Research Methods FINAL
association claim
"Owning a dog is related to higher life satisfaction."
How do reverse-worded items address shortcuts?
They slow down readers, making them answer more carefully.
You have tested 100 houses for the presence of radon, a radioactive gas. You are interested in comparing the data against the national normed value of 2. Which is the appropriate statistical test?
one sample t test
How should the ' Results' header be typed, according to APA style?
centered and bolded
A researcher suggests to potential study participants that if they do not participate they will suffer negative consequences. This undue influence is called ____________.
coercion
Which of the following cannot be found in a one-group, pretest/posttest design?
comparison group
Assume that you conducted an experiment to examine how viewing pictures of nature versus urban areas affects mood. You want to create a variable, PosAff, that represents the average of a participant's responses to all ten items on the PANAS that measure positive affect. Which command in SPSS should you use to create this variable?
compute
Mark decides to conduct a variation of the original study in which he measures participants' ability to solve verbal analogies as the cognitive task instead of measuring their ability to solve math problems. He finds that people who drink caffeine beforehand solve more verbal analogies than those who drink water beforehand, suggesting caffeine consumption causes improved cognitive performance. This study is known as a:
conceptual replication
Dr. Alfonse, a developmental psychologist, conducts a study to determine whether children prefer books with drawn illustrations or with photographs. A group of 45 first-graders are shown two copies of a book (Little Red Riding Hood) at the same time. Although the story is the same, one book is illustrated with drawings and the other is illustrated with photos. Students are then asked to indicate which book they prefer. This is an example of which of the following designs?
concurrent measures design
The Yerkes-Dodson law (1908), shows that performance increases with arousal up to a point, but beyond that, performance decreases with increasing arousal. What type of correlation is this?
curvilinear
Under what conditions is debriefing necessary? What should be included in a debriefing?
debriefing is necessary in any study that involves deception. Students may also state that debriefings can and probably should be done in all studies, regardless of the presence of deception.
Dr. Schulenberg likely designed his study so that neither he nor his students knew which group they were in to address which of the following?
demand characteristics
Lucia is interested in studying discrimination in hiring. She designs an experiment in which the participant takes the role of an employer looking at job candidates for a specific position. Each participant is given two very similar resumés—one of a candidate with a female name and one of a candidate with a male name—and is then asked to rate the suitability of each candidate for a job. Lucia finds no difference in participants' ratings of male and female candidates. What threat to internal validity should she be concerned about?
demand characteristics
Pairwise comparisons as part of ANOVA are used to:
demonstrate sources of differences between different levels of an independent variable
Dimitri is interested in understanding the effects of sleep deprivation on short-term memory. Which of the following is an empirical approach Dimitri could take to answer this question?
design and execute a study which measures short-term memory function following different amounts of sleep
When examining an association claim using a bar graph, an association is indicated by which of the following?
difference in height between the bars
Roediger and McDermott (1995) conducted a study involving a paradigm initially developed by Deese (1959) which produces false recall of a word when a participant is given a list of words to recall which centers on a particular word but does not include it. For example, if participants were given a list that included sandal, towel, sunscreen, and waves, then they would falsely remember the word beach even though it was not on the list. They did two studies based on Deese's original study. In the first study, they used the same word lists that Deese used and in the second experiment they used new sets of stimulus words. What is the term for the first study they ran?
direct replication
A description of studies the researcher might conduct in the future is typically found in which section of a manuscript?
discussion
which of the following is the last section of an empirical journal article?
discussion
In psychology lab, Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the dependent variable in this experiment?
distance out of alignment of the rods
The number of main effects that need to be examined is ________ the number of independent variables.
equal to
Linda is studying how different kinds of images and the gender of the experimenter affect people's responses to pain. She randomly assigns research participants to either a male of female experimenter; the experimenter shows the participants images of food, images of animals, or images of children. Linda then measures how long participants can tolerate a painful electric stimulus applied to the skin. Linda's independent variable(s) is/are:
experimenter gender and image type
Tetiana is conducting an experiment on depth perception using the Howard-Dolman box. Inside the box are two vertical rods and a horizontal ruler. The participant manipulates the rods until they appear to be aligned at the same distance away, then the experimenter measures how far out of alignment they are. There are three conditions: left eye only, right eye only, and both eyes. Tetiana is using a repeated-measures design. What is the independent variable in this experiment?
eyes/eyes used
In the case of a factorial design, another term for independent variable is:
factor
When reporting the results of an ANOVA, the values between the parentheses refer to the sample size.
false
A study conducted in the "real world" is often said to be conducted in:
field setting
Cindy's advisor recommends that she contact several researchers in the field for articles that were not published and/or that found null effects. Doing this will address which of the following?
file drawer problem
want to get quickly caught up on all of the recent research related to a topic. Which would be the best type of source to use?
literature review
independent variable is
manipulated
____________ is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked.
manipulation check
is an extra dependent variable that can be used to help researchers quantify how well an experimental manipulation worked.
manipulation check
___________ are the means for each level of an independent variable, averaging over levels of the other independent variable.
marginal means
Kathryn wants to control for intelligence in her study. She has a list of all of the participants for her study and their IQ scores. She sorts the list of participants according to their IQ scores and then forms groups making sure that the groups are balanced in terms of IQ scores. Finally, she randomly assigns each group to one of the conditions of her study. What kind of design is Kathryn using?
matched groups
Some internal validity threats can be addressed simply by including a comparison group, while other internal validity threats can occur even in studies with a comparison group. Which of the following threats to internal validity would be improved with the inclusion of a comparison group?
maturation threats
What is it called when a researcher mathematically averages the results of many studies that have been completed with the same variables?
meta-analysis
As part of an assignment for his Introduction to Psychology class, Gilbert has to read a journal article, summarize it, and compare it to what is reported in his textbook. Gilbert selects the article "Effects of Severe Daily Events on Mood," Stone & Neale (1984). If Gilbert wanted to repeat the study, which section would he consult to find the details of the study's design?
method
If Gilbert wanted to repeat the study, which section would he consult to find the details of the study's design?
method
Matthew is reading an empirical journal article and wants to know whether the authors used the Big Five Inventory (BFI-44) or the NEO-PI to measure extraversion. In which section would he find this information?
method
The study used a 2 ´ 2 ´ 4 design." Where are you likely to have encountered this sentence?
method section
Susan designed a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. What kind of study design is this?
mixed factorial design
The study used a 2 ´ 2 ´ 4 design." Based on this sentence alone, you would know all of the following pieces of information EXCEPT:
number of participants in the study
Dr. Gavin decides that instead of conducting a 2 ´ 4 independent-groups factorial design, he is going to conduct a 2 ´ 4 within-subjects factorial design. Which of the following things will change?
number of participants needed
Another word for data is
observation
Masked, or blind, study designs are designed to deal with:
observer bias
You run an independent samples t test. Your Levene's test shows a significance value of .021. What should you do?
report the t-statistic for equal variances not assumed
Which of the following describes a "fence-sitting" response to a survey?
responding to a controversial question on a survey by selecting the response right in the middle
What other information, in addition to effect size, must you know in order to determine if a correlation is statistically significant?
sample size
Experiments use random assignment to avoid which of the following?
selection effects
When multiple citations are included following a single sentence, how should the citations be organized?
they should be organized alphabetically by first author's last name
Dr. Thompson researches gang-related crime in Chicago. She notices that more graffiti appears when there are more ice cream trucks in town. She does a study that measures the frequency of new graffiti being reported and ice cream truck sales for each week over a year. She finds a positive association between ice cream truck sales and graffiti and concludes that the ice cream trucks are encouraging graffiti. Her colleague, Dr. Richardson, points out that both ice cream sales and graffiti might be influenced by rising temperatures during the summer. What kind of problem has Dr. Richardson identified?
third variable problem
Inferential statistics is about drawing inferences about the characteristics of the population based on knowledge of a sample.
true
Susan ran a study in which she had a group of younger adults (18-24 year-olds) and older adults (50-65 year-olds). She had the participants rate their level of anxiety right before they recited the poem each time. Susan found that there was a main effect for age such that younger people reported being more anxious than older people. She found a main effect for audience size such that people were more anxious in the room with 50 people than they were in the room by themselves. She did not find an interaction in the results. If Susan were to graph her results, what would they look like?
two parallel diagonal lines
On an APA-style title page, the page number should be positioned
upper right corner
Dr. Morimoto is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive. He assigns half his participants to play a video game for five minutes and the other half to play for seven minutes. He finds that there is no relationship between playing the game longer and being more aggressive. What might be to blame for this null effect?
weak manipulation
Professor Law wants to construct a survey to assess involvement with computer games. Which of the following would be an example of an open-ended question?
what computer games have you played?
When people are asked why they made a certain choice, they ______________.
will tell you why they think they made that choice, but they may not be accurate at identifying the true reason for their choice
What is the correct order for an APA-style reference to an entire book?
Author, A. A. (date). Title of work. Location: Publisher.
In addition to being an ethical violation, why are data falsification and fabrication problematic?
Because they impede scientific progress.
All of the following are true of ceiling and floor effects EXCEPT:
They are only problematic in pretest/posttest designs
The choice of which post-hoc test results to report as part of an analysis of variance is determined by what? Choose ALL that apply:
**ALL OF THEM**
How many participant variables exist in Dr. Elder's study?
0
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 ´ 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many interactions will Dr. Gavin need to examine?
1
Dr. Gavin is conducting a 2 ´ 4 independent-groups factorial design. How many main effects will Dr. Gavin need to examine?
2
A researcher wants to run a 2 x 3 mixed factorial design. The first factor is within-subjects. The second factor is between-subjects. If the researcher wants 20 observations per cell, how many participants will he need in total?
60
All of the following are examples of things that would appear in the Materials section of an APA-style method section, EXCEPT:
A description of the technique used to randomly assign participants to condition
What is the difference between a posttest-only design and a pretest/posttest design? Provide both a benefit and a disadvantage of using a pretest/posttest design.
A pretest/postest design would measure the groups before the independent variable is presented and would be followed by a measurment after the indpendent is presented; whereas the postest only would only be measured past the presentation of the independent variable, leaving room for error. Pretest postest leaves less room for error
Participants in a research study are given a list of words to study for 3 minutes and then, following a delay, are asked to recall the list. The length of the delay is manipulated between participants to be either 2 minutes, 5 minutes, or 10 minutes. Which of the following scenarios would present a design confound in this experiment?
All participants in the 2-minute condition are tested at 8:00 a.m.; those in the 5-minute condition are tested at noon; and those in the 10-minute condition are tested at 4:00 p.m.
A local committee that reviews research that is conducted on animals is known as ________.
An IACUC
Which of the following studies would probably NOT require an in-person IRB meeting to obtain approval?
An anonymous survey asking whether students want the campus mascot be changed
When a researcher describes on an IRB application the risks to participants and the steps s/he will take to minimize those risks, the IRB committee considers the researcher's explanation in relation to what principle in the Belmont Report?
Beneficence
Daniel's teacher tells him that his theory about dating is not strong because it is not falsifiable. What does she mean?
Daniel's theory cannot be disproven.
Which of the following in-text citations is correct? (Assume that the study being describe has four authors: Ekkekakis, Hall, VanLanduyt, and Petruzzello. Assume that this is the second citation to the study.)
Ekkekakis et al. (2000) found that short (10-minute) bouts of walking resulted in increased positive affect and energetic arousal.
There are several ways to decrease socially desirable responding. Choose one of these and explain why it decreases this response tendency.
Ensure anonymity—this may allow participants to feel that others may not judge them or know that their answer is "unpopular.
Mark decides to conduct a conceptual replication. Which of the following could be in the study to make it this type of replication?
Having participants drink a caffeinated energy drink rather than a caffeinated cola
Which of the following allows Dr. Lonsbary to conclude that she met the temporal precedence rule for causality?
Having people listen to music or silence before they wrote down the list of words they remembered
Given the scenario above, Dr. Ewell is concerned that the children will behave differently because of the presence of research assistants. Which of the following could he do to address this concern?
Hide a video camera in the daycare center and record the children playing without them knowing
Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. What is a question that one could ask to assess the construct validity of this association?
How well was delay of gratification measured?
In his measure of "need for cognition" (the degree to which people like thinking and problem-solving), Dr. Jonason asks his participants to rate their agreement with the following statement: "I have never not enjoyed thinking." What is the problem with this question?
It has a double negative.
why is PsycINFO a superior way to find scientific sources?
It searches only sources in psychology and related fields.
Below are examples of a journal article title. Which example shows how the title should appear when it is part of a reference list?
Natural versus urban scenes: Some psychophysiological effects
Mischel (1972) studied delay of gratification in preschoolers: Children were offered a special reward if they could wait or a less attractive treat if they chose not to wait. A follow-up study was done years later, looking at the same children as adolescents. The researchers found an association between the waiting times of the preschoolers and parents' reports of the same children's behaviors as adolescents. Overall, a positive relation between waiting time as a preschooler and self-control in adolescence emerged. Can a causal relationship be inferred?
No, because internal validity was not established.
Dr. Kline plans to use deception in his study and is thinking about a debriefing session. Which of the following is true of the debriefing?
Participants must be told the reasons for the deception.
In considering whether research is ethical, which of the following are balanced against each other?
Risk to participants versus value of the knowledge gained
two reasons why it is beneficial to be a good consumer of research, even if you are not a psychologist.
Several answers are acceptable, including using findings from research to help one's profession, to help one's everyday life (e.g., techniques to improve relationships, improve study skills), to save money and time (e.g., by not spending time and money on things that are not effective).
Judy writes a survey to assess how much people worry. Her survey has 20 questions that people can rate their level of agreement to on a seven-point Likert scale. All of the questions are worded so that higher responses will indicate a higher level of worry. After having 100 people complete her survey, she finds that a lot of respondents often respond to all of the questions by choosing only the "strongly agree" option. How could she improve the construct validity of her survey?
She could include reverse-worded items.
Professor Fofana wonders if there is an association between students' grades and whether they complete extra credit in his classes. He makes a scatterplot, with the number of extra credit points earned on the x-axis and the numerical grade in his course without extra credit on the y-axis. He finds that r = 0.28. What does this correlation tell him about which students take advantage of the extra credit option?
Students with higher grades are more likely than students with lower grades to do extra credit work.
Explain how a study can be important but lack a diverse, random sample and a real-world setting. What type of study is likely to have neither of these?
Studies that take place in laboratories, known as theory testing mode, lack a diverse, random sample with a real-world setting; yet are important. Because these studies are high in experimental realism, they and engaging and emotionally evocative. The ecological validity lies in the assurance that participants have experienced real life outside of the lab, and their responses can therefore be related back to be applicable outside of the lab as well.
To be a history threat, the external event must occur:
Systematically, affecting most members of the group
Which of the following is true about open-ended questions?
They provide rich data, but they can be time-consuming for researchers because the responses need to be coded.
The campus safety committee has asked Professor Ibrahim to study bicycling on his campus. He trains two observers and has them observe the number of cyclists and their safety at various points around campus. When the observations began, the observers noticed that bicyclists slowed down when they neared the observers. How could this reactivity be avoided?
The observers could make unobtrusive observations by hiding.
The need to balance the potential costs and benefits to participants taking part in a research study is done to address which principle of the Belmont Report?
The principle of beneficence
Dr. Kline asks his participants to provide informed consent. Doing this is adhering to which principle of the Belmont Report?
The principle of respect for persons
When the data from a study do not support the theory behind the study's hypothesis, what does that mean for the theory?
The theory should be revised.
For a third variable to be plausible as the explanation in an established association, which of the following must also be true?
The third variable must be related to both of the measured variables in the original association.
According to the textbook, what is the problem with WEIRD samples?
They are not very representative of the world's population.
All of the following belong in the Participants section of an APA-style method section, EXCEPT:
Whether participants were randomly assigned to condition
It has been reported that half of Americans show road rage. For this claim to have strong external validity, which of the following would have been the best sample for the researcher to have used?
a cross-section of American drivers representing men and women; people from the city, suburbs, and farms; of all ages
Judy writes a survey to assess how much people worry. Her survey has 20 questions that people can rate their level of agreement to on a seven-point Likert scale. All of the questions are worded so that higher responses will indicate a higher level of worry. After having 100 people complete her survey, she finds that a lot of respondents often respond to all of the questions by choosing only the "strongly agree" option. What is this kind of responding called?
acquiescence
Koordeman et al. (2011)...Which of the following is a participant variable in this study?
amount of alcohol consumed by the young adult during the week
needs to correlate two variables. Which menu in SPSS should she use
analyze; correlate
On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. When Professor Mutola rechecks her data, she finds that the five students with the lowest scores on the first exam have dropped the class. What threat to internal validity is this?
attrition
Which information from a journal article should be included in an in-text citation?
authors' last names and year article was published
The idea that things that easily come to mind tend to guide our thinking is known as which of the following?
availability heuristic
An independent-groups design is also known as a ________.
between subjects design
Even when people are aware that people generally think in a biased way, they tend to think that they are unlikely to fall prey to those biases. This kind of bias is called
bias blind spot
Amy is interested in determining whether there is a relationship between a person's level of conscientiousness and that person's salary. What type of statistical test should Amy use?
bivariate correlation
Dr. Sanderson is curious as to whether exposing people to violent video games causes them to be more aggressive ... She finds that a vast majority of her participants, regardless of group assignment, are rated as very aggressive. This outcome would be known as a/an:
ceiling effect
does NOT contribute to within-groups variability?
ceiling effect
Name two threats to internal validity that are likely to be present in Dr. Paddock's study, given her particular design. What other explanation do these threats provide for the results found by Dr. Paddock?
history, maturation, testing, or demand characteristics.
research studies superior to personal because
include at least one comparison group
What type of design did Dr. Lonsbary use in her study
independent groups design
You are interested in comparing the incomes of Democrats and Republicans in your voting district. Which statistical test is appropriate?
independent samples t test
Koordeman et al. (2011) .... What type of design is this?
independent-groups factorial design
An ANOVA is an example of a/an:
inferential statistic
For an association claim, you should interrogate all of the following validities EXCEPT __________.
internal
Which type of validity is typically not relevant to association claims?
internal
main priority for experimental studies?
internal validity
what is the main priority for experimental studies?
internal validity
Professor Nakum designs a memory experiment to test the effect of word familiarity on memory. Three lists of words are created: common words, uncommon words, and made-up words. Participants are randomly assigned to study one of the lists of 30 words for 5 minutes, do math problems for 5 minutes, then write all the words they recall from the list. Their score is the number of words correctly recalled. The use of random assignment of participants increases which of the following?
internal validity of the study
The hypothesis can be found in which section of a manuscript?
introduction
dependent variable is one that
is measured
When a researcher describes on an IRB application how participants will be recruited for a study, the IRB committee considers the researcher's description in relation to what principle in the Belmont Report?
justice
On the first exam in an Introductory Psychology class, the grades are lower than Professor Mutola expected. She suspects that multitasking is to blame. She bans computers and cell phones from her class between the first and the second exam. When she compares the scores on the two exams, she finds a significant improvement on the second exam. What is the formal name for this type of design?
one-group, pretest/posttest
Assume you are interested in comparing the incomes of Democrats, Republicans, and Independents in your district. Which statistical test should you use?
one-way ANOVA
A more general term for practice effects and carryover effects is:
order effects
general term for practice effects and carryover effects is:
order effects
she realizes there are three scores that seem to be very extreme and are nowhere near the other points on the scatterplot. Specifically, it appears that three people report very high levels of daily stress and very low levels of life satisfaction. Dr. Oswald should probably consider these scores ________.
outliers
Testing threats involve ________ whereas instrumentation threats involve ________.
participants; measurements
Should you conclude that the original article found evidence of an interaction? Why is or why isn't there evidence of an interaction? "One study had participants watch a crime show. Half the participants watched a documentary of a murder that took place in rural Virginia, while the other half watched a movie adaptation of the same murder. The effect of viewing a crime show on people's fear of being a victim of crime depends on the participants' sex, with women in general being more fearful regardless of which show they saw, whereas men reported more fear after watching the documentary." (SA!!!)
passage suggests that an interaction was found in the original study. Their reasoning for making this conclusion can come from the inclusion of the term depends or from the inclusion of a participant variable (participant sex) that suggests moderation.
Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students with red booklets would rate themselves lower than students with white or green booklets. Franchesca runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction.
peer review process
What type of research misconduct involves representing the ideas or words of others as one's own?
plaigirism
threat to internal validity found in within-groups designs but not in independent-groups designs
practice effects
another word for hypothesis
prediction
Cara is running a study to examine the effect of music on mood. She randomly assigns participants to three conditions — rock, jazz, and country. She has the participants rate their mood with a short questionnaire, then listen to their assigned music for 20 minutes, and then fill out the mood questionnaire again. What kind of design is she using?
pretest/posttest
The belief that the participants in a research study should be representative of the type of people who would also benefit from the findings of the research stems from which principle of the Belmont Report?
principal of justice
Dr. Kline's decision about the type of participants to recruit should be informed by which of the following principles of the Belmont Report?
principle of justice
A step-by-step description of what the participants did in a study is given in the _____ section of an APA-style method section.
procedure
theory data cycle; theories first lead to
questions
pictures of nature versus urban areas affects mood. You collected data on the demographic characteristics of your participants. You entered "F" for "female" and "M" for "male" in SPSS. Later you decide that you want to change gender from a string (i.e., "F" or "M") to a numeric (i.e., 1 or 2) variable. What should you do?
recode existing variable into a different variable
If you repeat a study and the results are the same as the first time, what term can be used to describe the finding?
replicable
Examine Dr. Moynihan's study in the context of the three criteria for inferring causation. Which two of these three criteria explain why Dr. Moynihan cannot say that the number of panic attacks in the past month causes one to have fewer nightmares in the same month?
should state that Dr. Moynihan is unable to establish two of the three criteria. She can establish criterion 1—the two variables do covary. She cannot establish temporal precedence, as both variables were measured in the past month (so they are co-occurring). She also cannot establish internal validity because (a) neither variable was manipulated and (b) a third variable could be causing both variables.
attempt to control sounds, smells, and even temperature in a testing environment is meant to reduce which of the following
situation noise
Assume that you conducted an experiment to examine how viewing pictures of nature versus urban areas affects mood. You measured participants' mood using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) prior to and immediately following their viewing of the pictures. You want to organize the SPSS data file, so that all the participants in the nature condition are grouped together, and all the participants in the urban condition are grouped together. Which SPSS command should you use?
sort cases
"Tea Party Supporters Have Slipped To 20 Percent." She asks, "What is the margin of error of the estimate?" What validity is she interrogating?
statistical validity
A Pearson product moment correlation provides information about the _____ and _____ of the relationship between two variables.
strength; direction
Dr. Kline suspects that the people who will most benefit from his study are high school and college students, who are asked to perform cognitive functions in various states of sleep deprivation. Given this information, what type of participants should Dr. Kline recruit for his study?
students from a community college
Which of the following reports of results is correct, according to APA style?
t(50) = 4.29, p = .032
You know this relationship may not be causal because you are not sure which occurred first—watching television or being aggressive. You are questioning which of the following rules of causation?
temporal precedence
Linda is studying how different kinds of images affect people's responses to pain. She randomly assigns research participants to view images of food, images of animals, or images of children. She then measures how long participants can tolerate a painful electric stimulus applied to the skin. The null hypothesis in Linda's study is
the difference in pain tolerance between the different types of images is zero
Which of the following should have a zero before the decimal, according to APA style?
the distance between the participant and the computer screen, reported in meters
The campus safety committee has asked Professor Ibrahim to study bicycling on his campus. Professor Ibrahim refines his codebooks to clearly define the rating scales and retrains the observers. What is he addressing by doing this?
the reliability of the measurement
Franchesca predicts that, in line with the original study, students with red booklets would rate themselves lower than students with white or green booklets. Franchesca runs the study and finds that the results match her prediction. Which of the following is the data in this study?
the self-ratings of the students
Professor Nakum designs a memory experiment to test the effect of word familiarity on memory. Three lists of words are created: common words, uncommon words, and made-up words. Participants study one of the lists of 30 words for 5 minutes, do math problems for 5 minutes, then write all the words they recall from the list. Their score is the number of words correctly recalled. Which of the following is the independent variable in this study?
the type of word list
