SES 323 Motor Learning Test #2

What are the three types of transfer?

Positive transfer Negative transfer Zero transfer (Neutral)

Describe the five different feedback schedules. Use examples to aid the description.

1. Bandwidth feedback: feedback is given only when performance is outside a particular range 2. Faded feedback: relative feedback is gradually reduced as skill improves 3. Summary feedback: feedback is given following a set number of performance attempts, after which the instructor summarizes each performance attempt 4. Average feedback: instructor discusses only the average performance error(s) or the essence of the performances with the learner 5. Learner-regulated feedback: learners determine how often they receive feedback

Describe what you need to consider when implementing practice variability

1. Characteristics of the physical context for performance 2. Skill characteristics required by the situation

Describe the two hypotheses (Elaboration, Action Plan Reconstruction) related to why contextual interference occurs and has a positive influence on learning.

1. Elaboration Hypothesis: Elaboration of the memory representation of the skill variations that a learner is practicing 2. Action Plan Reconstruction Hypothesis: the learner has to reconstruct an action plan on subsequent practice trials for each skill variation

Describe the three strategies for Part Practice and include examples for each. What are the methods for Simplification?

1. Fractionization: Practice each limb involved in the motor skill separately 2. Segmentation: Practice of segments of the motor skill separately then put the together 3. Simplification: Reduce skill difficulty by practicing an easier variation of the skill before practicing the skill itself

Describe and give examples of the three functions of Extrinsic Feedback.

1. Guiding the learner to better performances: What did I do wrong? 2. Providing an incentive to motivate the learner: Improvements are rewarding 3. Reinforcing the movement: Positive Reinforcement

What are the 6 Performance characteristics of Skill learning? Name and describe them (EPIC AA)

1. Improvement 2. Consistency 3. Persistence 4. Effort 5. Attention 6. Adaptability

What are the four performance curves? Identify and describe

1. Linear - Proportional increases over trials or time 2. Negatively accelerated - Early improvement but slows during latter practice 3. Positively accelerated - Slight improvement early but substantial improvement during later practice 4. S-shaped - Two periods of rapid increase

How can practice performance misrepresent learning?

1. Performance variable artificially inflates or depresses performance 2. Practice may involve performance plateaus•Learning is occurring without observable difference in behavior 3. Averaging effects: Mask individual improvements & changes in variability

Describe positive transfer and the two explanations for why positive transfer occurs.

1. Similarity of skill or context components Based on: Thorndike's (1914) "identical elements" theory - Positive transfer increases as the number of common skill components ("elements") increases for the two skills/contexts 2. Similarity of information processing activity required Based on: Transfer-appropriate-processing view of the practice: test relationship. Ex: Problem solving activity, Type of decision making involved

What is absolute frequency feedback? What is relative frequency feedback?

Absolute frequency = # trials KR provided Relative frequency= % of performance attempts for which KR provided

When should demonstrations be given? How often?

As frequently as necessary

Describe the guidance hypothesis and how it is used for motor skill learning.

As skills improve, the frequency of feedback should be gradually reduced

What is a Retention test? Explain an example.

Assess how permanent the performance level is that was achieved during practice [Persistence] (One week without practice)

What is a transfer test? Explain an example.

Assess the adaptability of what was learned during practice: Test the same skill in a context or situation different from practice. (Skateboarding to Snowboarding)

What are the three types of variable practice schedules?

Blocked practice: AAA, BBB, CCC Random practice: ACB, BBA, CCA Serial practice: ABC, ABC, ABC

How is practice variability implemented for different types of skills (Open skills vs. Closed skills w/ or w/out inter-trial variability)? Include examples.

Closed skills (regulatory conditions are stationary) - Vary non-regulatory conditions - Is there inter-trial variability? If yes →vary regulatory conditions Open skills (regulatory conditions are in-motion)- Vary both regulatory conditions and non-regulatory conditions. -Practice variations of the skill

Describe how skill complexity and organization are defined for motor skills. Describe whole and part practice. How are skill complexity and organization used to determine whether to use whole or part practice?

Complexity - # of parts/components in a skill and attention demands:↑ Complexity = ↑ # parts & ↑ attentional demands Organization - relation among component parts of a skill ↑ Organization = component parts are spatially and/or temporally interdependent

Describe negative transfer - why does it occur, how long does it last and why?

Decline in performance due to previous practice: Usually temporary. Example: Similar environmental context characteristics BUT different movement requirements (Gearshift movements: Car England (shifter on left) vs. the rest of Europe/USA)

Describe the three hypotheses related to the distribution of practice (massed vs. distributed). For each provide an example of an activity and what type of practice (massed vs. distributed) would be best for the skill based on that hypothesis.

Fatigue hypothesis: Fatigue influences learning negatively Cognitive effort hypothesis: Boredom => attention decreased Memory consolidation hypothesis: Memory consolidation needs processing time

What is happening during the Post-Feedback Interval? Why is the length of this interval important to consider?

Feedback is given, new attempts are made to evaluate

When are demonstrations most beneficial?

If skill involves learning a new coordination pattern

How might verbal instruction be detrimental to implicit learning?

Implicit learning- Difficult to explain Ex: How to use force to ride a tricycle Explicit learning- Conscious awareness of factors affecting learning Ex: "I watch the ball into my hands"

Describe and give examples of Knowledge of Results (KR) and Knowledge of Performance (KP).

KR: "You shot the ball 67 feet." KP: "When you release the dart follow through with your hand."

Describe and give examples of Knowledge of Results (KR) and Knowledge of Performance (KP).

KR: Externally presented information about the (outcome) of performance, Ex: Darts KP: Externally presented information about (movement characteristics) that led to the performance outcome

Describe the difference between Massed and Distributed Practice. Give an example of a skill for which Distributed Practice would be best.

Massed Practice Sessions: Relatively long, few sessions, between-trial rest is minimal Distributed Practice Sessions: Relatively short, more of them, between-trial rest intervals longer than the time it takes to complete a trial

Describe how contextual interference should be adjusted based on motor skill characteristics and learner characteristics.

Motor skill characteristics- For complex motor skills, progressions from low to high contextual interference may be required Learner characteristics - possible influence of age & skill level. Children: lower contextual interference = better learning Skill level: lessor skilled performers may learn more with lower contextual interference schedules; does not matter for higher skill levels

Why is it important that a demonstrator perform the skill correctly?

Observer perceives invariant movement patterns of a demonstrated skill - these patterns will be observed only with a correctly performed skill; Observer also perceives information about the strategy used by the model to solve the movement problem

Describe and provide an example of the three types of goals we discussed.

Outcome: Finish top 3 in the state Performance: Improve time by 10% Process: Maintain a straight back and head up

How does Learning differ from performance? How are they related?

Performance: Observable behavior, Temporary Learning: Not directly observable - must be inferred from observable behavior, Relatively permanent

What is practice specificity? Describe how you would create practice specificity for a motor skill. Use an example to aid your description.

Practice specificity: Test performance is directly related to the similarity between the characteristics of the practice and test conditions/contexts. Ex: Practicing fade away shot against a defender

How might verbal cures be useful for skill learning?

Prompt key movement components of skill

What are S.M.A.R.T goals? Write out what each letter represents and a description of how it applies to defining the goal.

S: Specific, M: Measurable, A: Achievable, R: Realistic, T: Timely,

What is happening during the Feedback Delay Interval? Why is the length of this interval important to consider?

Subjective performance evaluation: Estimation of outcome or movement, benefits learning.

Describe and give examples of Task intrinsic feedback and the two types of Extrinsic (Augmented) feedback.

Task intrinsic feedback: Visual, Auditory, Proprioceptive, Tactile. Augmented feedback(extrinsic): Knowledge of Results (KR) and Knowledge of Performance (KP) Concurrent: During the movement Terminal: after the completion of the movement

Describe how contextual interference is related to the three types of variable practice schedules and its impact on motor learning.

The memory and performance disruption that results from performing variations of a skill within the context of practice Contextual interference effect: Occurs when practice schedules involve higher rather than lower amounts of contextual interference (Metacognition = how much we think we are learning)

How can verbal instructions be adjusted to promote discovery learning?

Verbal cues can direct attention to regulatory conditions in the environment, prompt key skill components, or initiate activity

How much verbal instruction should be given?

Verbal cues should be 1-3 words in length

According to the Ecological approach (dynamical systems), why do demonstrations work? What evidence do we have that this is why they work?

Visual perception of motion- Point-light technique (Lights on the joints to study movement) Skilled demonstration- Ski simulator: skilled observation leads to earlier acquisition of coordination pattern

Why is a peer-coping model good?

novice or peer who is actively involved is receiving feedback, demonstrating variability, making errors; the process of problem solving is emphasized