Research Methods

Reference

In academics and scholarship, an author-title-date information in bibliographies and footnotes, specifying complete works of other people.

Nominal

Nominal scales are used for labeling variables, without any quantitative value. "Nominal" scales could simply be called "labels."

research objectives

Objectives must always be set after having formulated a good research question. After all, they are to explain the way in which such question is going to be answered. Objectives are usually headed by infinitive verbs such as: * To identify * To establish * To describe * To determine * To estimate * To develop * To compare * To analyse * To collect

unit of analysis

The unit of analysis is the major entity that is being analyzed in a study. It is the 'what' or 'who' that is being studied. In social science research, typical units of analysis include individuals (most common), groups, social organizations and social artifacts.

measurement scales

There are four measurement scales (or types of data): nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio

Ordinal

With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is what's important and significant, but the differences between each one is not really known

information

* data with context * processed data * value added data (summarized,organized, analyzed)

Data

* raw facts * no context * just numbers and text

Exploratory research

Exploratory research on the other hand seeks to generate a posteriori hypotheses by examining a data-set and looking for potential relations between variables. It is also possible to have an idea about a relation between variables but to lack knowledge of the direction and strength of the relation. If the researcher does not have any specific hypotheses beforehand, the study is exploratory with respect to the variables in question

respondent

someone who has answered a request for information

dependent variable

Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after making changes to the IV that are assumed to affect the DV.

Hallmarks of Scientific Research

1. Purposiveness: "Research should have a definite aim or purpose." 2. Rigor: "A good theoratical base and sound methodological design give rigor to the research. Rigor indicates carefulness and degree of exactitude in research." 3. Testability: "Scientific research lend itself to testing logically developed hypothesis to see whether or not data support the educated conjecture or hypothesis." 4. Replicability: "The results of the test of hypothesis should be supported again and again when same type of research is conducted in other similar circumstances." 5. Precision and Confidence: "Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a sample. Precision reflects the degree of exactness and accuracy of the results on the basis of samples. Also known as confidence interval in statistics. Confidence refers to the probability that our estimation are correct so that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results will be true and there is only 5% chance of our results being false." 6. Objectivity: "The conclusion drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective that is, they should be based on facts of the findings derived from actual data and not on our own subjective or emotional values." 7. Generalizability: "It refers to the scope of replicability of the research findings in one organizational settings to others, the wider the range of replicability of the solution generated by the research the more useful the research is to the user." 8. Parsimony: "Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problem that occur in generating the solutions of the problem is preferred as compared to complex research frame work.

case study

A case study is a "published report about a person, group, or situation that has been studied over time."[1] If the case study is about a group, it describes the behavior of the group as a whole, not behavior of each individual in the group.

Focus group

A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept, advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where participants are free to talk with other group members.

Literature review

A literature review is a text of a scholarly paper, which includes the current knowledge including substantive findings, as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic. Literature reviews are secondary sources, and do not report new or original experimental work.

problem statement

A problem statement is a brief description of the issues that need to be addressed by a problem solving team and should be presented to them (or created by them) before they try to solve the problem. On the other hand, a statement of the problem is a claim of one or two sentences in length that outlines the problem addressed by the study. The statement of the problem should briefly address the question: What is the problem that the research will address?

research design

A research design is the document of the study. The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research question, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection methods and a statistical analysis plan. Research design is the framework that has been created to seek answers to research questions.

hypothesis

A supposition or explanation (theory) that is provisionally accepted in order to interpret certain events or phenomena, and to provide guidance for further investigation. A hypothesis may be proven correct or wrong, and must be capable of refutation. If it remains unrefuted by facts, it is said to be verified or corroborated.

theoretical framework/ conceptual

A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but not necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research, determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look for.

variable

A variable is anything that can vary, i.e. changed or be changed, such as memory, attention, time taken to perform a task, etc. Variable are given a special name that only applies to experimental investigations. One is called the dependent variable and the other the independent variable.

Intervening variable

A variable that explains a relation or provides a causal link between other variables. Also called by some authors "mediating variable" or "intermediary variable."

exploratory research

An exploratory research technique in which individuals who are knowledgeable about particular research problem are surveyed

Basic Research

Basic research is scientific research aimed to improve scientific theories for improved understanding or prediction of natural or other phenomena. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain observed phenomena. Pure research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most common

Business Research

Business research is a field of practical study in which a company obtains data and analyzes it in order to better manage the company. Business research can include financial data, consumer feedback, product research and competitive analysis.

Descriptive research

Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon being studied. It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather it addresses the "what" question (what are the characteristics of the population or situation being studied?) [1] The characteristics used to describe the situation or population are usually some kind of categorical scheme also known as descriptive categories.

Causal research

Causal research, also called explanatory research. is the investigation of (research into) cause-and-effect relationships. In order to determine causality, it is important to observe variation in the variable that is assumed to cause the change in the other variable(s), and then measure the changes in the other variable(s).

Confirmatory research

Confirmatory research tests a priori hypotheses—outcome predictions that are made before the measurement phase begins. Such a priori hypotheses are usually derived from a theory or the results of previous studies. The advantage of confirmatory research is that the result is more meaningful, in the sense that it is much harder to claim that a certain result is statistically significant.

Data collection

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on targeted variables in an established systematic fashion, which then enables one to answer relevant questions and evaluate outcomes.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is considered by many to the be standard for scientific research. Using this method, one begins with theory and hypotheses, then conducts research in order to test whether the theories and hypotheses can be proven true with specific cases. As such, this form of research begins at a general, abstract level, and then works its way down to a more specific and concrete level.

problem definition

Defining a research problem is the fuel that drives the scientific process, and is the foundation of any research method and experimental design, from true experiment to case study.

External Sources

In order to study marketing problems in detail the need of external sources of marketing research arises. External sources are of immense importance and utility in case where research needs detailed and thorough investigation. External sources data can be divided with two categories (a) Primary data (b) Secondary data.

independent variable

Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates (i.e. changes) - assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable.

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning begins with specific observations or real examples in the world, and progresses analytically to broader generalizations and theories based on those observed cases. This is sometimes called a "bottom up" approach, because it starts with specific cases on the ground and works its way up to the abstract level of theory. With this method, once a researcher has identified patterns and trends amongst a set of data, he or she can then formulate some hypotheses to explore, and finally develop some general conclusions or theories.

Interval

Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact differences between the values.

In-depth interviews

Interviewing is a method of qualitative research in which the researcher asks open-ended questions orally and records the respondent's answers. Interviewing is typically done face-to-face, but can also be done via telephone. In-depth interviews are different from survey interviews in that they are less structured. In survey interviews, the questionnaires are rigidly structured - the questions must all be asked in the same order, the same way, and only the pre-defined answer choices can be given.

Moderating variable

Moderating variable is a variable that changes (increases or decreases) the otherwise established effect of the independent variable upon the dependent variable.

endnote

Much like a footnote, an endnote is additional information or credits given at the end of the document instead of at the end of each page.

Ratio

Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to measurement scales because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an absolute zero-which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied.

Benefits of Business Research

Research identifies problems. It is an executive tool that is used to improve financial outcomes. An example is market pricing. Research may show that based on current costs and the market price, profitability will be unattainable and resources should be placed in other areas. For instance, an air carrier may decide to cut a route if a new low-cost airline enters the market. Market research may identify customer complaints caused by quality issues. Competitive research may show that other companies are able to bring the product to the end user faster and at a lower cost, affecting both market share and profitability. Research provides the information that either confirms an existing course is optimum, or that the course needs to be changed.

Secondary Data

Secondary data is already existing which has been collected and published by some individuals or institutions. This data is available at a very low cost and it requires lesser time to collect it.

Secondary data

Secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone other than the user.Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, information collected by government departments, organisational records and data that was originally collected for other research purposes. Primary data, by contrast, are collected by the investigator conducting the research.

Research question

Specifying the research question is the methodological point of departure of scholarly research in both the natural and social sciences. The research will answer the question posed. At an undergraduate level, the answer to the research question is the thesis statement. The answer to a research question will help address a "Research Problem" which is a problem "readers think is worth solving"

Internal

These refer to the sources of information within the organisation. In certain cases internal sources are indispensable without which the researcher cannot obtain desired results. Internal sources include accounting information (Trading Profit & Loss A/c and Balance Sheets of different years), salesmen's reports, statistics in relation to advertisement expenditure, transportation costs etc. Information from internal sources is easily available and no financial burden is involved in gathering the information.

Primary Data

This refers to the information collected by the researcher from original sources. It is not a published data; it has to be gathered by the researcher himself by tapping various resources. Primary data is usually collected for specific purposes.

directional hypothesis

a statement of the specific nature (direction) of the relationship between two or more variables.

nondirectional hypothesis

a statement that a relationship exists between two variables, without predicting the exact nature (direction) of the relationship.

footnote

footnote will contain the source of the information, or additional information about the text contained in the document. You can identify any text that points to a footnote by the small number after the text.

Data Collection Methods for Explatory Research

in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot studies.

Applied research

is a form of systematic inquiry involving the practical application of science. It accesses and uses some part of the research communities' (the academia's) accumulated theories, knowledge, methods, and techniques, for a specific, often state-, business-, or client-driven purpose. Applied research deals with solving practical problems and generally employs empirical methodologies.

Primary research

is new research, carried out to answer specific issues or questions. It can involve questionnaires, surveys or interviews with individuals or small groups.

Qualitative Research

is primarily exploratory research. It is used to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. It provides insights into the problem or helps to develop ideas or hypotheses for potential quantitative research.Qualitative Research is also used to uncover trends in thought and opinions, and dive deeper into the problem. Qualitative data collection methods vary using unstructured or semi-structured techniques. Some common methods include focus groups (group discussions), individual interviews, and participation/observations. The sample size is typically small, and respondents are selected to fulfill a given quota.

Quantitative Research

is used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data that can be transformed into useable statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables - and generalize results from a larger sample population.Quantitative Research uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research. Quantitative data collection methods are much more structured than Qualitative data collection methods. Quantitative data collection methods include various forms of surveys - online surveys, paper surveys, mobile surveys and kiosk surveys, face-to-face interviews, telephone interviews, longitudinal studies, website interceptors, online polls, and systematic observations.

Secondary research

makes use of information previously researched for other purposes and publicly available. This is also known as 'desk research'. Secondary research includes published research reports in a library, surveys or the Internet.

research

when someone studies a subject in detail in order to discover new information