Roman History - FGE to End

Sack of Carthage

439 by Vandal King Geiseric, loss of major supply source for West

Council of Chalcedon

451, Nestorianism and Monophysistism rejected Nicene Creed principles reasserted

Canonical date for end of the Empire

476CE

Justinian

527-565, During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the historical Roman Empire. One of the most important figures of late antiquity and the last Roman emperor to speak Latin as a first language. Sometimes called "the last Roman". His general, Belisarius (his Agrippa), swiftly conquered the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, extending Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. A still more resonant aspect of his legacy was the uniform rewriting of Roman law, the Corpus Juris Civilis, which is still the basis of civil law in many modern states. A devastating outbreak of bubonic plague in the early 540s marked the end of an age of splendour. The Empire entered a period of territorial decline not to be reversed until the 9th century. Procopius is the primary source for his history.

Revolt in Constantinople

532, blue and green chariot factions (Nike is their chosen watchword), Theodora (his wife) suggests a plan sow dissent between factions, causes return of old rivalries

First permanent theatre in Rome

55BC

population of empire in 2nd c. CE

70Million

assassination of Domitian; accession of Nerva (date)

96

Reign of Nerva (date)

96-98

Reign of Trajan (date)

98-117

Constantius II

Appoints nephews of Constantine as Caesars Gallus (351-354) Julian (355-361) Julian more successful than Gallus strife and ambition 360-361; Julian suspect Constantius II suddenly died 361 Julian becomes sole emperor

Nestorianism

Jesus had two separate natures (human and divine) and Mary was mother only of human Jesus not theotokos (God-bearing). Some Persian Christians broke away from Church over Nestorian beliefs - modern Syrian Christianity

damnatio memoriae

"damnation of memory" in the sense of a judgment that a person must not be remembered. It was a form of dishonor that could be passed by the Roman Senate upon traitors or others who brought discredit to the Roman State. the co-emperor Publius Septimius Geta, whose memory was publicly expunged by his co-emperor brother Caracalla after he murdered him in 211

in hoc signo vinces

"in this sign you will conquer" christian god to Constantine.

Etesian

'annual (winds)', are the strong, dry north winds of the Aegean Sea

Eusebius

Life of Constantine more of a panegyric (published speech in praise of someone) than a history

Constans

(337-350) junior to Constantine II, takes over west until killed in 350

Council of Ephesus

(431): Nestorianism banned

Septimius Severus

(BALKANS) also known as Severus, was Roman Emperor from 193 to 211. Severus was born in Leptis Magna in the province of Africa. As a young man he advanced through the cursus honorum—the customary succession of offices—under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. Severus seized power after the death of Emperor Pertinax in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors. After deposing and killing the incumbent emperor Didius Julianus, Severus fought his rival claimants, the generals Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus. Retroactively 'adopts' self into Antonine family 'brother' Commodus. New power in east, Sassanid Empire takes over from Parthians, threatens him.

Gallienus

253-268, Pirates roam the seas, Goths are continually invading, plague in Egypt spreads to Rome (5000 die a day). Busy with Persia and Danube after passing of his father Valerian. Recovered Roman prestige.

Gladiatorial combat in Rome

264BC

Sestertius

1/4 denarius

Dacian Wars (dates)

101-102, 105-106

Parthian Wars (date)

113-117

Reign of Hadrian (date)

117-138

Byzantine Greece lives on until

1453CE

Commodus

180-192, Idiot, mislead by those close to him, didn't want to rule, son of Marcus Aurelius, entering as a gladiator marked the effective end of his reign, killed by poisoned beef. First since Nero to grow up in Imperial house. Assimilated himself to Hercules.

War in Britain

208-211, Severus

Geta

209-211, Caracalla tried unsuccessfully to murder Geta during the festival of Saturnalia. Finally, in December Caracalla had his mother arrange a peace meeting with his brother in his mother's apartments, and then had him murdered in her arms by centurions. Following Geta's assassination, Caracalla ordered his brother's name to be removed from all inscriptions. The now sole emperor also took the opportunity to get rid of his political enemies, on grounds of conspiracy. Cassius Dio stated that around 20,000 men and women were killed or proscribed during this time.

Caracalla

211-217 Germany/Danube region 213: campaigns against the Alemanni defeats them, spends time reinforcing defenses greatly fortifies frontier zones Parthians/East (216-217) suppressed revolt in Alexandria major campaign in Parthian territory captures territory, plans more for 218 While encamped over winter 217, stabbed to death Plot led by praetorian prefect (PP), M. Opellius Macrinus Macrinus succeeds briefly

Elagabalas

218-222, the Syrian women during the Severan dynasty were very influential and powerful. (lots of Julias) but basically the sister of the wife of Severus plots to increase her family's position. She plays up a story that her daughter has a young son (becomes high priest Elagabalas) that he is the son of Caracallas. Pays Syrian legions to hail him as legitimate emperor. priest of Syrian sun-cult of Elah-Gabal: worshipped big black stone excessively non-Roman tendencies "freakish tyrant" family women wield much power murdered via plot in 222

Severus Alexander

222-235. Cousin of Elagabalas. More popular than him. Takes thrown at 14 years old. Julia Mamaea holds real power. It was the rumor of Alexander's death that triggered the assassination of Elagabalus and his mother. As emperor, Alexander's peace time reign was prosperous. However militarily Rome was confronted with the rising Sassanid Empire. He managed to check the threat of the Sassanids, but when campaigning against Germanic tribes of Germania, Alexander attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery. This apparently alienated many in the legions and led to a conspiracy to assassinate and replace him.

Maximinus Thrax

235-238, led coup vs. Severus Alexander successful in Danube region popular with soldiers confiscated wealth led to revolt, death

Philip (the Arab)

244-249, in the 240s the emperors campaign in Persia, Philip settles with Shapur, fined 10,000 pounds of gold weakens monetary resources pro-senatorial emperor celebrates Rome's 1000th birthday in lavish style

Lactantius

250-325, christian, main work De mortibus persecutorum (On the Deaths of the Persecutors) argues that fate of persecutors is always evil Galerius' persecutions esp. disastrous for L.

Aurelian

27-275. During his reign, he defeated the Alamanni after a devastating war. He also defeated the Goths, Vandals, Juthungi, Sarmatians, and Carpi. Aurelian restored the Empire's eastern provinces after his conquest of the Palmyrene Empire in 273. The following year he conquered the Gallic Empire in the west, reuniting the Empire in its entirety. He was also responsible for the construction of the Aurelian Walls in Rome, and the abandonment of the province of Dacia. His successes were instrumental in ending the Roman Empire's Crisis of the Third Century, earning him the title Restitutor Orbis or 'Restorer of the World'. Although Domitian was the first Emperor who had demanded to be officially hailed as dominus et deus (master and god), these titles never occurred in written form on official documents until the reign of Aurelian

Diocletian

284-305, First major success: choice of his associate Maximian, elevated to rank of 'Caesar', then to co-Augustus (286). Maximian sent to rule western provinces. Rome is where the emperor is. Established the Tetrarchy. Less accessible, fewer appearances in public. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and marks the end of the Crisis of the Third Century. Separates empire in 12 districts (dioceses, all supervised by a vicarius). 12 districts into four prefectures: West: Gaul, Italy East: Illyricum, Orient Tried to regulate the market Issued an 'edict on maximum prices' over 1000 commodities Not effective: unprofitable Black market develops Officially retires (none before had done so). So does Maximian. Two Caesars become two new Augustii and get two new Caesars.

The Tetrarchy

293-305, Diocletian establishes system of two Augusti, two Caesares share duties of running empire geographical spheres of influence (West, East) Develops out of Augustus/Caesar system Eastern Augustus = Diocletian; Caesar = Galerius Western Augustus = Maximian; Caesar = Constantius Chlorus. System works especially well in West not so much in the east. Diocletian steps in, rescues situation. Massive victory over Narses in 298 Stability restored (but Galerius' prestige suffers)

War between Constantine and Licinius

316, east vs. west, ends in truce, then Licinius reengages and is defeated by Constantine in 324

Council of Nicaea

325, Its main accomplishments were settlement of the Christological issue of the nature of the Son of God and his relationship to God the Father, the construction of the first part of the Creed of Nicaea, establishing uniform observance of the date of Easter, and promulgation of early canon law.

Foundation of Constantinople

330

Death of Constantine

337, falls ill, baptized right before death. several sons lined up for succession. Sons divide up the Empire (west/east). after fighting with Persians and divided, Constantius II remains sole ruler.

Julian the Apostate

361-363, 'the Apostate' because he reverted to paganism, in 361, proclaimed devotion to old gods, Christian sources view him as a demonic agent. He was the last non-Christian ruler of the Roman Empire, and it was his desire to bring the Empire back to its ancient Roman values in order to save it from dissolution. Campaigns against Persians in 363, environmental conditions weaken army; Julian dies. Had no heir.

Valentinian I and Valens

364-375, 364-378 (respectively), brothers, military officers Valens rules the east, Valentinian the west energetic defenders of empire, Valentinian dies of stroke. Valens faced two front wars versus the Goths in Thrace and Persians.

Gratian

375-383, disinterested in ruling, the eldest son of Valentinian I, during his youth Gratian accompanied his father on several campaigns along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Upon the death of Valentinian in 375, Gratian's brother Valentinian II was declared emperor by his father's soldiers. Gratian led a campaign across the Rhine, the last emperor to do so, and attacked the Lentienses, forcing the tribe to surrender. That same year, his uncle Valens was killed in the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths - making Gratian essentially ruler of the entire Roman Empire.

battle at Adrianople

378, sometimes known as the Battle of Hadrianopolis, was fought between a Roman army led by the Roman Emperor Valens and Gothic rebels in modern Turkey, near the border with Greece and Bulgaria in the Roman province of Thracia and ended with an overwhelming victory for the Goths. Huns moving west, Goths fleeing, Goths seek refuge in Roman territory was the cause. Valens initially tried to settle but then risked everything and lost 2/3rds of his forces. Part of the Gothic War (376-382), the battle is often considered the start of the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Adrianople actually was fought between the Goths and the Eastern Roman Empire, which ultimately withstood the Gothic invasions and developed into the Byzantine Empire.

Theodosius I

379-395, Last man to rule over empire's full scope ruled over both east and west from 392-395. Set dangerous precedent of settling with Goths. Parted with Roman religious tolerance and political strength and may be seen in retrospect as the inauguration of a feudal society. On accepting his elevation, he campaigned against Goths and other barbarians who had invaded the Empire; he failed to kill, expel, or entirely subjugate them, and after the Gothic War they established a homeland south of the Danube, in Illyricum, within the empire's borders. He fought two destructive civil wars, in which he defeated the usurpers at great cost to the power of the Empire. He also issued decrees that effectively made orthodox Nicene Christianity the official state church of the Roman Empire (thus "The Great"). and he neither prevented nor punished the destruction of prominent Hellenistic temples of classical antiquity, including the Temple of Apollo in Delphi, the Serapeum in Alexandria. He dissolved the order of the Vestal Virgins in Rome. In 393, he banned the pagan rituals of the Olympics in Ancient Greece. It was not until the end of the 19th century, in 1896, that Olympics were held again. After his death, Theodosius' incapable sons Arcadius and Honorius inherited the East and West halves respectively, and the Roman Empire was never again re-united.

Christianity the official religion of the Empire (date)

380

Hadrian

Adopted by Trajan just before he died, left in control of the East as Trajan was sick and wanted to head back to Rome. A polymath, passion for all things Greek. Devoted to Greek ideal of homoerotic partnerships - relationship with Greek youth Antinous. Highly energetic: travels constantly. reverses expansionist policy of Trajan stabilizes border zones (Parthia, Armenia, North Africa). Hadrian resolved to adopt Antoninus Pius if he would in turn adopt Marcus Aurelius and Aelius' son Lucius Verus as his own eventual successors.

Marcus Aurelius

Antoninus Pius dies in 161; at that time, M. Aurelius had already been ruling as co-regent for some time smooth transition. brother of M. Aurelius becomes Lucius Verus (who co-rules until 169). plagued by revolts and crises along frontiers Parthians depose Roman-appointed Armenian king unrest along Danube frontier Marcomanni and Quadi serious uprising L. Verus dies (stroke) in 169 Marcus Aurelius dies in 180 (cause unknown)

Apollodorus of Damascus

Apollodorus was a favourite of Trajan, for whom he constructed Trajan's Bridge over the Danube for the 105-106 campaign in Dacia. He also designed the Forum Trajanum and Trajan's Column within the city of Rome, beside several smaller projects. Apollodorus also designed the triumphal arches of Trajan at Beneventum and Ancona. He is also widely credited as the architect of the Pantheon, and cited as the builder of the Alconétar Bridge in Spain. In 106 he also completed or restored the odeon begun in the Campus Martius under Domitian. Trajan's Column, in the centre of the Forum, is celebrated as being the first triumphal monument of its kind. On the accession of Hadrian, whom he had offended by ridiculing his performances as architect and artist, Apollodorus was banished and, shortly afterwards, being charged with imaginary crimes, put to death. Cassius Dio includes story of his death in his history so obviously discontent remained towards Hadrian.

Two remaining chariot factions by time of Justinian

Blue and Green

Marcian

Byzantine Emperor from 450 to 457. Marcian's rule marked a recovery of the Eastern Empire, which the Emperor protected from external menaces and reformed economically and financially. On the other side, the isolationistic policies of Marcian left the Western Roman Empire without help against barbarian attacks, which materialized in the Italian campaigns of Attila and in the Vandal sack of Rome (455). The Eastern Orthodox Church recognizes him as a saint. refuses to pay Huns for security, renewed independence, role of Pulcheria in policy, ends Theodosian dynasty

Third Jewish War/Revolt (132-135)

Caused by Roman ban on circumcision and the intention to rebuild Jerusalem as Roman veteran colony. Judaea Province against the Roman Empire and the last of the Jewish-Roman wars. The revolt is considered to be the climax of the Jewish-Roman wars, after which the Jews had become a devastated people - their cities were laid waste, over half a million killed and the survivors dispersed through the slave markets of the known world. Jews forbidden to enter Jerusalem.

Postumus

Celtic origins. a western Roman emperor of provincial origin. He usurped power from Gallienus around the year 260 and assumed the title and powers of emperor in the western provinces of Gaul, Germania, Britannia and Hispania, thereby founding what scholars have dubbed the Gallic Empire. Murdered by his own troops in 269. Unable to be challenged by Gallienus because he was busy with Danube and Persian while Postumus was on the Rhine.

Trinitarianism

Christian doctrine that God exists as three persons (Greek hypostases) but is one being. The persons are understood to exist as God the Father, God the Son (incarnate as Jesus Christ), and God the Holy Spirit, each of them having the one identical essence or nature, not merely similar natures.

Dacian Wars

Dacia, an area north of Macedon and Greece and north-east of the Danube that had been on the Roman agenda since before the days of Caesar. Defeated the Dacian King Decebalus in the Second Battle of Tapae in 101. With Trajan's troops pressing towards the Dacian capital Decebalus once more sought terms. Decebalus rebuilt his power over the following years and attacked Roman garrisons again in 105. In response Trajan again marched into Dacia, besieging the Dacian capital and razing it.

Valerian

Co-ruled with his son Gallienus. 260: Roman army defeated and captured by Shapur I Valerian himself captured forced to surrender/submit to punishment Shapur commemorated event with huge inscription Shapur eventually defeated by Roman ally in Palmyra

Sol Invictus

Constantine's patron deity also links to Apollo in traditional pantheon thus monotheism not new to Constantine

Orthodoxy in Greek means

Correct thinking

Column of Trajan

Decebalus committed suicide by slashing his own throat, as depicted on Trajan's Column. It is located in Trajan's Forum, built near the Quirinal Hill, north of the Roman Forum. Completed in AD 113, the freestanding column is most famous for its spiral bas relief,

Who was the harshest towards the Christians?

Diocletian

Vandals

East Germanic tribe that established kingdoms in Spain and later North Africa in the 5th century.Expanding into Dacia during the Marcomannic Wars and to Pannonia during the Crisis of the Third Century, the Vandals were confined to Pannonia by the Goths around 330 AD, where they received permission to settle by Constantine the Great. Around 400 the Vandals were pushed westwards again, this time by the Huns, crossing the Rhine into Gaul along with other tribes in 406.

Codification of the Laws

Edictum Perpetuum and Responsa. Principal work of the prominent Second Century jurist Salvius Julianus under Hadrian. This was a systematic treatise on civil and praetorian law, cited by many later Roman legal writers, which has been described as "A comprehensive collection of responsa on real and hypothetical cases". Then the Theodosian Code in 437 and codex Justinianus in 534

Eudoxia

Empress of Arcadius. 400, Eudoxia was officially given the title of an Augusta. She was then able to wear the purple paludamentum representing imperial rank and was depicted in Roman currency. Official images of her in the manner similar to a male Augustus also went in circulation.

Decebalus

Famous for fighting three wars and negotiating two interregnums of peace without being eliminated against the Roman Empire under two emperors. In the later short peace (end of 102-105) granted by Trajan, Decebalus continued to act as an independent king, rather than a conquered client, and repeatedly annoyed or infuriated the Romans. Decebalus committed suicide by slashing his own throat, as depicted on Trajan's Column

Nerva

First time senate elected Emperor. He vowed to restore liberties which had been curtailed during the autocratic government of Domitian. Marred by financial difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over the Roman army. A revolt by the Praetorian Guard in 97 essentially forced him to adopt an heir. Nerva's greatest success was his ability to ensure a peaceful transition of power after his death.

Why was Antonius called "Pius"?

For securing the deification of Hadrian

Rhine Frontier includes

Franks and Juthungi

West library is ____ and East library is ______

Greek, Latin, Trajan

Travelling Emperor

Hadrian

Hadrian's Wall

Hadrian had been experiencing rebellion in Roman Britain. Wanted to divide North (barbarians) from South. Begun in 122AD.

Cleander

He enabled a detachment of soldiers from Britain to denounce Perennis to the Emperor and Commodus gave them permission to execute the Prefect. Cleander proceeded to concentrate power in his own hands and to enrich himself by becoming responsible for all public offices: he sold and bestowed entry to the Roman Senate, army commands, governorships and, increasingly, even the suffect consulships. Rome was afflicted by a food shortage, and the guy in charge of the grain supply contrived to make worse than it actually was and laid the blame on Cleander. At the urging of his mistress Marcia, Commodus had Cleander beheaded and his son killed.

cursus publicus

Imperial post service established by Augustus

Romulus Augustulus

Is sometimes considered the last Western Roman Emperor reigning 475-476. His deposition by Odoacer traditionally marks the end of the Western Roman Empire, the fall of ancient Rome, and the beginning of the Middle Ages in Western Europe. He is mostly known by his nickname "Romulus Augustulus", though he ruled officially as Romulus Augustus. The Latin suffix -ulus is a diminutive; hence, Augustulus effectively means "Little Augustus".

Julianus

Julianus ascended the throne after buying it from the Praetorian Guard, who had assassinated his predecessor Pertinax. This led to the Roman Civil War of 193-197. Julianus was ousted and sentenced to death by his successor, Septimius Severus.

Julia Mamaea

Late 2nd century. Daughter of Julia Maesa, a powerful Roman woman of Syrian origin, and Syrian noble Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus. She was a niece of empress Julia Domna; emperor Lucius Septimius Severus

Julia Maesa

Late 2nd century. Grandmother of both the Roman emperors Elagabalus and Alexander Severus, she figured prominently in the ascension of each to the title at the age of fourteen. After the murder of her nephew, the emperor Caracalla and the suicide of Julia Domna, she was compelled to return to Syria. The new emperor Macrinus did not proscribe her and allowed her to keep her money. Once back in Syria and possessed of ample funds, Maesa engaged in a plot to overthrow Macrinus and place one of her grandsons, Elagabalus son of Julia Soaemias, in his place. In order to legitimise this pretension, mother and daughter fomented the rumor that the 14 year old boy was Caracalla's illegitimate son. The two Julias were successful, mainly because Macrinus was of an obscure origin without the proper political connections and Elagabalus became emperor.

Basilica Ulpia

Law court/court for administration, Trajan

Attila the Hun

Master of siege warfare. Treaty with eastern empire in 430s. Attila becomes king in 443: raids in Balkans Conflict begins ca. 450. Attila seeks to expand into western empire called in by Honoria (sister of Valentinian III) she sought independent power Attila attacks Gaul unsuccessfully. Bad timing, dies on wedding night.

magister equitum

Master of the cavalry

magister peditum

Master of the infantry

Maximinus Daia

Maximinus II, Roman Emperor from 308 to 313. He became embroiled in the Civil wars of the Tetrarchy between rival claimants for control of the empire, in which he was defeated by Licinius. A committed pagan, he engaged in one of the last persecutions of Christians.

Sailing season

May to October

Imperial comitatus

Mobile attack force, mostly German troops, added another elite strike force. Partly influenced by the Roman practice, exemplified in the Marian Reforms initiated by Gaius Marius, of a general distributing land to his officers after their retirement, the Germanic comitatus eventually evolved into a wholesale exchange between a social superior and inferior. The social inferior (in Feudalism, the Vassal) would pledge military service and protection to the superior (Lord). In return, the superior would reward the inferior with land, compensation, or privileges

Leptis Magna

Modern day Libya, Septimius Severus favored his hometown above all other provincial cities, and the buildings and wealth he lavished on it made Leptis Magna the third-most important city in Africa, rivaling Carthage and Alexandria.

M. Opellius Macrinus

Roman Emperor from 217 to 218. Macrinus was of Berber (Indigenous people of North Africa) descent and as a member of the equestrian class he became the first emperor who did not hail from the senatorial class.

Constantine

Natural son of Constantius Chlorus (original Western Caesar, now Augustus). His dad dies quickly in 306 and the army and other Augustus (Galerius) nominate him over the pre-determined succession plan for Flavius Serverus (the Western Caesar). The son of Maximian gets pissed, tries to oppose Severus together with his dad. Does so successfully, then not so much. Big mess. Constantine meanwhile marries into Maximian's family. Will out maneuver all others.

Five Good Emperors

Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antonius Pius, Marcus Aurelius

Antonius Pius

Never left Italy, not militarily inclined, mostly peaceful and unassuming reign

Antoninianus (coin)

New devalued coin, twice the value of deniarius, introduced by Caracalla

First Justinian campaign

North Africa in 532, deceptively easy victory over the Vandals done by 533.

Examples of Legal scholars

Papinian, Ulpian, Gaius

Other conquests of Trajan

Parthia (Armenia and Mesopotamia) and Arabia

Parthian War

Parthians reject Roman control of Armenia, Armenian king deposed, Trajan leads army eastward in 113, Trajan makes inroads in Parthian territory until 115, extends Roman territory to Persian Gulf, Widespread revolts in Mideast region, Trajan forced to abandon conquest and subdues rebels in 116 - some areas given back to Parthians

Perennis

Perennis capitalised on Commodus's distrust of the Roman Senate (following the aforementioned assassination attempt to which the Senate was linked) by destroying many powerful Senators and claiming their wealth as his own. So too was Perennis thought to have held ambitions of military power: soldiers were given lavish gifts in an attempt to seduce them to his cause, and his sons were appointed to commanding army roles. The Augustan History suggests Perennis also persuaded Commodus to allow him political control, freeing the Emperor for his more hedonistic personal pursuits

Chosroes

Persian King 531, negotiated treaty of Eternal Peace, Chosroes makes aggressive moves on eastern Black Sea captures Lazica peace reestablished 562. His name became, like that of Caesar in the history of Rome.

Maxentius

Roman Emperor from 306 to 312. He was the son of former Emperor Maximian and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius. Protests elevation of Constantine son of ex-Augustus passed over in initial plan uses discontent at Rome to back usurpation Severus unsuccessfully opposes Maxentius. Maximian "dragged" out of retirement. Father and son attack Severus Severus murdered 307 Galerius invades Italy (307) to quash Maximian and Maxentius. By 308 Maximian now anti-Maxentius. Maxentius vs. Constantine at Battle of Milivan Bridge, Maxentius in Rome, Constantine marching from north, should have been siege but he crossed the Tiber to meet him (mistake). Beaten.

Theodosius II

Roman Emperor from 408 to 450. He is mostly known for promulgating the Theodosian law code, and for the construction of the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople and the University of Constantinople. He also presided over the outbreak of two great christological controversies, Nestorianism and Eutychianism. Wife Eudocia.

Cassius Dio

Roman consul wrote in Greek massive Roman history, 155-235AD, Severus Alexander held Dio in the highest esteem and reappointed him to the position of consul, even though his caustic nature irritated the Praetorian Guards, who demanded his life. He died naturally in his hometown.

Res privata principis

Septimius Severus - created new fund from the estates of executed senators

Visigoths

The Visigoths emerged from earlier Gothic groups who had invaded the Roman Empire beginning in 376 and had defeated the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The Visigoths invaded Italy under Alaric I and sacked Rome in 410. Their long history of migration led the Visigoths to compare themselves to the Biblical Hebrew people who purportedly wandered for forty years in the Sinai Desert. After the Visigoths sacked Rome, they began settling down, first in southern Gaul and eventually in Spain and Portugal, where they founded the Kingdom of the Visigoths.

Conference of Milan

The Edict of Milan refers to the 313 agreement to treat Christians benevolently within the Roman Empire. Western Roman Emperor Constantine I, and Licinius, who controlled the Balkans, met in Milan and among other things, agreed to change policies towards Christians. The document known as the Edict of Milan (Edictum Mediolanense) is found in Lactantius' De Mortibus Persecutorum and in Eusebius of Caesarea's History of the Church with marked divergences between the two. Whether or not there was a formal 'Edict of Milan' is debatable. The version found in Lactantius is not in the form of an edict. It is a letter from Licinius to the governors of the provinces in the Eastern Empire he had just conquered by defeating Maximin later in the same year and issued in Nicomedia

Sarmizegetusa

The capital of Dacia, sieged by Trajan defended by Decebalus. Romans win and annex part of Dacia. The only historical record of the siege is the Trajan's Column, which is a controversial source. There is debate as to whether the Romans did actually fight for Sarmizegetuza, or whether the Dacians destroyed their capital while fleeing ahead of the advancing legions. Knowing the often brutal treatment of prisoners of war taken by the Romans, Decebalus killed himself to avoid capture.

Sack of Rome 410

The city was attacked by the Visigoths, led by Alaric I. At that time, Rome was no longer the capital of the Western Roman Empire, having been replaced in this position by Mediolanum in 286 and then by Ravenna in 402. Nevertheless, the city of Rome retained a paramount position as "the eternal city" and a spiritual center of the Empire. The sack was to prove a major shock to contemporaries, friends and foes of the Empire alike. This was the first time in almost 800 years that Rome had fallen to an enemy. St. Jerome, living in Bethlehem at the time, wrote that "The City which had taken the whole world was itself taken."

Emperor who disdained gladiatorial combat

Tiberius

Alimenta

The one imaginative innovation commonly attributed to Nerva's government, the system of alimenta, or trusts for the maintenance of poor children in Italy, he also lessened taxes and was probably responsible for an innovation for which Nerva is given credit—the institution of public funds (alimenta) for the support of poor children in the Italian cities. Such endowments had previously been established in Italy by private individuals

Battle of the Milvian Bridge

Took place between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius on 28 October 312. It takes its name from the Milvian Bridge, an important route over the Tiber. Constantine won the battle and started on the path that led him to end the Tetrarchy and become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Maxentius drowned in the Tiber during the battle. According to chroniclers such as Eusebius of Caesarea and Lactantius, the battle marked the beginning of Constantine's conversion to Christianity. Eusebius of Caesarea recounts that Constantine and his soldiers had a vision of the Christian God promising victory if they daubed the sign of the Chi-Rho, the first two letters of Christ's name in Greek, on their shields. The Arch of Constantine, erected in celebration of the victory, certainly attributes Constantine's success to divine intervention; however, the monument does not display any overtly Christian symbolism.

Severus' sons

Two sons, Caracalla [elder] and Geta [younger], hate eachother, Severus' dying advice is "agree with each other, enrich the soldiers, and despise everyone else."

Catholic in Greek means

Universal

Danube Frontier includes

Vandals and Sarmatians

Palmyrene Empire

Was a splinter empire that broke away from the Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century. It encompassed the Roman provinces of Syria Palaestina, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor. The Palmyrene Empire was ruled by Queen Zenobia for her infant son Vaballathus. The capital of the short-lived empire was the city of Palmyra.

Simon Bar Kokhba

Was the Jewish leader of what is known as the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE, establishing an independent Jewish state which he ruled for three years as Nasi ("Prince"). His state was conquered by the Romans in 135 following a two and half-year war.

Ostrogoths

Were a branch of the later Goths (the other major branch being the Visigoths). The Ostrogoths, under Theoderic the Great, established a kingdom in Italy in the late 5th and 6th centuries. Their Danubian kingdom reached its zenith under King Ermanaric, who is said to have committed suicide at an old age when the Huns attacked his people and subjugated them in about 370. After their subjugation by the Huns, little is heard of the Ostrogoths for about 80 years, after which they reappear in Pannonia on the middle Danube River as federates of the Romans.

Alemanni

Were a confederation of Suebian Germanic tribes located on the upper Rhine river.

Theodora

Wife of Justinian, lots of power, clever solution to revolts in 532, some sources mention her as co-regent. Portrayed by Procopius at first as influential and confident (Wars of Justininian) then as a slut (Secret History) and then latter as pious and beautiful (Buildings of Justinian).

Clodius Albinus

Year of 5 Emperors, Britain, defeated 197

Pescennius Niger

Year of 5 Emperors, Syria, defeated 194

Rufinus

a 4th-century Eastern Roman Empire statesman of Gaulish extraction who served as Praetorian prefect of the East for the emperor Theodosius I, as well as his son Arcadius, under whom Rufinus was the actual power behind the throne. Rufinus hated the western magister militum Stilicho, and his influence over Arcadius prevented Stilicho from crushing Alaric when the Roman general had the chance. Stilicho had trapped Alaric and the Visigoths in Greece (395), but his Eastern troops were commanded by Arcadius, who, under suggestion by Rufinus, recalled them, so that Stilicho was forced to return his forces west across the border. However, the same Gothic mercenaries he had recalled killed Rufinus in 395.

Ricimer

a Romanized Germanic general who effectively ruled the remaining territory of the Western Roman Empire from 456 until his death in 472. Deriving his power from his position as magister militum of the Western Empire, Ricimer exercised political control through a series of puppet emperors. Ricimer's military office and his dominance over the empire led to historians such as J.B. Bury to conclude that he was a link between previous magistri militum, such as the Vandal Stilicho, and the Germanic King of Italy, Odoacer. Odoacer deposed Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, in an act often considered to mark the fall of the Roman Empire.

Roman denarius

a small silver coin first minted about 211 BC during the Second Punic War. It became the most common coin produced for circulation but was slowly debased in weight and silver content until its replacement by the double denarius, called the antoninianus, early in the 3rd century AD. The word denarius is derived from the Latin dēnī "containing ten", as its value was 10 asses.

Crisis of the Third Century

also known as Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis, (AD 235-284) was a period in which the Roman Empire nearly collapsed under the combined pressures of invasion, civil war, plague, and economic depression. The Crisis began with the assassination of Emperor Alexander Severus at the hands of his own troops, initiating a fifty-year period in which 20-25 claimants to the title of Emperor, mostly prominent Roman army generals, assumed imperial power over all or part of the Empire. 26 men were officially accepted by the Roman Senate as emperor during this period, and thus became legitimate emperors. By 258-260, the Empire split into three competing states: the Gallic Empire, including the Roman provinces of Gaul, Britannia and (briefly) Hispania; the Palmyrene Empire, including the eastern provinces of Syria Palaestina and Aegyptus; and the Italian-centered and independent Roman Empire, proper, between them. Later, Aurelian (270-275) reunited the empire; the Crisis ended with the ascension and reforms of Diocletian in 284.

Pulcheria

child of Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius and Empress Aelia Eudoxia. 414 a fifteen-year-old Pulcheria proclaimed herself regent over him, then thirteen years of age, and made herself Augusta and Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire. Pulcheria took a vow of virginity when she became Augusta, and her sisters followed suit. Theodosius II died 450, and Pulcheria soon married Marcian. Marcian and Pulcheria were proclaimed Emperor and Empress of the Eastern Roman Empire. Three years later in 453, Pulcheria died and was later made a saint by the Church. Pulcheria is known to have held a significant amount of power in her brother's reign as emperor. Pulcheria was also of great influence over the church and theological practices of this time

Constitutio Antoniniana

citizenship extened to all free peoples 212AD in the a decree issued by Caracalla

Aes grave

coins used in 3rd century BC

Pantheon

commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD) as a temple to all the gods of ancient Rome. Rebuilt in 80 by Domitian and again by Hadrian about 126 AD. Again in 202 repaired by the joint emperors Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla

Aes signatum

consisted of cast lumps of bronze of measured quality and weight, embossed with a government stamp, used as currency in Rome and central Italy before the introduction of the aes grave in the mid 4th century BC.

the fiscus

emperor's personal fund, received income from imperial provinces, regularly subsized public treasury

Ammianus Marcellinus

fourth-century Roman soldier and historian. He wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity (the last was written by Procopius). His work chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from 96 to 378, although only the sections covering the period 353-378 are extant. served as a soldier in the army of Constantius II (and possibly Julian) in Gaul and Persia. Accurate historian.

Inflation

from Marcus Aurelius onward, crisis escalated by 3rd c. CE, imperial finances collapse

Vicarius

in the 290s, the Emperor Diocletian carried out a series of administrative reforms, ushering the period of the Dominate. These reforms also saw the number of Roman provinces increased, and the creation of a new administrative level, the diocese. The dioceses, initially twelve, grouped several provinces, each with its own governor. The dioceses were headed by a vicarius

Gallic Empire

is the modern name for a breakaway part of the Roman Empire that functioned de facto as a separate state from 260 to 274. It originated during the Crisis of the Third Century. It was established by Postumus in 260 in the wake of barbarian invasions and instability in Rome, and at its height included the territories of Germania, Gaul, Britannia, and (for a time) Hispania. After Postumus' assassination in 268 it lost much of its territory, but continued under a number of emperors and usurpers. It was retaken by Roman emperor Aurelian after the Battle of Châlons in 274.

Prefecture

most commonly refers to a self-governing body or area since the tetrarchy when Emperor Diocletian divided the Roman Empire into four districts (each divided into dioceses, grouped under a Vicarius (a number of Roman provinces, listed under that article), although he maintained two pretorian prefectures as an administrative level above the also surviving dioceses

the aerarium

public treasury, received income from senatorial provinces,

Treaty of Eternal Peace

signed in 532 between the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire and Sassanid Persia, was a peace treaty of indefinite duration, which concluded the Iberian War (527-531) between the two powers. It heralded a period of relatively cordial relations, but it lasted only until 540, when hostilities resumed. Romans paid 11,000 lbs of gold to Persians. During Justinian and Belisarius.

Belisarius

the Agrippa to Justinian. good general, didn't reach higher than his grasp. Captures Ravenna (true seat of power in Italy, not Rome)

Monophysistism

the Christological position that, after the union of the divine and the human in the historical Incarnation, Jesus Christ, as the incarnation of the eternal Son or Word (Logos) of God, had only a single "nature" which was either divine or a synthesis of divine and human.Historically, Monophysitism refers primarily to the position of those (especially in Egypt and to a lesser extent Syria) who rejected the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

Euergetism

the practice of the high-status and/or rich individuals distributing part of their wealth to the community, evident by the patron-client relations in ancient Rome.

Eudocia

the wife of Theodosius II, and a prominent historical figure in understanding the rise of Christianity during the beginning of the Byzantine Empire. Eudocia lived in a world where Greek paganism and Christianity were existing side by side with both pagans and unorthodox Christians being persecuted. Her poetry and literary work are great examples of how her Christian faith and Greek upbringing were intertwined, exemplifying a legacy that the Byzantine Empire left behind on the Christian world.

Pertinax

was Roman Emperor for three months in 193. He is known as the first emperor of the tumultuous Year of the Five Emperors. A high-ranking military and Senatorial figure, he tried to restore discipline in the Praetorian Guards, whereupon they rebelled and killed him. Upon his death he was succeeded by Didius Julianus, whose reign was similarly short.

Arcadius

was Roman Emperor from 395 until his death in 408. He was the eldest son of Theodosius I and brother of the Western Emperor Honorius. A weak ruler, his reign was dominated by a series of powerful ministers and by several strong women - Eudoxia (wife) and Pulcheria (daughter). Arcadius himself was more concerned with appearing to be a pious Christian than he was with political or military matters, and he died, only nominally in control of his Empire. succeeded by Theodosius II (boy emperor) Pulcheria as regent.

Honorius

was Western Roman Emperor from 395 to 423. He was the younger son of emperor Theodosius I and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and brother of Arcadius, who was the Byzantine Emperor from 395 until his death in 408. Even by the standards of the rapidly declining Western Empire, Honorius' reign was precarious and chaotic. His reign was supported by his principal general, Flavius Stilicho, who was successively Honorius's guardian (during his childhood) and his father-in-law (after the emperor became an adult). Stilicho's generalship helped preserve some level of stability, but with his execution, the Western Roman Empire moved closer to collapse.

Zenobia

was a 3rd-century Queen of the Palmyrene Empire in Syria, who led a famous revolt against the Roman Empire. Zenobia became queen of the Palmyrene Empire following her husbands death in 267. By 269, Zenobia had expanded the empire, conquering Egypt and expelling the Roman prefect there. She ruled over Egypt until 274, when she was defeated and taken as a hostage to Rome by Emperor Aurelian

Donatist Schism

was a Christian sect within the Roman province of Africa that flourished in the fourth and fifth centuries among Berber Christians. Donatism had its roots in the social pressures among the long-established Christian community of Roman North Africa (present-day Berber countries Algeria and Tunisia), during the persecutions of Christians under Diocletian. The Donatists (named for the Berber Christian bishop Donatus Magnus) were members of a schismatic church not in communion with the churches of the Catholic tradition in Late Antiquity.

Odoacer

was a Germanic soldier, who in 476 became the first King of Italy (476-493). His reign is commonly seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire. Italy no longer ruled by Romans.

Licinius

was a Roman emperor from 308 to 324. For the majority of his reign he was the colleague and rival of Constantine I, with whom he co-authored the Edict of Milan that granted official toleration to Christians in the Roman Empire. He governed the East and Constantine the West. He was finally defeated at the Battle of Chrysopolis, before being executed on the orders of Constantine I.

Stilicho

was a high-ranking general (magister militum) in the Roman army who became, for a time, the most powerful man in the Western Roman Empire. Half Vandal and married to the niece of the Emperor Theodosius, Stilicho's regency for the underage Honorius marked the high point of German advancement in the service of Rome. After many years of victories against a number of enemies, both barbarian and Roman, a series of political and military disasters finally allowed his enemies in the court of Honorius to remove him from power, culminating in his arrest and subsequent execution in 408. Known for his military successes and sense of duty, Stilicho was, in the words of historian Edward Gibbon, "the last of the Roman generals."

Septimius Odenathus

was a ruler of Palmyra, Syria and later of the short lived Palmyrene Empire, in the second half of the 3rd century, who succeeded in recovering the Roman East from the Persians and restoring it to the Empire.

Arius

was an ascetic Christian priest in Alexandria, Egypt. His teachings about the nature of the Godhead, which emphasized the Father's divinity over the Son, and his opposition to Trinitarian Christology, made him a primary topic of the First Council of Nicea, convened by Roman Emperor Constantine in AD 325.

Battle of the Frigidus

was fought between September 5-6 394, between the army of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius I and the army of Western Roman ruler Eugenius. Because the Western Emperor Eugenius (though nominally Christian) had pagan sympathies, the war assumed religious overtones, with Christianity pitted against the last attempt at a pagan revival. The battle was the last serious attempt to contest the Christianization of the empire; its outcome decided the outcome of Christianity in the western Empire, and the final decline of Greco-Roman polytheism in favour of Christianity over the following century. The defeat of Eugenius and his commander, the Frankish magister militum Arbogast, put the whole empire back in the hands of a single emperor for the last time until the final collapse of the Western Roman Empire

Alaric I

was the King of the Visigoths from 395-410. Alaric is most famous for his sack of Rome in 410, which marked a decisive event in the decline of the Roman Empire. In 394 Alaric led a Gothic force of 20,000 that helped the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius defeat the Frankish usurper Arbogast at the Battle of Frigidus.

Sassanid Empire

was the last Iranian empire before the rise of Islam, ruled by the Sasanian dynasty from 224 CE to 651 CE.[2][11] The Sassanid Empire, which succeeded the Parthian Empire, was recognized as one of the main powers in Western and Central Asia, alongside the Roman-Byzantine Empire

Marcia

was the mistress and one of the assassins of Commodus. Marcia was most likely Christian and persuaded Commodus to adopt a policy in favor of Christians

Sack of Rome 455

was the second of three sacks of Rome; it was conducted by the Vandals, who were then at war with the usurping Western Roman Emperor Petronius Maximus. In the 440s, the Vandal king Genseric and the Roman Emperor Valentinian III, had betrothed their children, Huneric and Eudocia,[1] to strengthen their alliance, reached in 442 with a peace treaty (the marriage was delayed as Eudocia was too young). In 455 Valentinian was killed, and Petronius Maximus rose to the throne. Petronius married Valentinian's widow, Licinia Eudoxia, and had his son Palladius marry Eudocia; in this way Petronius was to strengthen his bond with the Theodosian dynasty. This move, however, damaged Genseric's ambitions. The king of the Vandals claimed that the broken betrothal between Huneric and Eudocia was an invalidation of his peace treaty with Valentinian, and set sail to attack Rome. Upon the Vandal arrival, according to the chronicler Prosper of Aquitaine, Pope Leo I requested that Genseric not destroy the ancient city nor murder its inhabitants. Genseric agreed and the gates of Rome were thrown open to him and his men. Maximus, who fled rather than fight the Vandal warlord, was killed by a Roman mob outside the city. The sack of 455 is generally seen as being more thorough than the Visigothic sack of 410,[4] because the Vandals plundered Rome for fourteen days whereas the Visigoths spent only three days in the city.

Shapur I

was the second shahanshah (king of kings) of the Sasanian Empire. The dates of his reign are commonly given as 240-270CE. Humiliation of Valerian

Franks

were a confederation of Germanic tribes occupying land in the Lower and Middle Rhine in the 3rd century. Some Franks raided Roman territory, while other Frank tribes joined the Roman troops in what was called Gaul (currently France). formed a kingdom on Roman-held soil that, after 357, was acknowledged by the Romans. After the collapse of Rome in the West, the Frankish tribes were united under the Merovingians who succeeded in conquering most of Gaul in the 6th century. The Franks became very powerful after this.

Goths

were an East Germanic people, two of whose branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of Medieval Europe. In the late 4th century, the Huns came from the east and invaded the region controlled by the Goths. Although the Huns successfully subdued many of the Goths, who joined their ranks, a group of Goths led by Fritigern fled across the Danube. They then revolted against the Roman Empire, winning a decisive victory at the Battle of Adrianople. In the 4th, 5th, and 6th centuries the Goths separated into two main branches, the Visigoths, who became federates of the Romans, and the Ostrogoths, who joined the Huns.