Religion and Social Change

Idleness is a sin; as the Calvinist Benjamin Franklin put it

'Lose no time; be always employed in something useful'. The Calvinist hard work and asceticism had two consequences.

Who came up with the theory that religion can have a dual character?

Friedrich Engels

What is meant by predestination?

God had predetermined which souls would be save - the elect - and which would be not even before birth. Individuals could do nothing whatsoever to change this, whether through their deed as the Catholics believed or through faith as the Lutheran Protestants believed. God's decision is already made and cannot be altered.

What is meant by Divine Transcendence?

God was so far above and beyond this world and so incomparably greater than any mortal, that no human being could possibly claim to know his will. This included the church and its priests - leaving the Calvinists to feel an unprecedented inner loneliness. When combined with the doctrine of predestination, this created what Weber calls a salvation panic in the Calvinists. They could not know whether they had been chosen to be saved and they could not do anything to earn salvation.

In what two sense can religion be seen as a conservative force?

1. It is often seen as conservative in the sense of being traditional, defending traditional customs, institutions, moral views and roles. In other words it upholds traditional beliefs about how society should be organised. 2. It is conservative because it functions to conserve or preserve things as they are. It stabilises society and maintains the status quo.

How is modern capitalism unique?

However modern capitalism is unique, he argues, because it is based on the systematic, efficient, rational pursuit of profit for its own sake rather than for consumption. Weber calls this the spirit of capitalism. According to Weber, this spirit had what he calls an elective affinity or unconscious similarity to the Calvinists beliefs and attitudes. Calvinism had several distinct beliefs.

How does Steve Bruce sees the civil rights movements as an example of religion becoming involved in secular struggle?

Bruce sees the civil rights movements as an example of religion becoming involved in secular struggle and helping to bring a change. In his view, the movement achieved its aims because it shared the same values as wider society and those in power. It brought about change by shaming those in power to put it into practice the principle of equality embodied in the American Constitution that all men and women are born equal.

How is the comparison with the Civil rights movement interesting?

Comparisons with the civil rights movements are interesting. They suggest that to achieve success, the beliefs and demands of religiously motivated protest movements and pressure groups need to be consistent with those of wider society. Thus in the American case, they need to connect with mainstream beliefs about democracy, equality and religious freedom, which the civil rights movement did but the New Christian Right has failed to do.

In Weber's view, what was Confucianism?

In ancient China, Confucianism also discouraged the growth of rational capitalism but for different reasons. Like Calvinism, Confucianism was a this-worldly religion that directed its followers towards the material world but, unlike Calvinism, it was not ascetic.

What is the last evaluation point for Max Weber?

Other argue that although Calvinists were among the first capitalists, this was not because of their beliefs but simply because they had been excluded by law from political office and many professors like the Jews in Eastern Europe. They turned to business as one of the few alternatives open to them. However, Weberians reply that other religious minorities were also excluded in this way but did not become successful capitalists.

Before Calvinism, the idea of a religious vacation meant what?

Renouncing everyday life to join a convent or monastery. Weber calls this other-worldly asceticism.

What was the second consequence of their hard work?

Secondly, driven by their work ethic, they systematically and methodically accumulated wealth by the most efficient and rational means possible. But not permitting themselves to squander of luxuries, they reinvested into their businesses, which grew and prospered, producing further profit to reinvest and so on and on. In Weber's view this is the very spirit of modern capitalism - where the object is simply the acquisition of more and more money as an end in itself. Calvinism thus brought capitalism as we now know it into the world.

What are the main areas of the Calvinist Beliefs?

Predestination Divine Transcendence Asceticism The idea of a vocation or a calling

What does R H Tawney argue?

R H Tawney, argues that technological change , not religious ideas caused the birth of capitalism. It was only after capitalism was established that the bourgeoisie adopted Calvinist beliefs to legitimate their pursuit of economic gain.

What do Marxist argue that religious ideas can have?

Relative autonomy. That is, they can be partly independent of the economic base of society.As a result, religion can have a dual character and can sometimes be a force for change as well as stability.

Who proposed the idea of religion and social protest?

Steve Bruce

What is Steve Bruce interested in?

Steve Bruce is interested in the relationships between religion and social change. Using case studies, he compares two examples of the role of religiously inspired protest movements in America that have tried to change society: the civil rights movement and the New Christian Right.

What several ways in which are religious organisation well equipped to support protests and contribute social change?

Taking the moral high ground : Black clergy pointed out the hypocrisy of white clergy who preached love thy neighbour but supported racial segregation. Channelling dissent : Religion provides channel to express political dissent. For example, the funeral of Martin Luther King was a rallying point for the civil rights cause. Acting as honest broker : Church can provide a context for negotiating change because they are often respected by both sides in a conflict and seen as standing above mere politics. Mobilising public opinion : Black church in the South successfully campaigned for support across the whole of America.

What methods have the New Christian Right used?

The New Christian Right has made effective use of the media and networking, notably televangelism, where church-owned television stations raise funds and broadcasting programmes aimed at making converts and recruiting new members. Right-wing Christian pressure groups have also become the focus for political campaigning and for strengthening links with the Republican Party.

What is the New Christian Right?

The New Christian Right is a politically and morally conservative, Protestant fundamentalist movement. It has gained prominence since the 1960s because of its opposition to the liberalising of American society. The aims of the New Christian Right seek to take America back to God and make abortion, homosexuality, gay marriage and divorce illegal turning the clock back on time before the liberalisation of American culture and society. The New Christian Right believes strongly in the traditional family and traditional gender roles. It campaigns for the teaching of creationism and to ban sex education in schools.

What is meant by Asceticism?

This refers to abstinence, self-discipline and self-denial. For example. Monks lead an ascetic existence refraining from luxury wearing simple clothes and avoiding excess in order to devote themselves to God and a life of prayer.

In Weber'sview what was Hinduism?

Thus in ancient India, Hinduism was an ascetic religion, like Calvinism, favouring renunciation of the material world. However, its orientation was other-worldly - it directed its followers concerns away from the material world and towards the spiritual world.

What other religions are conservative?

Traditional conservative values also predominate in non-Christian religions. For example, Hinduism endorses male domestic authority and the practice of arranged marriages.

Who did Weber study to illustrate social change?

Weber argues that religious beliefs of Calvinism helped to bring about major social change - specifically the emergence of modern capitalism in Northern Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries.

What about in Scotland with Weber's theory?

Weber has also been criticised because capitalism did not develop in every country where there were Calvinists. For example, Scotland had a large Calvinist population but was slow to develop to capitalism. However, Weberians such as Gordon Marshall argues that this was because of a lack of investment capital and skilled labour - supporting Weber's point that both material and cultural factors need to be present for capitalism to emerge.

In what sense was past capitalism like?

Weber notes that many past societies had capital in the sense of greed for wealth which they often spend on luxury consumption.

How is Weber's work described as a debate with Marx's ghost?

Weber's work is often described as a debate with Marx's ghost. Marx saw economic or material factors as the driving force of change whereas Weber argues that material factors alone are not enough to bring about capitalism. As we have just seen, in Weber's view, it also needed specific cultural factors - the beliefs and values of Calvinism - to bring it into being.

What was the American Civil Rights Movement?

Bruce describes the struggle of the black civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s to end racial segregation as an example of religiously motivated social change. Although slavery has been abolished in 1865, blacks were denied legal and political rights in many Southern States where segregation was enforced, preventing them for using the same amenities as whites. Schools were segregated and interracial marriages were forbidden. Blacks were often excluded from voting by various legal restrictions and intimidation.

Thus Hinduism and Confucianism failed to do what?

Both Hinduism and Confucianism thus lacked he drive to systematically accumulate wealth that is necessary for modern capitalism. Calvinism was unique in combining asceticism with a this-worldly orientation to enable the spirit of modern capitalism to emerge.

How did Bruce describe the role of the Black Clergy?

Bruce describes the black clergy as the backbone of the movement. Led by Dr Martin Luther King, they played a decisive role, giving support and moral legitimacy to civil rights activists. Their churches provided meeting places and sanctuary from the threat of white violence and rituals such as prayer meetings and hymn signing were a source of unity in the face of oppression. Bruce argues that the black clergy were able to shame whites into changing the law by appealing to their shared Christian beliefs values of equality. Although the impact on white clergy in the South was limited their message reached a wide audience outside the Southern states and gained national support.

What is meant by This-Worldly Asceticism?

By contrast, Calvinism introduces for the first time the idea of this-worldly asceticism. The only thing Calvinists knew of God's plan for humanity came from the Bible, which revealed to them that we were put on earth to glorify God's name by our work. Thus for the Calvinists the idea of calling or vocation meant constant, methodical work in an occupation, not in the monastery. However, work could not earn salvation - it was simply a religious duty. For this reason, the Calvinists led an to ascetic lifestyle shunning all luxury, worked long hours and practiced rigorous self-discipline.

How does Bruce describe the New Christian Right as a failed movement?

Despite enormous publicity and high profile in the media, it has not achieved its aim of taking America back to God. In his view, their attempt to impose Protestant fundamentalist mortality on others has failed because of the basically liberal and democratic values of most of American society. These values include belief in the separation of the church and the state - very few Americans support the idea of a theocracy.

How can religion have a dual character?

Engels argues that although religion inhibits change by disguising inequality, it can also challenge the status quo and encourage social change. For example, religion sometimes preaches liberation from slavery and misery. Also, although senior clergy usually supports the status quo, lower ranks within the church hierarchy have often supported or even inspired and organised popular protest.

Who proposed the idea of religion as a Principle of Hope?

Ernst Bloch

What was the first consequence of their hard work?

Firstly, their wealth and success performed a psychological function for the Calvinists that allowed them to cope with their salvation panic. As they grew wealthier, they took this as a sign of God''s favour and their salvation - for why else would we have prospered, they asked themselves. This of course was contrary to their original doctrine that God's will was knowable.

What does Karl Kautsky argue?

For example, Karl Kautsky argues that Webers overestimates the role of idea and underestimates economic factors in bringing capitalism into being. He argues that in fact capitalism preceded rather than followed Calvinism.

How are Functionalist view of religion conservative?

It functions to maintain social stability and prevent society from disintegrating. For example it promotes social solidarity by creating value consensus thus reducing the likelihood of society collapsing through individuals pursuing their own selfish interests at the expense of others. It also helps individuals to deal with stresses that would otherwise disrupt the life of society.

How does Weber argue that Calvinist were not the sole cause of modern capitalism?

It is very important to note that what Weber was not arguing that Calvinist beliefs were to cause of modern capitalism, but simply that they were one of the causes. The Protestant ethic of the Calvinists was not sufficient on its own to bring modern capitalism into being. On the contrary, a number of material or economic factors were necessary such as natural resources, trade, a money economy, towns and cities, a system of law and so on.

How has the New Christian Right been unsuccessful in achieving its aims?

Its campaigns find it very difficult to cooperate with people from other religious groups even when campaigning on the same issue such as abortion. It lacks widespread support and has met with strong opposition from groups who stand for freedom of choice.

How does Marx not see religion in entirely negative terms?

Marx himself does not see religion as entirely negative terms, describing it as the soul of the soulless conditions and the heart of a heartless world. He sees religion as capable of humanising a world made inhuman by exploitation, even if the comfort it offers is illusory.

Who proposed the theory of religion as a force for change?

Max Weber's study of the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.

What do religions have most conservative beliefs about?

Moral issues and many of them oppose changes that would allow individual more freedom in personal and sexual matters. For example, the Catholic Church forbids divorce, abortion and condemns homosexual behaviour. Similarly most religions uphold family values and often favour a traditional patriarchal domestic division of labour. For example, the belief that the man should be the head of the family was embedded in the traditional marriage ceremony of the Church of England dating back from 1602. The bride vows to love honour and obey but the groom is only required to love and honour.