Religious experience

FREUD- Rejections

Freud began to link religion with neurosis when he noticed mental patients displaying obsessive behaviour. He observed patterns of behaviour similar to religious practices. Religion is an illusion, expressing people's desires. It derives from psychological needs and meets them, making religious experience similar to wishful thinking. Religion originated from childlike desire for a God who resembles a father figure. However this is based on the idea of the subconscious, scientists still know very little about this. James too suggested cause of religious experience lies in a deep not-yet-understood part of the subconscious mind (last chapter of 'The varieties of Religious experience')

OTTO- Humans

Humans have the a priori capacity of mind to experience the numinous. Every individual has the potential to experience the numinous, but the feeling of the numinous must be invoked in us. Not everyone has same degree of receptivity to the holy, people like prophets (specially receptive) stimulate numinous capacity of less receptive. Superiority of Christianity awards highest stage of revelation to Christ, who embodies holiness.

FEURERBACH- Challenge

Idea of God is a human projection. All attributes of God are in our nature, human aspirations or desires. We project God in our image. 'God is man written in large letters'

SWINBURNE- Types

5 types of religious experience, which can be divided into private and public: Public: - Ordinary experiences, interpet natural event as having religious significance - Extraordinary experiences- events which appear to go against understandings of nature Private: - Describable in ordinary language - Non-describable, where God is revealed but goes beyond human powers of description - Non-specific experiences: eg. looking at world from religious perspective. Used religious experiences as a cumulative case to argue for the existence of God.

MACKIE- Response to James

If mystical experiences are explainable psychologically, they can have no authority even for person who has the experience. Those who believe they are authoritative are 'insufficiently critical'

JAMES- Pragmatism

James a pragmatist, believing truth of something can be determined by it's practical effects and consequences. Supported religious experience because of amount of empirical evidence and their plurality. Judged validity of experience based on its 'fruits' (their impact highly important)

LASH- View

Lash claims everything is to do with the way we look at the world. Our 'framework' for the world includes a God so, accommodation to the framework, we begin relationships and community with God.

HAY- Brief overview

Leader of research into religious experiences. He said there were 8 different types of religious experience. From his research he concluded religious experiences can often be triggered, many people have had a religious experience but most have never spoken about them. Those who report having RE tend to be happier an better educated. Many people who report have no connection to any formal religion. Responded to Otto's description of numinous experience, saying it was too ambiguous. He instead uses term 'numinous' to describe more specific experience of God.

PSYCHOLOGISTS- Vs James

Many claim religious experiences only happen to people who are already members of a religious tradition. Going against James' claim that REs are the source of religious belief. However REs do happen to people who don't have any connection to religious traditions, Hay's research supports this. Many people who report having a religious experience have no formal connection to religion.

JAMES- Authority and origins

Only possible sign religious experiences are from God is resulting 'good disposition' Religious experiences have authority only for those who have them 'Self autheniticating' for person. This doesn't compromise reality of experience. James examined parrallels between REs and dreams, suggesting religious experiences could be linked to our subconscious ideas. Having religious experience doesn't mean mystic becomes source of authority. James noted influence of Saints (though they didn't seek influence over others)

OTTO- Religious experience

Otto noticed people described religious experiences using words like awe, wonder, but the actual experience was ineffable. They provide a reference point. Religious experiences are why there is religion. Used phrase mysterium tremendum to explain core of a religious experience (numinous dread). 'Mysterium' referring to 'wholly other', fascinating causes person to be taken up in the experience. 'Tremendum' means 3 elements- inspiring absolute unapproachability, overpowerness, energy

JAMES- Characteristics

- Ineffable: Direct experience goes beyond human powers of description - Noetic: Religious experiences direct revelations from God, provide knowledge otherwise not available. - Transient: Aren't permanent. Different perception of time and duration. Effects the way mystic sees the universe and their place in it. - Passive: Something which happens to mystic from God, not under control of mystic. Evidence against someone saying religious experience can be explained by someone willing it. Religious experiences should be direct links between whatever responsible and the the mystic.

VISIONS- Types

- Intellectual: Where what is seen is an experience, rather than something just being observed (Teresa of Avila 'was conscious' of Christ at her side but couldn't discern his form) - Corporeal: Form or image is seen that resembles a real life object (St Bernadette of Lourdes had a number of visions of Virgin Mary telling her to dig in the ground, experience where knowledge is communicated- noetic) - Imaginative: Occur in dreams (Joseph in the Bible, had a dream telling him not to be afraid to marry Mary)

Responses to conflicting claims

Religious experiences are ineffable, meaning the only language that can be used to communicate an ineffable experience will be drawn from persons own culture and upbringing: Christianity for Christians etc Religious experiences are product of human psychology. What you see only reflects prior beliefs and values of that person. The real nature of God TRANSCENDS cultural ideas and local images, but that people make sense of it in ways that are meaningful to them. Hick came to this view, calling it the pluralistic hypothesis. If pluralistic hypothesis true, nobody really has a direct experience of the divine.

SCHLEIERMACHER (Inspired Otto)

Religious experiences are primarily emotional and every person has a consciousness of the divine. These emotions are deeper than reason and are 'self-authenticating' Disagreed with doctrines attempting to understand religious experience, saying the experience should have priority. At the core of the experience is a feeling of absolute dependence on the divine, this feeling being at the heart of religion. Jesus only example of someone who was completely God conscious, making Christianity the highest religion.

JAMES- Conclusions

Religious experiences don't demonstrate God's existence but they can suggest the existence of 'something larger' and in that union we 'find our greatest peace' Religious experiences are psychological phenomena (can be explained as part of personal psychological make-up) but this isn't an argument against belief in God. James only meant religious experience is natural to a person. In his book he makes clear religious experience is central to religious belief, but leaves open the possibility of God's existence.

ALSTON- Brief overview

Questioned whether it's logical to talk about gaining knowledge from experiencing God. In normal life the evidence of something is what you gather from experience. Questioned why we immediately doubt people having a religious experience, when we don't doubt them in other situations. Said explaining religious experiences through sociology or psychology was a 'double standard' because religious experiences are also sense perceptions. Rejected argument religious experiences are unverifiable. Suggested you check anything is making other sense observations and, for him, other peoples religious experiences were also sense perceptions. IT'S UNFAIR TO REJECT RELIGIOUS EXPERIENCES ON GROUNDS THAT THEY ARE ILLOGICAL AND IRRATIONAL

MYSTICAL EXPERIENCE- definition

Refers to religious experience where God is revealed directly and the person having the experience is passive.

NEUROPHYSICIANS- Challenge

Religious experiences are caused by underlying neurophysical mechanisms. They refer to the 'causal operator' and the 'holistic operator' within the brain. These show up on brain scans of meditating monks.

STARBUCK- conversion

Studied conversion and found parallels between them and the normal process of finding our identities in adolescence.

SWINBURNE- Assessing RE claims

Suggested 2 principles which can be used to assess religious experience claims: Principle of Credulity - We have good reason to believe what someone tells us is correct unless. Reasons we could disbelieve them: if person is hallucinating, if evidence event isn't caused by God or if we have 'strong' reasons God doesn't exist. Yorkshire Ripper- is this best? Just to take at face value? Principle of Testimony- Reasonable to believe what someone tells you. No reason to automatically reject what someone claims to have experienced. BUT not everyone has an experience which might be reason to say the experiences are caused by something else.

AYER

Supporter of 'verification principle', something can only be meaningful if it can be verified analytically or synthetically. Ayer argues that mystical experiences are in fact purely emotional experiences and do not represent any sort of knowledge. In fact, he claims they are "meaningless". People claim they're encountering the divine but possible they are actually deluding themselves. Problems with Ayer, many everyday experiences are not verified either, used to taking things on trust.

SWINBURNE & FLEW- Swin's conclusion

Swinburne argued that, taking into account other evidence of God's existence, religious experience makes it more likely that God exists. Used religious experience as a cumulative case to argue for God's existence. Flew argued against this idea, saying a collection of a series of weak arguments doesn't make a strong argument- gave example of leaky buckets.

KANT- Challenge

We can only experience phenomena (empirical realm) and though there may be a reality beyond experience (monumental) it is impossible for us to experience an unlimited God as a matter of logic. Our senses are only finite and limited. However, may be possible to experience God if he reveals himself to us. Alston argues religious experience is similar to our normal sensory perception, may be an aspect of the mind able to experience God. Some have even gone as far as to suggest our brains are wired up to experience God. There is a physical dimension to religious experience, and the effects of religious experience are demonstrated on brain scans.

VOICES- Noticeable features

- Disembodied voice shows God's presence - Voice communicates revelation, message is noetic - Voice is authoritative and passes on God's authority

OTTO- God

All religious experiences numinous in nature: awareness of a holy other. Apprehension of the wholly other' which Otto called the numinous. An awareness or notion of the holy or sacred. Sense of dependency on something real and powerful that is outside of ourselves. Religious experiences are not a logical proof that God exists but evidence in support of God. Leaves open possibility of God's existence.

BUBER

Best known for his philosophy of dialogue. Describes two kinds of relationships: 'I-it' and the 'I-thou'. I-it is one based on detachment and uses the other as a means. The I thou, however is a fully open and equal relationship. The honour of the other of paramount importance. God is 'eternal thou' and serves as foundation for our other I thou relationships, the unifying context for all meaningful human experience. One therefore encounters God through one's encounters with other human beings (in i-thou relationships) and the world. 'Meet the world with the fullness of your being and you shall meet God'

OTTO- Numinous

Beyond physical, observable universe we live in. By referring to God as 'wholly other' Otto means completely out of our possible knowledge and experience. Numinous basic element in all religions.

BROAD- Analogy

Blind people living in society where some evolve the capacity to see. Those who were still blind would remain skeptical of information given by those who could now see. Is our rejection of RE entirely rational?

VOICES- Teresa of Avila's solution

Could use following criteria to determine whether voice is God's: - Fit with Church teaching? - Experience leave person feeling at peace with the world and God. If experience doesn't have these effects sign it wasn't from God, but instead the devil.

EVANS- Brief overview

Doesn't believe the 'religious dimension of experience' (habit of interpreting life in religious way) has the same authority as a direct encounter with the divine. 3 Elements common to all religious experience- sense of unity, sense of dependence, sense of separateness.

BOWKER- Vs empirical verification

Empirical verification is the wrong way to approach religious experiences. Instead recommends principle of sincerity. Honesty of person best clue to the truth of their claim.

What are direct experiences?

Events where God reveals himself directly to the person having the experience. Knowing God in a personal intimate way. Experience isn't chosen or willed by the person Involve an experience of God and are ineffable, for this reason people tend to describe an awareness or feeling, rather than an experience of an object.

What are indirect experiences?

Experiences, thoughts or feelings about God, prompted by events in daily life. Mind of individual focuses on God from outside stimulation Knowledge of God isn't revealed but instead a person learns something about God through waht is observed. This sometimes involves an object. Some suggest these experiences are made significant by person

OTTO- Language

In his book uses the word 'numen' to refer to God. When Otto is forced to use ordinary words like 'dread' he insists he is using them in a special sense, emphasising this by sometimes using latin or greek words. Our feeling of the numinous and responses to it are not ordinary ones intensified, they are: unique, sui generis (in a class by itself)

JAMES- Influences

In his book, James investigated many religious experiences, with an interest in the nature of them. Interest stemmed from belief religious experience was the source of religious institutions. Saw institutions as secondary to individual's religious beliefs as REs were 'solitary' events ('things men experience.. when they are by themselves'), where the tradition a person belongs to is unimportant. Noted religious experiences have great authority for the person who has them. Eg. Conversion experiences, religion becomes central, in turn affecting behaviour. Religious experiences can noticeably change people's behaviour, leading James to suggest they are source of religious institutions.

Responses to MARX

In many situations world religion has been a force for change, rather than a method of controlling people (Martin Luther King) Religions have also been a great source of strength, hope and comfort. Sociologists have since shown religious belief and practices become more important to people when they live in difficult situations.

MARX- Heaven, hell and punishment after death

Marx said heaven, hell etc were like the drug opium: gave people comfort and helped them to cope with situation they were in. Marx argued the Church helped to sustain capitalism, as it was part of the structure of society. Religious experience s the product of a culture in which a person lived. Product of desperate situation of person, origins being traceable back to teachings of the Church.

MARX- Sociological challenge

Marx was influenced by a philosophical movement which suggested religion was a form of 'alienation' from one's true self. Mythical God distracts people from their own reality. Marx called religion the 'opium of the people' like a drug which stops people seeing the reality of their situation. Religious experiences create alienation. Saw religion as a form of oppression, preventing people from being truly human. Marx thought religion needed to be overthrown as it was only a form of social control of behaviour.

SWINBURNE- Religious experiencers

More plausible that religious people are more likely to have a religious experience because they have a greater chance of recognising a religious experience for what it is. (Eg. people wouldn't recognise telephone for what it is unless they had some knowledge of what they are and what they may be expected to be like) Principles of credulity and testimony draw attention to importance of prior beliefs.