Scientific Revolution - AP Euro
Rene Descartes
Rene Descartes - (1596 - 1650) (Inventor of coordinate geometry) French philosopher, he made his first great discovery in math, when he realized that there is a correspondence with Algebra and geometrical figures. He discovered analytic geometry which gave scientists a significant new tool. He investigated the basic nature of matter. Every action had an equal rection, was his idea. He wrote the Discourse on Method (1637) - "cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am).
Royal Society of London
Royal Society of London - a society which met weekly to conduct experiments and to talk about new findings of scholars across Europe, they were Bacon's followers, and the society still exists.
Salon
Salon - a meeting held in elegant private drawing rooms (salons) of talented and wealthy men and women. At the meeting they encouraged the exchange of witty observations on literature, science, and philosophy among great aristocrats and middle-class people.
________- English scientist who proved universal laws of motion (gravitation) using mathematics.
_Isaac Newton_- English scientist who proved universal laws of motion (gravitation) using mathematics.
__________- German scientist who proposed the three laws of planetary motion.
_Johannes Kepler_- German scientist who proposed the three laws of planetary motion.
________- Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric theory in the 16th century.
_Nicolas Copernicus_- Polish astronomer who proposed the heliocentric theory in the 16th century.
_________- Danish astronomer who built on the heliocentric theory, but could not prove it mathematically.
_Tycho Brahe_- Danish astronomer who built on the heliocentric theory, but could not prove it mathematically.
"Sapere Aude"
"Sapere Aude" - dare to know.
"invisible hand"
"invisible hand" - a metaphor created by Adam Smith that connects to the effects of individualistic actions.
"tabula rasa"
"tabula rasa" - a clean slate, or the lack of ideas that were already planted in the mind. The belief that people are born good and made bad due to society.
1. Bacon's and Descartes' philosophical contributions combined to form the basis of the modern ______ method in the 17th century.
1. Bacon's and Descartes' philosophical contributions combined to form the basis of the modern _inductive (empirical)_ method in the 17th century.
1. What event marked the ascension of Prussia as a great power of Europe and why?
1. What event marked the ascension of Prussia as a great power of Europe and why? The Prussian victory of the War of the Austrian Succession because it gave Prussia Silesia and doubled Prussia's population.
1. What kind of intolerance did Voltaire hate above all?
1. What kind of intolerance did Voltaire hate above all? Religious
1. What nation became the "hub" of Enlightened thought and why?
1. What nation became the "hub" of Enlightened thought and why? France because French was the international language of the educated people, and France was the richest and most populous country in Europe. Also, the rising unpopularity of King Louis XV created growing discontent and calls for reform among the educated classes. Lastly, the French philosophes made it their goal to reach a bigger audience in an idea inherited from the Renaissance known as the Republic of Letters.
1. What type of government might be advocated by the Baron de Montesquieu?
1. What type of government might be advocated by the Baron de Montesquieu? Parlements (such as in England) that promoted liberty over tyranny.
1. What was the reaction of the Catholic Church to the conclusions of Galileo? What resulted from this controversy?
1. What was the reaction of the Catholic Church to the conclusions of Galileo? What resulted from this controversy? The Catholic Church strongly opposed the heliocentricity ideas and forbid Catholics to read certain books such as some by Kepler that supported the ideas. The controversy presented a belief that a heliocentric world was foolish and false.
1. What were Catherine the Great's three main goals after gaining power in Russia?
1. What were Catherine the Great's three main goals after gaining power in Russia? To bring the culture of western Europe to Russia, domestic reform, and territorial expansion.
1. What were the results of Joseph II's attempt to "enlighten" Austrian society, and as based on these results, what might you be able to conclude about "enlightened absolutism" in general?
1. What were the results of Joseph II's attempt to "enlighten" Austrian society, and as based on these results, what might you be able to conclude about "enlightened absolutism" in general? Joseph II's failed attempt to enlighten Austria by abolishing serfdom forever and helping the common people, showed how enlightened absolutism can be successful but it still requires for the support from the people other than the monarch for their intentions to come true.
1. What were the socio-political results of Pugachev's rebellion in Russia?
1. What were the socio-political results of Pugachev's rebellion in Russia? It ended Catherine's attempts to reform the system.
1. Why did Prussia propose the Partitions of Poland, and what were the results of this process?
1. Why did Prussia propose the Partitions of Poland, and what were the results of this process? Because Prussia/ Catherine wanted to claim more territory which caused Poland to have no territory left.
Immanuel Kant - (1724 -1804)
Immanuel Kant - (1724 -1804) A professor in East Prussia who as the greatest German philosopher of his day. He wrote What is Enlightenment, in which he answered by saying that having courage to use your own understanding is the motto of the Enlightenment. He tried to reconcile absolute monarchical authority and religious faith. Foremost philosopher of the German Enlightenment. Advocated freedom to exercise reason in public which would lead to enlightenment. Defined the Enlightenment as "...man's release from his self-incurred tutelage." (Man's inability to make sue of his understanding without direction from another.) Sapere Aude- Dare to know.
_________- Italian astronomer who drew astronomical conclusions based on telescope observation, and theorized about what governs motion on earth.
_Galileo Galilei_- Italian astronomer who drew astronomical conclusions based on telescope observation, and theorized about what governs motion on earth.
1. Economically speaking, Enlightenment ideals called into question the existence of the ______ system.
1. Economically speaking, Enlightenment ideals called into question the existence of the _nature_ system.
...Wealth of Nations
...Wealth of Nations - Written by Adam Smith in 1776, in which he attacked the laws and regulation that prevented commerce from reaching its full capacity.
1. Adam Smith advocated a more highly developed "division of ______."
1. Adam Smith advocated a more highly developed "division of _nature_."
1. Adam Smith argued that government should limit itself to what three duties?
1. Adam Smith argued that government should limit itself to what three duties? Protect boarders, enforce civil war, and engage in public works.
1. Although significant advancements will not come in biology and chemistry until the 19th century, list some of the 16th and 17th century contributors to advancements in biology and chemistry, along with some of their achievements.
1. Although significant advancements will not come in biology and chemistry until the 19th century, list some of the 16th and 17th century contributors to advancements in biology and chemistry, along with some of their achievements. Paracelsus - founded the use of chemicals and medicine. Andreas Vesalius - he helped to revolutionize the understanding of human anatomy. William Harvey - discovered the circulation of blood. Robert Boyle - helped to deepen the understanding of the modern science of chemistry.
1. As part of his laws of planetary motion, Kepler theorized mathematically that the orbits of the planets around the sun take what shape?
1. As part of his laws of planetary motion, Kepler theorized mathematically that the orbits of the planets around the sun take what shape? Elliptical not circular.
1. Because they are based on the principles of mathematics, what sciences were "revolutionized" in the Scientific Revolution?
1. Because they are based on the principles of mathematics, what sciences were "revolutionized" in the Scientific Revolution? Astronomy/physics
1. Both Montesquieu and Voltaire admired the liberties and institutions of what nation?
1. Both Montesquieu and Voltaire admired the liberties and institutions of what nation? England
1. Contrary to the principles of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, some still believed in what medieval principles that concluded that nothing can ever be truly known, and who could say what was right vs. wrong?
1. Contrary to the principles of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, some still believed in what medieval principles that concluded that nothing can ever be truly known, and who could say what was right vs. wrong? Some still believed that persecutions and incorrect beliefs in the past show how nothing can truly be known, and no one could say what was right or wrong.
1. Despite lacking many rights, many of the most celebrated salons were hosted by ______.
1. Despite lacking many rights, many of the most celebrated salons were hosted by _women_.
1. Explain Aristotle's distinction between the laws of motion in space and on earth.
1. Explain Aristotle's distinction between the laws of motion in space and on earth. Aristotle stated that Earth was motionless at the center of the universe and that other planets and elements such as stars, and the moon, sun was rotating around Earth.
1. For the most part, what was the enlightened philosophes' impression of the peasants and the working class?
1. For the most part, what was the enlightened philosophes' impression of the peasants and the working class? That they were like children and in need of firm guidance, so they didn't need to take part in the philosophes' work.
1. How and why did Aristotle's and Ptolemy's science fit neatly with Christian doctrines?
1. How and why did Aristotle's and Ptolemy's science fit neatly with Christian doctrines? They established a "home" for God and a place for Christian souls, where human beings were at the center of the universe and God was at a throne of it.
1. In the Age of Enlightenment the production, consumption, and variety of ______ grew dramatically.
1. In the Age of Enlightenment the production, consumption, and variety of _books_ grew dramatically.
1. List some of the reforms enacted by Catherine the Great that would confirm her as an "enlightened" despot.
1. List some of the reforms enacted by Catherine the Great that would confirm her as an "enlightened" despot. - Eased laws - Wanted to create a domestic reform - Wanted to expand territory - Supported nobles
1. List some of the reforms enacted by Frederick the Great that would confirm him as an "enlightened" despot.
1. List some of the reforms enacted by Frederick the Great that would confirm him as an "enlightened" despot. - Mostly allowing people to have their personal beliefs - Promoted knowledge by improving education - Torture was abolished under his rule - Laws were simplified
1. List some of the reforms enacted by Joseph II that would confirm him as an "enlightened" despot.
1. List some of the reforms enacted by Joseph II that would confirm him as an "enlightened" despot. - Abolished serfdom - Reformed Austria - Tried to help the peasants
1. List some of the reforms enacted by Maria Theresa that would confirm her as an "enlightened" despot.
1. List some of the reforms enacted by Maria Theresa that would confirm her as an "enlightened" despot. - Wanted to reform her nation - Limited papacy influence - Changed the tax system (by taxing even nobles) - Improved the agricultural population
1. List some of the ways in which the Scientific Revolution was sustained in the 17th century.
1. List some of the ways in which the Scientific Revolution was sustained in the 17th century. - Societies were created regarding science - New discoveries by scientists and scholars - Science became competitive - Governments took part in scientific development
1. Medieval philosophers acquired some independence from theologians and therefore some sense of ______ inquiry.
1. Medieval philosophers acquired some independence from theologians and therefore some sense of _free_ inquiry.
1. Most Enlightened thinkers outside of England and the Netherlands, especially in central Europe, believed that political and social change could best come from _______.
1. Most Enlightened thinkers outside of England and the Netherlands, especially in central Europe, believed that political and social change could best come from _above (a ruler) _.
1. Rousseau believed that the _______ in a society was sovereign.
1. Rousseau believed that the _general_ _will_ in a society was sovereign.
1. State Adam Smith's three "natural laws" of economics.
1. State Adam Smith's three "natural laws" of economics. Competition, self-interest , and supply and demand.
1. State Isaac Newton's 3 laws of motion.
1. State Isaac Newton's 3 laws of motion. - An object in motion will remain in motion until stopped by an outside force. - Force equals mass times acceleration - For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
1. The Enlightenment is based on the principle that knowledge, above all scientific knowledge, was ______, and made possible what types of human progress?
1. The Enlightenment is based on the principle that knowledge, above all scientific knowledge, was _useful_, and made possible what types of human progress? It made possible economic, social, and political progress.
1. The philosophes of the Age of Enlightenment believed that the scientific method was capable of discovering the ______ of human society as well as those of nature, and armed with this proper method, they believed that human beings could make _______.
1. The philosophes of the Age of Enlightenment believed that the scientific method was capable of discovering the _laws_ of human society as well as those of nature, and armed with this proper method, they believed that human beings could make _better societies and people_.
1. Until the Scientific Revolution, Europeans relied on what combination for an understanding of motion and matter? Thinkers in the Scientific Revolution then brought what combination to their experimentation?
1. Until the Scientific Revolution, Europeans relied on what combination for an understanding of motion and matter? Thinkers in the Scientific Revolution then brought what combination to their experimentation? Before Europeans relied on Aristotle's philosophy, Greek and Christian theology. Then thinkers inspired others to make better observations and better explanations.
1. Upon inheriting the throne, Frederick the Great was determined to use what that he had inherited from his father?
1. Upon inheriting the throne, Frederick the Great was determined to use what that he had inherited from his father? Military
Adam Smith
Adam Smith - A Scot, who was a major figure in the Scottish Enlightenment. He argued that the thriving commercial life of the 18th century produced civic virtue through the values of competition, fair play, and individual anatomy. British economic philosopher (physiocrat) who wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776). He supported Laissez-faire (leave alone). Believed tariffs and government regulation of trade interfered with the production of wealth. He therefore advocates free trade. Believed a free economy could produce far more wealth than one regulated by government laws. He therefore advocated a market economy. Based his arguments on what he called the 3 natural laws of economics: self-interest, competition, and supply and demand.
Baron de Montesquieu
Baron de Montesquieu - (1689 - 1755) A philosophe who pioneered his approach in The Persian Letters. He was disturbed by the absolutism in Louis XIV like many others. French political philosopher who wrote The Spirit of Laws (1748). Believed that in order to insure the liberty of the people, the power of the government needed to be divided into branches (legislative, executive, judicial). Each branch should have the power to check or limit the power of the other two, thus a branch, and therefore the government as a whole as well, would not become a threat to liberty. Becomes the basis for the US constitution.
Cartesian Dualism
Cartesian Dualism - Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter. There are two kinds of reality: thinking substance (mind, spirit, consciousness subjective experience), and extended substance (everything outside of the mind, and therefore objective) and during this revolution "Math reigns supreme in the extended substance".
Catherine II (the Great) - (1762-1796)
Catherine II (the Great) - (1762-1796) a remarkable Russian ruler, who was a German princess but whose mother was related to the Romanovs of Russia which gave her power and control in Russia. Imported Western architects, artists, and intellectuals. Bought Western art, supported philosophes financially, published philosophe writing, established the Legislative Commission in an attempt to codify Russian law, restricted torture, allowed limited religious toleration, improved education, and improved local government. She "got rid" of Peter (her husband) to secure her role as a monarch.
Cesare Beccaria - (1738 -1794)
Cesare Beccaria - (1738 -1794) a nobleman educated at Jesuit schools, who wrote On Crimes and Punishments in 1764 with a passionate plea for reform of the penal system that decried the use of torture, and punishment and it advocated the prevention of crime over the reliance on punishment. Foremost philosopher of the Italian Enlightenment. Calls for legal and penal reforms in northern Italy. He thinks natural law applies everywhere.
Charles VI
Charles VI - Habsburg whose Austrian inherited land went to Maria Theresa, his daughter.
David Hume - (1711 - 1776)
David Hume - (1711 - 1776) (Scottish) a central figure in Edinburgh who emphasized on civic morality and religious skepticism which had a powerful impact in Edinburgh and abroad. Foremost philosopher of the Scottish Enlightenment. Considered enlightened due to his religious skepticism (like most enlightened thinker) however he undermines the obsession with reason during the period by concluding that our ideas reflect only our sensory experiences, and that reason can't tell us anything about the questions that cannot be verified by sensory experience. Philosophically devoted to the rule of law (like Hobbes?) concluding that passion rather than reason governs behavior. He thought if we will have this Enlightenment we should still have laws to not have chaos.
Deism
Deism- the belief of a supreme being or a creator of the world.
Diplomatic Revolution -
Diplomatic Revolution - the conflicts between Austria and Prussia, and Great Britain and France continue, but with new alliances: Austria VS Prussia France Great Britain THIS WAR LEAD TO THE SEVEN YEARS WAR
Du Chatelet - (1706 - 1749)
Du Chatelet - (1706 - 1749) a noblewoman who was passionate about science and met Voltaire and became his longtime companion. Long-time companion of Voltaire, despite her major academic accomplishments, excluded from the Royal Academy of Sciences because she was a woman. Believed that women's limited role in science was due to unequal education. "...I would make women participate in all the right of humankind, and above all in those of the intellect."
Emelian Pugachev
Emelian Pugachev - Russian common Cossack soldier who sparked a rebellion of serfs and who proclaimed himself a tsar and issued orders abolishing serfdom.
Encyclopedia
Encyclopedia - Written by philosophes and edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d' Almbert. It was a dictionary of Science, Arts and Crafts, which include two thousand articles from scientists, writers, priests, wise workers, and treated every aspect of life and knowledge. Extremely influential and widely read.
Enlightened despotism/ enlightened absolutism -
Enlightened despotism enlightened absolutism - Term coined by historians to describe the rule of eighteenth-century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.
Enlightenment - (1690 - 1789)
Enlightenment - (1690 - 1789) The influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress.
Enlightenment Philosophy: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Enlightenment Philosophy: 1. Reason - A "divine" force, which is the absence (no) of intolerance, bigotry, and/ or prejudice in one's thinking. It is not a religious interpretation; it is logical thinking. 2. Nature - What is natural is also good and reasonable. There are natural laws of economics and politics, just as there are natural laws of science. Basically, get rid of what bad society put upon you and follow what is natural and good. 3. Happiness - Well-being on Earth is possible, and a person who lives by nature's laws can find happiness. Science can bring you the road to happiness, but science itself is not happiness. 4. Progress - Society and humankind can be perfected if people use the scientific approach. 5. Liberty - Inspired by the English Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights, the philosophes believed that through reason, society could be set free.
Essay Concerning Human Understanding - (1690)
Essay Concerning Human Understanding - (1690) written by John Locke, in which he put out a theory that human beings learn and form their ideas, and that all ideas are brought from experience.
Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon - (1561 - 1626) English politician and writer who was one of the greatest early propagandists for a new experimental method. He rejected the Aristotelian methods and argued that new knowledge had to be pursued through empirical research. He wrote the Novum Organum (new method) (1620) that emphasized the inductive method: Arrive at knowledge based on observed facts. Observe and draw conclusions. Also known as empiricism. The work also opposed to the deductive method: draw logical implications from what you already know. He also wrote the Advancement of Learning (1623) which emphasized the belief that true knowledge was useful (improving society).
Frederick II - (1740-1786)
Frederick II - (1740-1786) or Frederick the Great, his father was Frederick William I, who used great military power. Religious toleration, encourages immigration, expansion/ improvements in Education, simplification of Laws, torture abolished, impartial judges, Agricultural/Industrial expansion, and lived modestly. But he DID NOT HELP WITH THE ISSUE OF SERFDOM.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau - (1712 - 1778) He contributed articles on music to the Encyclopedia and was friends with its editors. He believed philosophes were plotting against him and broke with them and went in his own direction. He attacked rationalism and his ideals greatly influenced the early romantic movement in which he rebelled against the culture of the Enlightenment and believed that civilization was destroying not liberating. Swiss/French philosopher who wrote The Social Contract (1762). A man of "feeling" in an age of logic and science, due to his "poetic" approach, some view him as a look ahead to the eventual Age of Romanticism. Believed that liberty and justice would thrive in a state where the "general will" of the people was sovereign.
John Locke - (1632-1704)
John Locke - (1632-1704) an English physician and member of the Royal Society who wrote the Essay Concerning Human Understanding and the Two Treaties of Government published in 1690. Was influenced by the scientific revolution. Believed that in the "state of nature" humans had the gift of reason. Humans are or can be educated to be rational and responsible, and therefore can and should be free. Believed government is formed to protect the natural rights of "life, liberty, and property" in a conditional contract. Argued that the people must be reasonable, but that if the government abused these rights, the people were within their rights to rebel against it. These ideas are the political manifestation of his environmental philosophy. The belief that evil in human action was due to bad social institutions, and that improvement in human society, would improve human behavior. He also believed people are born good but are made bad due to society (Tabula Rasa).
Joseph II - (1780-1790)
Joseph II - (1780-1790) Austrian Theresa's son who drew on Enlightenment ideals and was named the "revolutionary emperor". He abolished serfdom, decreed absolute equality of taxation, decreed equal punishment for equal crimes regardless of class, legal punishments made less physically cruel, established freedom of the press, ordered toleration of all religions, granted equal right/duties to Jewish population, Jewish military service, created Jewish nobles, clashed openly with the pope, established independent control of the Austrian Catholic Church, established an East India Company, and "Germanization" of Austria.
Leopold II - (1790-1792)
Leopold II - (1790-1792) Joseph II's brother and Maria Theresa's son, who inherited the throne after Leopold II's death. He made serfdom reappear in Austria.
Madame du Deffand
Madame du Deffand - A Salonnière who hosted some of the most celebrated salons with great guests such as Montesquieu, Benjamin Franklin and she served as the first U.S ambassador to France.
Maria Theresa - (1740-1780)
Maria Theresa - (1740-1780) empress of Austria who inherited the Habsburg dominions after the death of Charles VI. She wanted to reform her nation (Austria). Church reforms (reducing influence of the pope, reducing religious holidays, reducing monastaries). Codification of Austrian law, tax reform (tax nobility) and reform of serfdom.
On Crimes and Punishments
On Crimes and Punishments- Cesare Beccaria wrote On Crimes and Punishments in 1764 with a passionate plea for reform of the penal system that decried the use of torture, and punishment and it advocated the prevention of crime over the reliance on punishment. It made great impact throughout Europe once it was translated into French and English.
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres - Written by Nicolas Copernicus, where he made his claims on how the Earth and other planets revolve around the sun.
The 3 Partions of Poland:
Partions of Poland: 1st Partion (1772) - Russians call off war with Turks - Russia gets an eastern slice of Poland - Austria gets a southern slice of Poland - Prussia gets Pomerelia 2nd Partion (1793) - Fearing the spread of the French Revolution the 3 powers further divide Poland. 3rd Partion (1795) - Fearing the spread of the French Revolution the 3 powers divide and take the rest of Poland. Poland disappears from the map.
Denis Diderot
Philosopher who edited a book called the Encyclopedia. Main author of the Encyclopedia, in which he wanted to "change the general way of thinking" and "secularize" learning.
Philosophes
Philosophes - A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of Enlightenment.
Pragmatic Sanction
Pragmatic Sanction -edict by Charles VI that gave Theresa Silesia.
Principia Mathematica
Principia Mathematica - Newton's explanation of Newton's three laws of motion which essentially proposes the concept of universal gravitation.
_______- Hellenized Egyptian who most astronomical knowledge was based on until the Scientific Revolution.
Ptolemy_- Hellenized Egyptian who most astronomical knowledge was based on until the Scientific Revolution.
Seven Years' War - (1756-1763)
Seven Years' War - (1756-1763) War in which France, Britain and Maria Theresa opposed Frederick II/Prussia, in hopes of claiming more territory and dividing it up for themselves. Continuation of the preceding war with new partners. See "Diplomatic Revolution". Austria with France and Russia, attempt to weaken Prussia. By the Peace of Hubertusburg in 1763, Prussia's aggression of 1740 was legalized as they maintain Silesia. (German dualism would be lasting). Great Britain and France fought in America for control of North America, and in Asia for economic interests in India. Great Britain under the leadership of William Pitt successfully concentrated their efforts on the colonies and their navy, while subsidizing the Prussians in Europe. The result was a great victory for Great Britain and Prussia.
Silesia
Silesia - Maria Theresa's province which Frederick II invaded and took over.
The Persian Letters
The Persian Letters - Written by Baron de Montesquieu, which was an influential social satire written in 1721, and it was considered the first major work of the French Enlightenment in which there are letters supposedly written by two Persian travelers who as outsiders saw European customs in different ways, basically criticizing existing practices and beliefs.
The Social Contract
The Social Contract - Written by Rousseau which contributed to political theory and was based on two fundamental concepts which are the general will and popular sovereignty.
The Spirit of Laws - (1748)
The Spirit of Laws - (1748) a method to the problem of the government written by Baron de Montesquieu.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) - (English) Wrote the book Leviathan published in 1651. Believed life in the "state of nature" (without government) was "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." Believed that in order to have a civilized society, people needed to come to an agreement or "contract" by which they surrendered their freedom of action into the hands of a ruler. Believed that questioning the government would open the way to chaos. He is therefore advancing a secular argument for absolutism. His ideas were influenced by the Religious Wars, Protestant Reformation, and English Civil War.
Treaty of Paris (1763)
Treaty of Paris (1763) - France ceded all territory in North America east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. France ceded all territory west of the Mississippi to Spain. France thereby abandons the North American continent, except for a few important economic holdings which allowed France to continue prosperous trade with America and Asia. Ended the 7 years war.
Two Treatises of Civil Government
Two Treatises of Civil Government - written by John Locke in 1690, in which he insisted on the sovereignty of the elected Parliament against the authority of the Crown.
Voltaire - (1694 - 1778)
Voltaire - (1694 - 1778) The most famous French philosopher, also known as François Marie Arouet. Most famous of all enlightened philosophes. His admiration of England brought English scientific and philosophical achievement to the consciousness of Europe. Less concerned with political freedom, he saw the power of government as a means to enlighten society. He thought that with rough absolutism the monarch could be enlightened and spread enlightenment to the people. He is the first to present a purely secular conception of world history. Ecrasez l'infame! (Crush the whole thing!).
War of the Austrian Succession - (1740 - 1748)
War of the Austrian Succession - (1740 - 1748) war between Maria Theresa and Frederick II, which caused Theresa to cede Silesia to Prussia (Frederick II's power). In 1740, challenging Austrian dominance of the German states, Frederick II (The Great) of Prussia invaded Silesia. European nations took sides: Austria, (Bohemia, Hungary) and Great Britain VS. Prussia, Bavaria, Spain, and France. Major Results of the war were that Prussians keep Silesia, Austrians keep "Belgium" (Austrian Netherlands), demonstrated weakness of French position between European and overseas ambitions. Hapsburg empire remain intact (Hungary and Bohemia), Husband of Maria Theresa is elected Holy Roman Emperor, and this war leads to a "Diplomatic Revolution!" in which France sides with Austria to oppose Prussia.
What is Enlightenment?
What is Enlightenment? - A pamphlet written by Immanuel Kant in 1784 in which he answered that Enlightenment consists of courage to use your own understanding.
empiricism
empiricism - A theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than deductive reason and speculation.
natural law
natural law - it was a concept that says right and wrong is scientific, and you can figure it out through reason, which's result can lead to "Positive Law". Natural = scientific law.
universal gravitation
universal gravitation - Newton's law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the objects' quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.