagle an organism to grow and develop

mesenchyme

embryonic tissue from which connective tissue cells derive - first connective tissue in embryo- stem cell line from which all connetive tissuse are later dervied. scattered throughout adult tissue and suply cells needed for replacement and repair

empty

empy

pinocytosis

endocytosis of fluid (cell drinking) contains dissolved substances into a cell through membrane vesicles

phagocytosis

endocytosis of large particles (cell eating)

receptor- mediated endocytosis

endocytosis of ligands atatched to membrane-bound receptors (specific certain substance)

mitochondria

energy-conversion factories of the cell.

genome

entire complement of an organism's DNA; found within virtually every cell--- entire complement of an organisms DNa is replicated

interphase

entire life cycle of a cell, excluding mitosis - period of the cell cycle during which the cell is not dividing-- G1 phase

DNA polymerase

enzyme that functions in adding new nucleotides to a growing strand of DNA during DNA replication

helicase

enzyme that functions to separate the two DNA strands of a double helix during DNA replication

RNA polymerase

enzyme that unwinds DNA and then adds new nucleotides to a growing strand of RNA for the transcription phase of protein synthesis--(elongation stage)

epithelial membrane

epithelium attached to a layer of connective tissue - ex skin

neuron

excitable neural cell that transfer nerve impulses

exocytosis

export of a substance out of a cell by formation of a membrane-boudn vesicle (takeing out of the cell) uses vesicular transport ----- ex: exocytosis is much like endocytosis in reverse. material destined for export is packaged into a vesicle inside the cell.

interstitial fluid (IF)

extracellular fluid not contained within blood vessels./ fluid in the small space between cells not contained within blood vessels

matrix

extracellular material which is producted by the cells embedded in it, containing ground substance and fibers

cell membrane

extremely pliable structure composed primarily of back to back phospholipids (a bilayer)

histone

family of proteins that associate with DNA in the nucleus to form chromatin threads

selective permeability

feature of any barrier that allows certain substances to cross but exclused others

Which of the following processes is not a cardinal sign of inflammation?

fever

elastic fiber

fibrous protein within connective tissue that contains a high percentage of the protein elastin that allows the fibers to stretch and return to original size- straech or compressed returns to original shape

cytokinesis

final stage in cell division, where the cytoplasm divides to form two separate daughter/distinctive cells

telophase

final stage of mitosis- formation of two new daughter nuclei at either end of diving cell- chromosomes return loosely packed chromatin

reticular fiber

fine fibrous protein, made of collagen subunits, which cross-link to form supporting nets within connective tissue - remain narrow and array in branching network

G1 phase

first phase of the cell cycle, after a new cell is born - growth phase in the cell cycle

prophase

first stage of mitosis (and meiosis), characterized by breakdown of the nuclear envelope and condensing of the chromatin to form chromosomes - loosely packed chromatin coils and condense into visible chromosomes

collagen fiber

flexible fibrous proteins that give connective tissue tensile strength - linked togerher to form a long and straight fiber - holds fibers hold together during movement of the body

intracellular fluid (ICF)

fluid interior of the cell/ cytosol of cells

ground substance

fluid or semi-fluid portion ofthe matrix -- crisscrossed by protein fibers

vacuoles

food, contracile, central -- osmosis- water is going inside and needs to get rid of water, so it pumps out excess water

transitional epithelium

form of stratified epithelium found in the urinary tract, characteristized by an apical layer of cells that change shape in response to the presence of urine -bladder

passive transport

form of transport across the cell membrane that does not require input of cellular energy

tight junction

forms an impermeable barrier between cells - separates the cell into apical and basal compartments

proteome

full complement of proteins produced by a cell (determined by the cell's specific gene expression)

parenchyma

functional cells of a gland or organ, in contrast with the supportive or connective tissue of a gland or organ (functional cells, blood vessels, and nervs of the organ)

gene

functional length of DNA that provides the genetic information necessary to build a protein

glycocalyx

fuzzy-appearing coating around the cell formed from glycoproteins and other carbohydrates attached to the cell membrane/ coating of sugar molecules that surrounds the cell membrane

Individuals can slow the rate of aging by modifying all of these lifestyle aspects except for ________.

genetic factors

tissue

group of cells that are similar in form and perform related functions found togher in the body - common to embryonic origin

mucous gland

group of cells that secree muscous, a thick, slipperty substance that keeps tissues moist and acts as a lubricant

serous gland

group of cells within the serous membane tha secrete a lubricating substance onto the surfac - produce watery, blood plasma like secertions rich in enzymes such as alpha amylase

exocrine gland

group of epithelial cells that secrete substance through ducts that open to the skin or to internal body surfaces that lead to the exterior of the body (mucous, sweat, saliva, and breast milk)

endocrine gland

groups of cells that release chemical signals into the intercellular fluid to be picked up and tanported to their target organs by blood - hormones releases into interstitial fluid, diffuses into bloodsteam, delivered to target. (anterior pituitary, thymus, adrenal cortex, gonads)

anggiogenesis

growth of new blood vessels

cilium

hair like appendages found on certain cells. moves upward, mucus

hermidesmosomes

half a desmosome- linke cells to extracellular matrix

bone

hardest connective tissues protects internal organs and supports body - calcium phasphate

all living cells in multicellular organisms

have surrounding cell membrane

CARDIAC MUSCLE

heart muscle, under involuntary control, composed of striated cells that attached to form fibers, each cell contains a single nucleus, contracts autonomously - walls of heart- straiated under microscope

mineral crystales

help bones flex and provide little support

collagen

helps bone notto be brittle and shatter

Which type of stem cell gives rise to red and white blood cells?

hematopoietic

To see diffusion and how it is propelled by the kinetic energy of molecules in solution. How does temperature affect diffusion rate, and why?

higher temperatures speed up diffusion because molecules have more kinetic energy at higher temperatures

When a mast cell reacts to an irritation, which of the following chemicals does it release?

histamine

The ________ exocrine gland stores its secretion until the glandular cell ruptures, whereas the ________ gland releases its apical region and reforms.

holocrine; apocrine

Fluorescence stained cell undergoing mitosis

human lung cells, stained with fluorescent dyes. green stain reveals mitotic spindles, red is the cell membrane and part of the cytoplasm, structures that appear light blue are chromosomes. This cell is in anaphase of mitosis.

Under the microscope, a tissue specimen shows cells located in spaces scattered in a transparent background. This is probably ________.

hyaline cartilage

endocytosis

import of material into the cell by formation of a membrane-bound vesicle (bringing into the cell)

basement membrane

in epithelial tissue, a thin layer of fibrous material that anchors the epithelial tissue to the underlying connective tissue; made up of the basal lamina and recticular lamina

endoderm

innermost embryonic germ layer from which most of the digestive system and lower respiratory system derive

endoderm - inner

innermost embryonic germ layer from which most of the digestive system and lower respiratory system derive

Because they are embedded within the membrane, ion channels are examples of ________.

integral proteins

channel protein

integrat protein that selectively allows particular materials, such as certain ions, to pass into or out of the cell.

cytoplasm

internal material between the cell membrane and nucleus of a cell, mainly consisting of a water-based fluid called cytosol, within which are all the other organelles and cellular solute and suspended materials

mature red blood cells

lack a nucleus

macrophage cell

large cell derviced from monocyte, blood cell when entereing blood vessels throgh matrix

myelin

layer of lipid inside some neuroglial cells that wraps around the axons of some neurons - a long tail - wrapped in an insulating layer formed as accessory cells

fibrocyte

less active form of fibroblast

cell cycle

life cycle of a single cell, from its birth until its division into two new daughter cells

metaphase plate

linear alignment of sister chromatids in the center of the cell, which takes place during metaphase

adipocytes

lipid storage cells that fill cytoplasms - white and brown - high metabolic activitiy

areolar tissue

loose connective tissue- type of connective tissue proper that shows little specialization with cells dispersed in the matrix - web like fashion fills muscle fibers, blood lymph vessels, organ abdominal cavity

Atrophy refers to ________.

loss of mass

atrophy

loss of mass and function

autophagy

lysosomal breakdown of a cell's own components (self eating) - cell digesting it's own structures

recticular lamina

matrix conaintaning collagen and elastin secreted by connective tissue, a component of the basement membrane

nerve cell

may be shaped like a star, sending long processes up to a meter length and may live for entire lifetime of the organism.

glycocalyx example

may have molecules that allow the cell to bind to another cell, it may contain receptors for hormones, or it might have enzymes to break down nutrients (gives our body trillions of cells the identity of belonging in the person's body

anchoring junction

mechnically attaches adjacent cells to each other or to the basement membrane- stabilize ethithelial tissues (desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and adherens )

nuclear envelope

membrane that surrounds the nucleus; consisting of a double lipid-bilayer- consists of two adjacent lipid bilayers with a thin fluid space in between them

lysosome

membrane-bound cellular organelle originating from the Golgi apparatus and containing digestive enzymes- break down foreign material

peroxisome

membrane-bound organelle that contains enzymes primarily responsible for detoxifying harmful substances

vesicle

membrane-bound structure that contains materials within or outside of the cell - membranous sca- a spherical and hollow organelle bounded by a lipid bilayer membrane

sodium-potassium pump

membrane-embedded protein that uses ATP to move NA+ out of a cell and K+ into the cell

In adults, new connective tissue cells originate from the ________.

mesenchyme

histology

microscopic study of tissue architecture, organization, and function

cells within a tissue share a common embryonic origin

microscopie observation revelas that the cells in a tissue share morphological features and are arranged in an orderly pattern that achieves the tissues functions.

mesoderm

middle embryonic germ layer from which connective tissue, muscle tissue, and some epithlial tissue derive

Skeletal muscle is composed of very hard working cells. Which organelles do you expect to find in abundance in skeletal muscle cell?

mitochondria

Which of the following organelles produces large quantities of ATP when both glucose and oxygen are available to the cell?

mitochondria

transfer RNA (tRNA)

molecules of RNA that serve to bring amino acids to a growing polypeptide strand and properly place them into the sequence

fibroblast

most abundant cell type in connective tissue, secretes protein fibers and matrix into the extracellular space

hyaline cartilage

most common type of cartilage, smooth and made of short collagen fibers embedded in a chrondroitin sulfate ground substance

View this slideshow to learn more about stem cells. How do somatic stem cells differ from embryonic stem cells?

most somatic stem cells give rise to only a few cell types

diffusion

movement of a substance from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration

Which of the following lines the body cavities exposed to the external environment?

mucosa

goblet cell

mucous secreting unicellular gland interspersed between columnar epithlial cells of mucous membranes

myocyte

muscle cells - develops from myoblasts - remain relatively constant rhoguhotu life

The cells of muscles, myocytes, develop from ________.

myoblasts

apocrine secretion

near apical portion o f the cell - pinch off from cell are released - causes body odor

mitotic spindle

network of microtubules, originating from centrioles, that arranges and pulls apart chromosomes during mitosis -

schwann cell

neuroglial cell that produces myelin in th peripheral nervous system

oligodendrocyte

neuroglial cell that produces myelin in the brain and spinal cord

The cells responsible for the transmission of the nerve impulse are ________.

neurons

which morphological adaptations of neurons make them suitable for the transmission of nerve impulse?

neurons are well suited for the transmission of nerve impulses because short extensions, dendrites receive impulses from other neurons, while a long tail extension, an axon, carries electrical impulses away from the cell to other neurons

intron

non-coding regions of a pre-mRNA transcript that may be removed during splicing

messenger RNA (mRNA)

nucleotide molecule that serves as an intermediate in the genetic code between DNA and protein- single stranded nucleic acid that carries a copy of genetic code for a single gene out of the nucleus

Transcription and translation take place in the ________ and ________, respectively.

nucleus; cytoplasm

antonie van leeuwenhoek

observ living and moving cells under a microscope

cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK)

one of a group of enzymes associated with cyclins that help them perform their functions-- prograssion past cell checkpoints

cyclin

one of a group of proteins that function in the progression of the cell cycle - cell cycle control molecule

sister chromatid

one of a pair of identical chromosomes, formed during DNA replication -- bound by another copy

mitochondrion

one of the cellular organelles bound by a double lipid bilayer that function primarily in the production of cellular energy (ATP)- energy transformer of the cell

exon

one of the coding regions of an mRNA molecule that remain after splicing

transcription factor

one of the proteins that regulate the transcription of genes - either promote or inhibit their transcription

nuclear pore

one of the small, protein-lined openings found scattered throughout the nuclear envelope-- tiny passageway for the passage of proteins, RNA and solutes between the nucleus and the cytoplasm

Choose the answer that best completes the following analogy: Diffusion is to ________ as endocytosis is to ________.

osmosis; pinocytosis

In bone, the main cells are ________.

osteocytes

ectoderm - outer

outermost embryonic germ layer from which the epidermis and the nervous tissue derive

apical

part of a cell or tissue which faces an open space -covered with dead, keratinized cells that help protect the body from desiccation and pathogens

desmosomes

patches on membranes of cells

mitotic phase

phase of the cell cycle in which a cell undergoes mitosis - nucleus pull apart and distributed into two halves and cytokinesis occurs divdes cytoplasm and cell body into two new cells

single phospholipid (amphipathic molecule)

phosphate group one called head an two side to side chains of fatty acid that make up the lipid tails

extracellular fluid (ECF) fluid enviroment outside the enclosure of the cell membrane

phosphates attracted- fluid exterior to cells; includes the interstitatial fluid, blood plasma and fluid found in other reservoirs in the body

Arrange the following terms in order of increasing specialization: oligopotency, pleuripotency, unipotency, multipotency.

pleuripotency, multipotency, oligopotency, unipotency

cell junction

point of cell-to cell contact that connects one cell to another in a tissue

termination

polymerase reached end of gene- stop signal codes triggered the enzymes to terminate ttranscription and release mRNA transcript

DNA replication

process of duplicating a molecule of DNA- divide to produce two new daughter cells - billions of cells are produces to adult humans every day

translation

process of producing a protein from the nucleotide sequence code of an mRNA transcript (called polypeptide)

transcription

process of producing an mRNA molecule that is complementary to a particular gene of DNA - gene expression-- transcript, copy genes DNA code

wound contraction

process whereby the borders of a found are physically drawn together

pancreatic cells enzyme products

produce and secrete many enzymes that digest food

Which of the following is a function of the rough ER?

production of proteins

apoptosis

programmed cell death - a normal step by step process that destorys cells no longer needed by the body

checkpoint

progress point in the cell cycle during which certain conditions must be met in order for the cell to proceed to a subsequence phase - signals to move forward tor stop

CFTR

protein is an integral membrane porotein that transports CL- ions out of the cell

receptor

protein molecule that conains a binding site for another specific molecule - called ligand

glycoprotein

protein that has carbohydrate molecules attached, which extend into the extracellular matrix

integral protein

protein that is embedded in the membrane/membrane-associated protein that spans the entire width of the lipid bilayer

cell membrane

provides protective barrier around the cell and regulates which materials can pass in or out

four cardinal signs of inflammation

redness, swlling, pain and local heat

promoter

region of DNA that signals transcription to begin at that site within the gene -- triggers start of trnscription- initiation stage

kinetochore

region of a centromere where microtubules attach to a pair of sister chromatids -- attachment between mitotic spindle and sister chromatids

centromere

region of attachment for two sister chromatids

aprocrine secretion

release of a substance along with the apical portion of the cell

holocine secretion

release of a substance caused by the rupture of a gland cell, which becomes part of the secretion

merocine secretion

release of a substance from a gland via exocytosis - move to apical surface of the cell content are relreased by exocytosis

inflammation

response of tissue to injury

G0 phase

resting phase- permanentely ceased dividing nerve cells-- phase of the cell cycle, usually entered from the G1 phase; characterized by long or permanent periods where the cell does not move forward into the DNA synthesis phase

Which organelle is responsible for protein synthesis within the cell?

ribosome

The rough ER has its name due to what associated structures?

ribosomes

Which of the following structures could be found within the nucleolus?

ribosomes

holocrine seretion

rupture and destruction of entire gland cell- released when it puses such as oils on skin on the hair are holocrine glands

metaphase

second stage of mitosis (and meiosis), characterized by the linear alignment of sister chromatids in the center of the cell --

outer layer of skin

separates body from environment

cell membrane or plasma membrane

separates the inner contents of a cell from its exterior environment

structural skin cell

shaped like a flat plate (squamous) and live only for a short time before it is shed and replaced Parked tightly into rows and sheets, the squamous skin cells provide a protective barrier for the cells and tissues that lie beneath

proto-oncogenes

signals regulate the cell cycle and move it forward

Which of the following is the epithelial tissue that lines the interior of blood vessels?

simple squamous

mesothelium

simple squamous epithelial tissue which covers the major body cavitities and is the epithelial portion of serous membranes

polyribosome

simultaneous translation of a single mRNA transcript by multiple ribosomes - string of ribosomes translating a single mRNA strand

muscle tissue. In looking through a microscope how could you distinguish skeletal muscle tissue from smooth muscle?

skeletal muscle cells are striated

Striations, cylindrical cells, and multiple nuclei are observed in ________. `

skeletal muscle only

cultaneous membrane

skin covered body surface

cutaneous membrane

skin; epithelial tissue made up of a stratified squamous epithelial cells that cover the outside of the body

cilia

small appendage on certain cells formed by microtubules and modified for movement of materials across the cellular surface-- found on cells of the body, including epithelial cells that line the airways of the respiratory system

nucleolus

small region of the nucleus that functions in ribosome synthesis-- nucleoli - dark staining mass oftern visible under simple light

lacunae

small spaces in bone or cartilage tissue that cells occupy

cell

small subdivisions in the cork

centriole

small, self-replicating organelle that provides the origin for microtubule growth and moves DNA during cell division--- extends outward with cilia or flagella

adipose tissue

specialized areolar tissue rich in stored fat

fluid connective tissue

specialized cells that circulate in a water fluid containing salts, nutrients and dissolved proteins

mucuos connective tissue (Whaton's jelly)

specialized loose connective tissue present in the umbilical cord

ligand

speicifc molecule that binds to and activates a receptor molecule

S phase

stage of the cell cycle during which DNA replication occurs -

astrocyte

star-shaped cell in the central nervous system that regulates ions and update and or breakdown of some neurotransmitters and contribute to the formation of the blood-brain barrier

What is a primary function of tumor suppressor genes?

stop certain cells from dividing

Which type of epithelial tissue specializes in moving particles across its surface and is found in airways and lining of the oviduct?

stratified columnar

chromatin

substance consisting of DNA and associated proteins--- 92 chromatids in the cell

neuroglia

supportive neural cells 0 glue -

tendinitis

swollen wrist- reduce swlling - thick band of fibrous connective tissue that attaches a msucle to a bone causes pain and tenderness in the area round the joint repeitive motions and strain tendeds dur to performing tasks

splicing

the process of modifying a pre-mRNA transcript by removing certain, typically non-coding, regions

Which of the following is not made out of RNA?

the ribosome

learn about mitosis. Mitosis results in two identical diploid cells. What structures form during prophase?

the spindle

microtubule

the thickest of the cytoskeletal filaments, composed of tubulin subunits that function in cellular movement and structural support-- structural filament composed of subunits of a protein celled tubulin

microfilament

the thinnest of the cytoskeletal filaments; composed of actin subunits that function in muscle contraction and cellular structural support--- is steen in actin

Choose the term that best completes the following analogy: Cytoplasm is to cytosol as a swimming pool containing chlorine and flotation toys is to ________.

the water

why is it important to watch for increased redness, swelling and pain after a cut or abrasion has been cleaned and bandaged?

these symptoms would indicate that infection is present

basal lamina

thin extracellular layer that lies underneath epithelial cells and separates them from other tissues- mixture of glycoproteins and collagen

tissue membrane

thin layer or sheet of cells that cover the outside of the body, organs, and internal cavitities - covers outside of the body, the organs, internal passageways that lead to exterior of the body and lining ot eh moveable joint cavitities

G2 phase

third phase of the cell cycle, after the DNA synthesis phase - second gap phase - cell continues to grow and makes neessary preparations for mitosis

anaphase

third stage of mitosis (and meiosis), during which sister chromatids separate into two new nuclear regions of a dividing cell

sodiium potassium pu,p

three Na+ out of cell , two K+ ion into cell for each ATP molecule

mucous membrane

tissue membrane that is covered by protective mucuous and lines tissue exposed to the outside environment - lines digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive tracts, coated with secretions of mucous glands

simple columnar epithlium

tissue that consists of a single layer of column-like cells; promotes secretion andabosoption in tissue and organs

simple cuboidal epithelium (boxy, wide )

tissue that consists of a single layer of cube shaped cells promotes secretion and absorption in ducts and tubules

simple squamous (flat and thin)epithelium

tissue that consists of a single layer of flat scale-like cells; promotes diffusion and filtration across surface

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

tissue that consists of a single layer of irregularly shapred and sized cells that give the appearance of multiple layers; found in ducts of certain glands and the upper respiratory tract

stratified squamous epithelium

tissue that consists of multiple layers of cells with the most apical being flat-like cells; protects surfaces from abrasion - common type of human body

stratified columnar epithelium (rectangular, taller)

tissue that consists of two or more layers of column-like cells, contains glands and is found in some ducts

stratified cuboidal epithelium

tissue that consists of two or more layers of cube-shaped cells, found in some ducts

endothelium

tissue that lines vessels of the lymphatic and cardiobascular system, made up of a simple squamous epithelium

fibrocartilage

tough becasue it has thick bundles of collagen fibers disperaed through its matrix

fibrocartilage

tough form of cartilage, made of thick bundles of collagen fibers embedded in chondroitin sulfate ground substance

elastic cartilage

type of cartilage, with elastin as the major protein,characterized by rigid support as well as elasticity

supportive connective tissue

type of connective tissue that provides strength to the body and protects soft tissue- supports bone and cartilage provide structure and strenghth

intermediate filament

type of cytoskeletal filament made of keratin, characterized by an intermediate thickness, and playing a role in resisting cellular tension

reticular tissue

type of loose connective tissue that provides a supportive framework to soft organs, such as lymphatic tissue, spleen, and the liver

receptor

type of recognition protein that can selectively bind a specific molecule outside the cell and this binding incudes a chemical reaction within the cell

serous membrane

type of tissue membrane that lines body cavities and lubricates them with serous fluid - exterior of the body the peritoneal, pleural, and prericardial cavtities

muscle tissue

type of tissue that is capable of contracting and generating tension in response to stimulation, produces movement found in skeleta, smotth and cardiac muscle in the heart

nervous tissue

type of tissue that is capable of sending and receiving impulses through electrochemical signals in different regions of the body brain spinal cord nerves

epithelial tissue

type of tissue that serves primarily as a covering or lining of body parts, protecting the body; it also functions in absorption, transport, and secretion - covers exterior surfaces of body , internal cavities and passageways anf forms cerain glands

connective tissue

type of tissue that serves to hold in place, connect, and integrate the body's organs and systems- protects, support and integration of all parts ofthe body

Peripheral proteins

typically found on the inner or outer surface of the lipid bilayer but can also be attached to the internal or external surface of an integral protein. These proteins typically perform a specific function for the cell. Some peripheral proteins on the surface of intestinal cells, act as digestive enzymes to break down nutrients to sizes that can pass through the cells and into the blood stream.

lipid tails / contains saturated fatty acids sometimes unsaturated fatty acids (fluid for constant motion)

uncharged, nonpolar and hydrophobic - fears water/ repells water

smooth muscle

under involuntary control, moves internal organs, cells contain a single nucleus, are spindle-shaped, and do not appear striated, each cell is a fiber - spindle shaped with a single nucleus and no visible striations

Why does skeletal muscle look striated?

under the light microscope, cells appear striated due to the arrangement of the contractile proteins actin and mysIN

golbet cell

unicerllular gland found in columnar epithelium that secretes mucous

nucleosome

unit of chromatin consisting of a DNA strand wrapped around histone proteins

skeletal muscle

usually attached to bone, under voluntary control, each cell is a fiber that is multinucleated and striated - facial expressions, posture- voluntary movements- 40% of body mass

living cells require water-based environment to survive in

various physical and physiological mechanisms that keep trillions of living cells in the human body moist

phosphate group is negatively charged making the head polar and hydrophillic/ attracted to water

water loving - hydrophillic

osmosis

water moves from cells and extracellular matrix into mucus, thins out

leukocytes

white blood cells- responsbiel for defending against potentially harmdful microorganisms or molecules

vasodilation

widening of blood vessels - damaged cells release chemical signals

secondary union

wound healing facilitated by wound contraction