Rhetoric Basics

1. Fallacies of Relevance 2. Fallacies of Accuracy 3. Fallacies of Insufficiency

3 subcategories of evidence?

- Failure to make a logical connection between the claim and the evidence used to support the claim. -Accidental -Intentionally -Against

A fallacy is a... Sometimes fallacies are _____. Other times, they are used to _____ manipulate or deceive. Intentional or unintentional, fallacies work _____ (against or with) the civility of a good argument.

1. facts 2. anecdotes 3. analogies 4. stats 5. details 6. experiments 7. illustrations 8. expert opinions 9. personal observations 10. personal observations 11. testimonies

According to the College Board, what are 11 types of evidence?

1. Think about the court case involving an innocent Tom Robinson in To Kill a Mockingbird. 2. People refusing to get the COVID vaccine because they don't trust Biden.

Ad hominem example?

1. Yes (claim of policy) 2. No 3. Yes- can become a thesis

Are the following claims? 1. SUV owners should be required to pay an energy surcharge. 2. Charter schools are an alternative to public schools. 3. The term global warming and climate change describe different perspectives on this complex issue.

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple audiences.

Audience

Who the writer is speaking to.

Audience (in EPACWM)

An acknowledgment that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, a concession is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument.

Concession

Meanings or associations that readers have with a word beyond its dictionary definition, or denotation. Connotations are often positive or negative, and they often greatly affect the author's tone.

Connotation

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text.

Context

Circumstances surrounding the situation.

Context (in EPACWM)

An opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. Rather than ignoring a counterargument, a strong writer will usually address it through the process of concession and refutation.

Counterargument

The art of finding ways to persuade an audience.

Define rhetoric using the Bedford reader definition.

Claim Reason Reason Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence

Draw the claim-reason-evidence diagram with one claim.

1. Arguments of fact 2. Arguments of value 3. Arguments of policy

Each type of claim can be used to guide entire arguments, which we call... (3)

1. Interesting 2. State the obvious 3. Evidence 4. Rhetorical situation 5. Organized

Effective reasons/claims... (according to collegeboard) 1. Are _____. 2. Do not _____ _____ _____. 3. Include _____. 4. Consider the _____ _____. 5. Are _____.

Greek for "character." Speakers appeal to ethos to demonstrate that they are credible and trustworthy to speak on a given topic. Ethos is established by both who you are and what you say.

Ethos

Shared beliefs

Ethos in two words

Claim - Proposition or assertion

Every argument has a _____. What is this also called (2)?

RELEVANT (Specifically applies to the argument being made). ACCURATE (Attributed to reliable sources, Account for bias, Quoted, Not misrepresented, Consider sources your audience trusts) SUFFICIENT (Enough evidence to support the claim thoroughly)

Evidence must be: Relevant: Accurate: Sufficient: What do these terms mean?

- Relevant, accurate, and sufficient. - Explicitly spell out what the relationship is between an example and the argument at hand. - Reliable sources which the audience is likely to trust.

Evidence should always be... Good arguments always... Good evidence comes from...

The three-dimensional characters, exciting plot, and complex themes of the Harry Potter series make them not only legendary children's books but enduring literary classics. a. This thesis asserts that the series constitutes a "literary classic" and specifies 3 reasons - characters, plot, and theme - each of which would be discussed in the argument.

Example of a closed thesis statement?

Although the Harry Potter series may have some literary merit, its popularity has less to do with storytelling than merchandising.

Example of a counterargument thesis statement?

1. "It's a fact that the Social Security program will go bankrupt by 2025" is a claim that could be developed into an argument of fact. 2. The claim that cell phones increase the incidence of brain tumors requires sifting through new "facts" from medical research and scrutinizing who is carrying out the research, who is supporting it financially, and so on 3. Ms. Cowburn decided to be an English teacher when she saw the potential in the future generation of students. 4. Ghosts are real. 5. Any predictions or undecided issues

Examples of claim of fact?

1. Local issues include: proposing that your school should raise money to contribute to a school in Haiti, presenting the idea that you should be able to stay out later on the weekends to your parents 2. Bigger issues include: a proposal for transitioning to alternative energy sources, a change in copyright laws for digital music, a change in legislature.

Examples of claims of policy?

1. If you argue that Brad Pitt is the best actor in Hollywood, that is simply a matter of taste. a. Another person could argue that while Pitt might be the best-looking actor in Hollywood, Leonardo DiCaprio is more highly paid and his movies tend to make more money. That is an evaluation based on external criteria. 2. "Best dressed" (but avoid best and never because they can be controversial).

Examples of claims of value?

The specific occasion/event that prompted the message.

Exigence (in EPACWM)

Donald Trump supports Putin. Putin supports government corruption and seeks power. Trump desires government corruption and seeks power. While this may be true (or false depending on ones beliefs), you can't draw this conclusion.

Faulty analogy example?

Faulty analogies can occur when a writer or speaker attempts to use an analogy to support an argument. This happens when the analogy compares two things based on irrelevant or inconsequential similarities. For example, an argument that "we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, so we should do the same for people" (assumes a comparative relationship between animals and people, one that does not apply here) asks the reader to ignore significant and profound differences between animals and people. At first glance, it appeals to emotions, but it is logically irrelevant.

Faulty analogy?

Lou Gehrig brings the ethos of being a legendary athlete to his speech, yet in it he establishes a different kind of ethos — that of a regular guy and a good sport who shares the audience's love of baseball and family. And like them, he has known good luck and bad breaks.

How did Lou Gehrig apply to ethos?

Gehrig starts with the thesis that he is "the luckiest man on the face of the earth" and supports it with two points: (1) the love and kindness he's received in his seventeen years of playing baseball and (2) a list of great people who have been his friends, family, and teammates.

How did Lou Gehrig apply to logos?

You have to be more specific about what you intend to argue.

How do you develop a claim into a thesis?

The most striking appeal to pathos is the poignant contrast between Gehrig's horrible diagnosis and his public display of courage.

How does Lou Gehrig use pathos?

Placement of two things closely together to emphasize similarities or differences.

Juxtaposition

- Potential vulnerabilities or weaknesses in an argument.

Logical fallacies are...

Greek for "embodied thought." Speakers appeal to logos, or reason, by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony to back them up.

Logos

Logic

Logos in one word

What the writer wants the audience to know.

Message (in EPACWM)

The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written.

Occasion

In the case of Gehrig's speech, the occasion is Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day. More specifically, his moment came at home plate between games of a doubleheader.

Occasion of Lou Gehrig's speech?

- More than 1 - Yes

Often times an argument will include how many types of claims? Do the claims build upon each other?

- Support it with effective evidence.

Once a writer has established a claim and developed a thesis statement, the next step is to...

Connotations

Overweight, plump, fat, and obese all have the same meaning but have different _____.

Greek for "suffering" or "experience." Speakers appeal to pathos to emotionally motivate their audience. More specific appeals to pathos might play on the audience's values, desires, and hopes, on the one hand, or fears and prejudices, on the other.

Pathos

Emotions

Pathos in one word

Greek for "mask." The face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience.

Persona

"A strong verbal or written attack on someone or something."

Polemic

Greek for "hostile." An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others. Polemics generally do not concede that opposing opinions have any merit.

Polemic

"Greek for hostile." An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others. Polemics generally do not concede that opposing opinions have any merit.

Polemical definition

The spread of ideas and information to further a cause. In its negative sense, propaganda is the use of rumors, lies, disinformation, and scare tactics in order to damage or promote a cause.

Propaganda

The goal the speaker wants to achieve.

Purpose

Why the speaker is conveying the message.

Purpose (in EPACWM)

A denial of the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable, a refutation often follows a concession that acknowledges that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. One of the stages in classical oration, usually following the confirmation, or proof, and preceding the conclusion, or peroration.

Refutation

Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." In other words, it is the art of finding ways of persuading an audience.

Rhetoric (Aristotle's definition)

Manipulative

Rhetoric can make texts _____. An example is Richard Nixon's, The Checkers Speech.

Meaningful, purposeful, and effective.

Rhetoric refers to the art of finding and analyzing all the choices involving language that a writer, speaker, reader, listener might make in a situation so that the text might become _____, _____, and _____.

Rhetorical techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find most important or compelling. The three major appeals are to ethos (character), logos (reason), and pathos (emotion).

Rhetorical appeals

A diagram that illustrates the interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject in determining a text.

Rhetorical triangle/ Aristotelian triangle

A mnemonic device that stands for Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, and Speaker. It is a handy way to remember the various elements that make up the rhetorical situation.

SOAPS

The person or group who creates a text. This might be a politician who delivers a speech, a commentator who writes an article, an artist who draws a political cartoon, or even a company that commissions an advertisement.

Speaker

The topic of a text. What the text is about.

Subject

While this term generally means the written word, in the humanities it has come to mean any cultural product that can be "read" — meaning not just consumed and comprehended, but investigated. This includes fiction, nonfiction, poetry, political cartoons, fine art, photography, performances, fashion, cultural trends, and much more.

Text

- One-sentence thesis statement that appears in the introduction of your argument. - Preview the essay by encapsulating in clear, unambiguous language the main point or points the writer intends to make.

The claim is traditionally stated explicitly as a.... To be effective, the thesis statement must...

Audience

The effectiveness of evidence is based on _____.

1. A closed thesis statement 2. An open thesis statement

Two types of thesis statements?

- Argues that something is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. - May be personal judgments based on taste, or they may be more objective observations based on external criterion

What are claims of value?

What evidence to present, how much is necessary, and how to present it.

What are rhetorical choices guided by an understanding of the audience?

- Focus on replacing confrontational argument tactics with ones that promote negotiation, compromise, and cooperation. -Based on the assumption that having a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in a way that is accommodating rather than alienating. - The goal isn't to destroy your opponent or to dismantle their viewpoints, but rather to reach a satisfactory conclusion.

What are rogerian arguments? They are based on the assumption that... What is the goal?

Asserts, argues, contends, etc

What are signal words?

1. Claim of fact 2. Claim of value 3. Claim of policy

What are the 3 types of claims?

Ethos, pathos, logos

What are the rhetorical appeals?

1. Straw man fallacy~ oversimplifies to ridicule and refute an opponent's viewpoint. 2. False dilemma (aka an either/or)~ Only offers 2 ways to view an issue and both are extreme and inaccurate.

What are the two types of fallacies of accuracy?

1. An ad hominem 2. Faulty analogies

What are the two types of fallacies of relevance?

Subject, Audience, Speaker. Without one of these, the text is flat and doesn't affect the audience.

What cannot a text exist without?

Some of Lou Gehrig's listeners might have argued that his bad break was a cause for discouragement or despair.

What could have Lou Gehrig's listeners argued regarding his bad break (counterargument)?

Lou Gehrig refutes that his bad break is a cause for discouragement by saying that he has "an awful lot to live for!"

What did Lou Gehrig refute?

- Using evidence that's irrelevant to the claim. a. This often happens when a speaker skips to a new and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discussion.

What do fallacies of relevance result from?

Exigence, purpose, audience, context, writer, and message.

What does EPACWM stand for?

Lou Gehrig concedes what some of his listeners may think — that his bad break is a cause for discouragement or despair.

What does Lou Gehrig concede to?

Lou Gehrig is a famous baseball hero, but in his speech he presents himself as a common man who is modest and thankful for the opportunities he's had.

What is Lou Gehrig's persona in his farewell speech?

Subject- Occasion- Audience- Purpose- Speaker- Tone

What is SOAPSTONE?

- Asserts that something is true or not true. - Often pivot on what is exactly "factual." - Facts can be arguable when they are questioned, when they raise controversy, and when they challenge people's beliefs.

What is a claim of fact? When can facts be arguable?

- Anytime you propose a change, you're making a claim of policy. -An argument of policy generally begins with a definition of the problem (a claim of fact), explains why it is a problem (a claim of value), and then explains the change that needs to happen (a claim of policy)

What is a claim of policy? How do arguments of policy begin?

- The main idea or position of the argument. - A claim MUST be arguable. a. A topic may be a single word or phrase, but the arguable claim must be stated as a complete sentence.

What is a claim? How is this different from a subject or topic?

- A closed thesis is a statement of the main idea of the argument that also previews the major points the writer intends to make. - It is "closed" because it limits the number of points the writer will make.

What is a closed thesis statement? Why is it closed?

- In a counterargument thesis, a summary of the counterargument, usually qualified by although or but, precedes the writer's opinion. - This type of thesis immediately addresses the counterargument making the argument seem both stronger and more reasonable. - This may also create a seamless transition to a more thorough concession and refutation of the counterargument later in the essay.

What is a counterargument thesis statement?

An ad hominem fallacy of relevance is a diversionary tactic of switching the argument from the issue at hand to the character of the other speaker.

What is an ad hominem?

- Persuasive discourse, a coherent and considered movement from claim to conclusion. *Avoid thinking about an argument as a win/lose situation and begin to think of it as a means of a better understanding other people's ideas as well. (Aka making an assertion/thesis and supporting it with evidence).

What is an argument?

- An open thesis does not list all of the main points of the essay. - By making the overall point without actually stating every subpoint, an open thesis can guide an essay without being cumbersome. -If you are writing a long essay with five, six, or even more main points, then an open thesis statement is more effective than a closed thesis statement.

What is an open thesis statement? When would you use it over a closed thesis statement?

Quotation: Word for word from a source with quotation marks. Paraphrase: Rephrasing of a portion of a source that is about the same length of the original sentence (still cited). Involves changing the text and writing in your own words. Summary: Shorter than the original source and presents the central idea. Also states conclusions from the main text.

What is the difference between quotation, paraphrase, and summery for gathering evidence?

Lou Gehrig's subject in his speech is his illness, but it is also an expression of his gratitude for all of the lucky breaks that preceded his diagnosis.

What is the subject of Lou Gehrig's speech?

An assertion- the writer's stance/opinion on an issue. - It's very important because it tells the reader its purpose. - It is the main idea around which a writer organizes an essay. - Can be anywhere in the essay, although often at the beginning.

What is the thesis?

Purpose

What the author wants the audience to do is _____.

One of Gehrig's chief purposes in delivering his Farewell Address is to thank his fans and his teammates, but he also wants to demonstrate that he remains positive: he emphasizes his past luck and present optimism and downplays his illness.

What was Lou Gehrig's purpose?

The recent announcement of his illness and his subsequent retirement, but also the poignant contrast between his potent career and his debilitating disease.

What was the context for Lou Gehrig's speech?

In all texts. It is everything from spoken words to images and symbols to movies and more.

Where is rhetoric present?

Logos

Which rhetorical appeal is usually first?

In his Farewell Address, the speaker is not just Lou Gehrig, but baseball hero and ALS victim Lou Gehrig, a common man who is modest and thankful for the opportunities he's had.

Who is the speaker in Lou Gehrig's Farewell Address?

His teammates and fans in the stadium that day, but it was also the teams he played against, his fans listening on the radio, and posterity- us.

Who was Lou Gehrig's audience?

Who is writing and their credentials.

Writer (in EPACWM)