Research Methods Ch. 1

Weight of the Evidence

-A conclusion drawn from reviewing scientific literature and considering the proportion of studies that is consistent with a theory -Scientists evaluate theories based on the weight of the evidence, the collection of studies, including replications, of the same theory

Scientific Journal

-A monthly or quarterly periodical containing peer-reviewed articles on a specific academic discipline or subdiscipline, written for a scholarly audience. -Unlike magazines, articles in a scientific journal are peer-reviewed. -The editor sends the paper to three or four experts on the subject.

Cupboard Theory of Mother-Infant Attachment

-A mother is valuable to her baby because she is a source of food -The baby gets hungry, gets food from the mother by nursing, and experiences a pleasant feeling (reduced hunger). -Over time, the sight of the mother acquires positive value because she is the "cupboard" from which food comes.

Data

-A set of observations representing the values of some variable, collected from one or more research studies. -EX: Harlow's data were the amount of time the baby monkeys stayed on each mother

Hypothesis (prediction)

-A statement of the specific result the researcher expects to observe from a particular study, if the theory is accurate. -EX: Harlow's hypothesis stated that the babies would spend more time on the cozy mother than on the wire mother

Theory

-A statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another. -EX: Harlow's theory was that contact comfort, not food, was the primary basis for a baby's attachment to its mother.

HOW SCIENTISTS WORK (SUMMARY)

-As members of a community, scientists strive to follow Merton's four norms: universalism, communality, disinterestedness, and organized skepticism. -The publication process is part of worldwide scientific communication. Scientists publish their research in journals, following a peer-review process that leads to sharper thinking and improved communication. Even after publication, published work can be approved or criticized by the scientific community. -Journalists are writers for the media who are skilled at transforming scientific studies for the public, but they don't always get it right. Think critically about what you read online, when in doubt, go directly to the original source: peer-reviewed -When scientists want to tell the scientific world about the results of their research, they write a paper and submit it to a scientific journal. In so doing, they practice the communality norm. -Scientists who find flaws in the research can publish letters, commentaries, or competing studies. -Publication helps make science self-correcting.

Preregistered

-Before collecting any data, the researcher has stated publicly what the study's outcome is expected to be -Hypotheses are preregistered

Psychologists and Scientists are empiricists

-Being an empiricist means basing one's conclusions on systematic observations. -Empiricists aim to be systematic and rigorous and to make their work independently verifiable by other observers.

"Mozart Effect" in Media Coverage

-Example of how journalist misrepresent science when they write for a popular audience -Frances Rauscher found that when students heard Mozart music played for 10 minutes, they performed better on a spatial intelligence test compared with students who had listened to silence or to a monotone speaking voice -Rauscher said in a interview, "What we found was that the students who had listened to the Mozart sonata scored significantly higher on the spatial temporal task." -Rauscher added, "It's very important to note that we did not find effects for general intelligence, just for this one aspect of intelligence. It's a small gain and it doesn't last very long" -Despite the careful way the he described the results, the media that reported on the story exaggerated its importance: The headlines in the papers were "Mozart makes you smart" -Rauscher said her modest finding started to be distorted. "Generalizing these results to children is one of the first things that went wrong. Somehow the myth started exploding that children that listen to classical music from a young age will do better on the SAT, they'll score better on intelligence tests in general, and so forth."

Basic Research

-Goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems -EX 1: Understand the structure of the visual system -EX 2: The capacity of human memory -EX 3: The motivations of a depressed person -EX 4: The limitations of the infant attachment system

Applied Research

-Goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem -Done with a practical problem in mind and researchers conduct their work in a logical, real world context. -EX 1: If a school districts new method of teaching language arts is working better than the former one. -EX 2: Test the efficiency of a treatment for depression in a sample of trauma survivors -EX 3: Looking for better ways to identify those who are more likely to do well at a particular job

Cupboard Theory VS. Contact Comfort Theory Tested:

-Harlow separated the two influences; food and contact comfort. -He built two monkey foster "mothers", the only mothers his lab baby monkeys ever had. -One of the mothers was made of wire with a bottle of milk built in. This wire mother offered food, but not comfort. -The other was covered with fuzzy terrycloth and warmed by a lightbulb. This cloth mother offered comfort, but not food. -The baby monkeys spent most of their time on the warm, cozy cloth mother (Contact Comfort Theory), even though she did not provide any food.

Falsifiable

-It is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong -A theory should lead to a hypotheses that, when tested, could fail to support the theory -Good theories are Falsifiable

Peer Review Process

-Peer reviewers are kept anonymous, so if they know the author of the article they can feel free to give an honest assessment of the research. -They comment on how important the work is, how it fits with the existing body of knowledge, how competently the research was done, and how convincing the results are. -Peer reviewers ensure that the articles published in scientific journals contain important, well-done studies. -When the peer-review process works, research with major flaws does not get published. -The process continues even after a study is published.

The word PROVE in not used in science

-Researchers never say they have proved their theories because as empiricists, scientists avoid interferences they cannot support with direct observation -Instead they say a study's data SUPPORTS or is CONSISTENT with the theory -A single confirming finding cannot prove a theory as well as single disconfirming finding does not lead researchers to scrap a theory -If a hypothesis is not supported, they say the data is INCONSISTENT with the theory

Universalism: Merton's Scientific Norms

-Scientific claims are evaluated according to their merit, independent of the researchers credentials or reputation. -The same preestablished criteria apply to all scientists and all research. -Interpretation and Application: Even a student can do science, you don't need an advanced degree or research position

Communality: Merton's Scientific Norms

-Scientific knowledge is created by a community and its findings belong to the community -Interpretation and Application: Scientists should transparently and freely share the results of their work with other scientists and the public

Self-Correcting

-Scientists make their research available for peer review, replication, and critique, with the goal of identifying and correcting errors in the research. -By being open to falsification and skeptically testing every assumption, science can become self-correcting.

Organized Skepticism: Merton's Scientific Norms

-Scientists question everything, including their own theories, widely accepted ideas, and the "ancient wisdom" -Interpretation and Application: Scientists accept almost nothing at face value. Nothing is sacred, they always ask to see the evidence

Disinterestedness: Merton's Scientific Norms

-Scientists should strive to discover the truth, whatever it is; they are not swayed by conviction, idealism, politics, or profit -Interpretation and Application: Scientists should not be personally invested in whether their hypotheses are supported by the data. Scientists do not spin the story; instead, they accept what the data tell them. In addition, a scientists own beliefs, income, or prestige should not bias their interpretation or reporting of results

RESEARCH PRODUCERS, RESEARCH CONSUMERS (SUMMARY)

-Some students need skills as producers of research; they develop the ability to work in research laboratories and make new discoveries. -Some students need skills as consumers of research; they need to be able to find, read, and evaluate the research behind important policies, therapies, and workplace decisions. -Having good consumer-of-research skills means being able to evaluate the evidence behind the claims of a salesperson, journalist, or researcher, and making better, more informed decisions by asking the right questions.

Research Producers

-Someone who facilitates the research process in order to increase knowledge. -Hope to get a job studying brain anatomy. -Documenting the behavior of dolphins or monkeys. -Administering personality questionnaires. -Observing children in a school setting. -Analyzing data. -They expect to write up their results and present them at research meetings. -These students dream about working as research scientists or professors.

Research Consumers

-Someone who takes research and applies it their career or daily life. -Reading about research so they can apply it to their work, hobbies, relationships, or personal growth. setting. -Enjoys reading about the structure of the brain, the behavior of dolphins or monkeys, the personalities of their fellow students, or the behavior of children in a school setting.

Parsimony (Inductive Reasoning)

-The degree to which a theory provides the simplest explanation of some phenomenon. -In the context of investigating a claim, the simplest explanation of a pattern of data; the best explanation that requires making the fewest exceptions or qualifications.

Empiricism (empirical method or empirical research)

-The use of verifiable evidence as the basis for conclusions; collecting data systematically and using it to develop, support, or challenge a theory. -Evidence from the senses (sight, hearing, touch) or from instruments (thermometers, timers, photos, scales, and questionnaires) -Independently verifiable by other observers or scientists -Most reliable basis for conclusions

Translational Research

-Uses knowledge and lessons from basic research to develop and test solutions to real world problems (health care, psychotherapy, or other forms of treatment and intervention) -A bridge from basic to applied research -EX 1: Basic research on the biochemistry of cell membranes might be translated into a new drug for schizophrenia. -EX 2: Basic research on how mindfulness changes peoples patterns of attention might be translated into a study skills intervention

How Scientists Work

1) Act as empiricists in their investigations 2) Test theories through research and, in turn, revise their theories based on resulting data 3) Follow norms in the scientific community that prioritize objectivity and fairness 4) Take an empirical approach to both applied research and basic research 5) Make their work public, they submit their results to journals for review and respond to the work of other scientists 6) Sharing findings of psychological research with the popular media, who may or may not get the story right

Examples of NOT Empirical Evidence & Approaches

1) Expert opinion 2) Common sense 3) Convincing argument A) He could watch several movies about sleep deprivation and make a strong, logical argument about the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory based on the films B) He could ask his psychology professor for her opinion on the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory C) He could consider his own experiences with sleep and memory

Succeeding as a Producer

1) Need to know why scientists randomly assign people to groups 2) How to measure attitudes accurately 3) How to interpret results from a graph 4) Develop job-related skills such as how to organize and analyze data or how to measure behavior accurately

Features of a Good Theory

1) Parsimonious 2) Falsifiable 3) Supported by data

Examples of Empirical Evidence & Approaches

1) Questionnaire 2) Stopwatch 3) Thermometer A He could conduct a study looking at whether number of hours of sleep is associated with memory function B) He could design and implement a study that measures short-term memory function following different amounts of sleep

The Theory-Data Cycle

1) Theory 2) Research Questions 3) Research Design 4) Hypothesis 5) Preregistration 6) Data

Merton's Scientific Norms

1) Universalism 2) Communality 3) Disinterestedness 4)Organized Skepticism

Benefits of Being a Good Consumer

1) You should always seek empirical evidence to test the efficiency of our interventions EX 1: Not supported by evidence- Scared Straight, a crime prevention program that targets teenagers who are at risk for becoming involved in the Criminal Justice system. They visit prisons, where selected inmates describe the stark, violent realties of prison life. EX 2: Supported by evidence- Mindfulness, the practice involves attending to the present moment, on purpose with a nonjudgmental frame of mind. In a mindful state, people simply observe and let go of thoughts rather than elaborating on them.

Why the Consumer Role is Important

1) You will need to develop the ability to find, read, and evaluate research with curiosity and a critical eye 2) Taking psychology courses 3) Future career- you will need to know how to interpret research data with a critical eye 4) Clinical psychologists, social workers, and family therapists read research to know which therapies are most effective. Obtaining a license in these helping professions requires know research behind evidence-based treatments; that is therapies that are supported by research 5) Needs to know how to ask the right questions and evaluate a study on the basis of those answers 6) You may encounter a mix of high-quality information and false information on social media

Why the Producer Role is Important

1) Your future coursework in psychology 2) Students who go to graduate school for psychology 3) Have to write papers following the style guidelines of (APA) before you graduate 4) May be required to do research as part of a course lab section

Evidence-based Treatment

A psychotherapy technique whose effectiveness has been supported by empirical research.

As a true empiricist, one should: A) Base one's conclusions on direct observations. B) Strive to prove all theories with research. C) Be sure that one's research can be applied in a real-world setting. D) Discuss one's ideas in a public setting, such as on social media.

A) Base one's conclusions on direct observations.

Which of the following is true of the research process? A) Researchers rarely stop at one study; they usually follow up on findings with additional studies B) Only one study is needed to be confident about a research finding C) A single study can debunk a theory if the data are inconsistent D) If a research study's finding are consistent with the theory, that is proof the theory is valid

A) Researchers rarely stop at one study; they usually follow up on findings with additional studies

Franchesca read about Mrazek et al.'s (2013) study in which students scored higher on the GRE after completing a 2-week mindfulness training course. Franchesca is interested in the idea that practicing mindfulness improves the ability to control one's mind from wondering. She decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students practice either mindfulness or read and then take a test of attention. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students who had practiced mindfulness would perform better on the attention test. She runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Franchesca writes up her experiment and submits it to a journal to be evaluated by fellow scientists for publication. What is this process called? A) The peer-review process B) Journal to journalism C) The theory-data cycle D)Applied research

A) The peer-review process

Franchesca read about Mrazek et al.'s (2013) study in which students scored higher on the GRE after completing a 2-week mindfulness training course. Franchesca is interested in the idea that practicing mindfulness improves the ability to control one's mind from wondering. She decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students practice either mindfulness or read and then take a test of attention. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students who had practiced mindfulness would perform better on the attention test. She runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Franchesca's process of conducting a study to evaluate whether the effects of practicing mindfulness extend to tests of attention can best be described as which of the following? A) The theory-data cycle B) The peer-review process C) Journal to journalism D) Applied research

A) The theory-data cycle

Which of the following outlines the correct order of steps in the theory-data cycle? A) Theory, research questions, research design, hypothesis, data B) Data, hypothesis, research design, research questions, theory C) Hypothesis, research design, theory, research questions, data D) Research design, research questions, data, theory, hypothesis

A) Theory, research questions, research design, hypothesis, data

Which of the following is an example of basic research? A) A study investigating the effectiveness of a new treatment for depression B) A study investigating whether children of divorced parents are more likely to be divorced themselves C) A study investigating whether a memory-enhancing strategy found to improve recall in the lab also helps third graders learn multiplication D) A study investigating whether children learn more quickly with a new instructional method

B) A study investigating whether children of divorced parents are more likely to be divorced themselves

Why is publication an important part of the research process? A) Because publication enables practitioners to use the research in applied settings B) Because when a study is published, other scientists can verify or challenge it, making science self-correcting C) Because journalists can make the knowledge available to the general public D) Because publication is the first step of the theory-data cycle

B) Because when a study is published, other scientists can verify or challenge it, making science self-correcting

What is one way to avoid being misled by journalism reports on scientific research? A) Use your gut feeling to decide whether what you read in a popular press article is true B) Consult the source of the article (i.e., the original scientific findings) C) Don't believe anything you read in journalism reports (assume the journalist's report is completely wrong) D) Accept that everything you read in a popular press article is true

B) Consult the source of the article (i.e., the original scientific findings)

Daniel's teacher tells him that his theory about dating is not strong because it is not falsifiable. What does she mean by this? A) Daniel's theory has already been put forth by another psychologist B) Daniel's theory cannot be disproven C) Daniel's theory is too complicated D) Daniel's theory has already been tested, and the evidence did not support the theory

B) Daniel's theory cannot be disproven

Which of the following jobs most likely involves producer-of-research skills rather than consumer-of-research skills? A) Police Officer B) University Professor C) Physician D) Journalist

B) University Professor

Contact Comfort Theory

Babies are attached to their mothers because of the comfort of their warm, fuzzy fur

Seligman (1975, 1991) proposed that animals that cannot escape an aversive outcome don't even try to avoid the aversive experience later, when they can escape it, because they don't perceive themselves as having control ("learned helplessness"). Latecia thinks this concept may apply to people's working conditions. She conducts a study and has 20 research participants work in an office space with some dilapidated supplies (e.g., barely functional pens, crumpled papers). The participants are split into two rooms. In one work room, Latecia offers to replace any of the run-down supplies with newer items. In another work room, Latecia tells the participants that they have to work with what they have. After a few days of working with this setup, both groups' work spaces now include the old supplies as well as new supplies. Latecia predicts that the participants who had to work with the dilapidated supplies for the first few days of the study will continue to use the less-functional supplies on the last day, even when there are new supplies available in the room. Seligman's proposal that animals who cannot escape an aversive outcome don't even try to avoid the aversive experience later, when they can escape it, because they don't perceive themselves as having control would best be described as which of the following? A) A hypothesis B) A law C) A theory D) Data

C) A theory

Which type of research is done with a practical problem in mind? A) Exploratory research B) Basic research C) Applied research D) Translational research

C) Applied research

Psychological scientists base their conclusions on evidence. They collect and use data to develop, support, or challenge a theory. This approach is known as A) Parsimony B) Falsifiability C) Empiricism D) The peer-review process

C) Empiricism

Which of the following is a common way journalists misrepresent science when they write about it for a popular audience? A) Interviewing the researchers who conducted the research B) Recalculating and correcting the published statistics C) Exaggerating the strength of the findings D) Clearly reporting the findings of the study

C) Exaggerating the strength of the findings

"All other things being equal, the simplest solution is the best." Which principle does this describe? A) Translational research B) Evidence-based treatment C) Parsimony D) Weight of evidence

C) Parsimony

Which of the following is true of publishing in the field of psychology? A) Studies with obvious flaws are often included in scientific journals B) Findings must be published in the popular press C) Publishing in the psychology involves a peer-review process D) Publishing in scientific journals is not a rigorous process

C) Publishing in the psychology involves a peer-review process

Franchesca read about Mrazek et al.'s (2013) study in which students scored higher on the GRE after completing a 2-week mindfulness training course. Franchesca is interested in the idea that practicing mindfulness improves the ability to control one's mind from wondering. She decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students practice either mindfulness or read and then take a test of attention. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students who had practiced mindfulness would perform better on the attention test. She runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. The data matched Franchesca's prediction. What conclusion can Franchesca make? A) The theory is true B) The theory is false C) The data support the theory D) The theory has been proven

C) The data support the theory

When the data from a study do not support the theory behind the study's hypothesis, what does that mean for the theory? A) The theory is disproven B) The theory should be made parsimonious C) The theory should be revised D) The theory should be discarded

C) The theory should be revised

Seligman (1975, 1991) proposed that animals that cannot escape an aversive outcome don't even try to avoid the aversive experience later, when they can escape it, because they don't perceive themselves as having control ("learned helplessness"). Latecia thinks this concept may apply to people's working conditions. She conducts a study and has 20 research participants work in an office space with some dilapidated supplies (e.g., barely functional pens, crumpled papers). The participants are split into two rooms. In one work room, Latecia offers to replace any of the run-down supplies with newer items. In another work room, Latecia tells the participants that they have to work with what they have. After a few days of working with this setup, both groups' work spaces now include the old supplies as well as new supplies. Latecia predicts that the participants who had to work with the dilapidated supplies for the first few days of the study will continue to use the less-functional supplies on the last day, even when there are new supplies available in the room. Latecia's prediction that the participants who had to work with the dilapidated supplies for the first few days of the study will continue to use the less-functional supplies on the last day would best be described as which of the following? A) A theory B) A law C) Data D) A hypothesis

D) A hypothesis

Research done specifically to add to our general understanding of psychology is known as A) Applied research B) Quantitative research C) Translational research D) Basic research

D) Basic research

Which of the following research questions best illustrates an example of basic research? A) Has our company's new marketing campaign let to an increase in sales? B) How satisfied are our patients with the sensitivity of the nursing staff? C) Does wearing kinesio-tape reduce joint pain in figure skaters? D) Can 2-month-old human infants tell the difference between four objects and six objects?

D) Can 2-month-old human infants tell the difference between four objects and six objects?

Dimitri is interested in understanding the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory. Which of the following is an empirical approach Dimitri could take to answer this question? A) He could watch several movies about sleep deprivation and make a strong, logical argument about the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory based on the films B) He could consider his own experiences with sleep and memory C) He could ask his psychology teacher for his opinion on the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory D) He could design and execute a study that measures short-term memory function following different amounts of sleep

D) He could design and execute a study that measures short-term memory function following different amounts of sleep

Which of the following is primarily a consumer of research information? A) Biochemist B) Economist C) System analyst D) Marriage and family counselor

D) Marriage and family counselor

Some theories are better than others. What are the features of a good theory? A) Complex, falsifiable, and proven by data B) Intuitive, logical, and not supported by data C) Creative, parsimonious, and proven by data D) Parsimonious, falsifiable, and supported by data

D) Parsimonious, falsifiable, and supported by data

What characteristics sets scientific journals apart from magazines? A) Scientific journals come out periodically, usually once a month B) Scientific journals have multiple contributors C) Scientific journals have editors D) Scientific journals are peer reviewed

D) Scientific journals are peer reviewed

Franchesca read about Mrazek et al.'s (2013) study in which students scored higher on the GRE after completing a 2-week mindfulness training course. Franchesca is interested in the idea that practicing mindfulness improves the ability to control one's mind from wondering. She decides to conduct a similar study in which she has students practice either mindfulness or read and then take a test of attention. Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students who had practiced mindfulness would perform better on the attention test. She runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Which of the following is the data in this study? A) The prediction that "students who practice mindfulness will perform better on the attention task" B) The number of students in the study C) The statement that "practicing mindfulness improves the ability to control one's mind from wondering" D) The students performance on the attention task

D) The students performance on the attention task

A statement, or set of statements, that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another is a(n) A) Prediction B) Hypothesis C) Empirical Observation D) Theory

D) Theory

Which of the following could be considered a source of empirical evidence? A) An expert opinion B) Common sense C) A logical argument D) Thermometer

D) Thermometer

After reading about Harlow's contact comfort theory, Dr. Borden wonders if these findings would apply to premature babies in the neonatal intensive care unit. He designs a study to test whether touch and cuddling could speed up weight gain in premature babies. What type of research is Dr. Borden's study? A) Applied Research B) Basic Research C) Predictive Research D) Translational Research

D) Translational Research

Replication

The process of conducting a study again to test whether the result is consistent