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Illocutionary vs. Perlocutionary Acts

locutionary act: performing an act of saying something illocutionary act: performing an act in saying something perlocutionary act: performing an act by saying something The illocutionary force is the speaker's intent. [It is] a true 'speech act' such as informing, ordering, warning, undertaking." An example of an illocutionary act would be: "The black cat is stupid." This statement is assertive; it is an illocutionary act in that it intends to communicate. Perlocutionary acts are speech acts that have an effect on the feelings, thoughts, or actions of either the speaker or the listener. They seek to change minds. Unlike locutionary acts, perlocutionary acts are external to the performance; they are inspiring, persuading, or deterring. Changing Minds gives this example of a perlocutionary act: "Please find the black cat." This statement is a perlocutionary act because it seeks to change behavior. (The speaker wants you to drop whatever you are doing and go find her cat.)

Phatic function

means that the language is used to make contact with somebody else

Phatic function

means that the language is used to make contact with somebody else. The phatic function is the part of communication which keeps open the line of communication itself; it is the means by which two or more speakers reassure themselves that not only are they being listened to, but they are also being understood.

Contrastive pragmatics

The study of culturally different ways of using language.

Co-operative principle

"Make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged." A basic assumption in conversation that each participant will attempt to contribute appropriately, at the required time, to the current exchange of talk and in a clear way. The cooperative principle is a principle of conversation that was proposed by Grice 1975, stating that participants expect that each will make a "conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange." Example: When a speaker makes an apparently uninformative remark such as "War is war," the addressee assumes that the speaker is being cooperative and looks for the implicature the speaker is making.

Primary performative

(implicit) An utterance which performs a speech act but which does not contain a performative verb.

Face wants

A person's expectations that their public self-image will be respected. People behave a certain way in order to keep their self-image respected.

Blend

A blend occurs where a sentences 'swaps horses', beginning in one way and ending in another. This is slightly different from a 'false start', where a sentence is broken off mid-way as a result of a change of mind. These phenomena are edited out in written language, which consequently appears more fluent. We may also note the apparent fluency of fictional speech that appears in literature. Would you mind telling me, is there a train station somewhere near?

T/V distinction

A distinction between forms used for a familiar (tu) and a non-familiar (vous) addressee, in French and other languages.

Referring expression

A linguistic form which enables a listener, or reader, to identify something.

Social interaction

A linguistic interaction, either spoken or written. A great deal of what we say and communicate is determined by our social relationships. Speakers are either socially distant, i.e. being of different social status, age, sex, etc., or they are socially close, i.e. of the same social status, age, sex, etc. A social interaction is an exchange between two or more individuals and is a building block of society. Social interaction can be studied between groups of two (dyads), three (triads) or larger social groups.

Local management system

A metaphor for describing the conventions for organizing the right to speak in conversation - turn taking?

High considerateness style

A non-interrupting, non-imposing way of taking part in conversation.

Preference/preference structure

A pattern in which one type of utterance will be more typically found in response to another in a conversational sequence, e.g. an acceptance will more typically follow an invitation than a refusal.

Face

A person's public self-image. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. Showing awareness for another person's face when that other seems socially distant is often described in terms of respect and deference (see Example 1); when the other is socially close in terms of friendliness or solidarity (see Example 2): 1. Excuse me, Mr Brown, but can I talk to you for a minute? (respect, deference) 2. Hey, Bucky, got a minute? (friendliness, solidarity)

Transition relevance place

A possible change of speaker point in an interaction. Each point in the ongoing conversation at which a turn at talk passes from one participant to another usually occurs at what is known as a transition relevance place (TRP). That is to say, transition relevance places are junctures at which the turn at talk could legitimately pass from one speaker to another.

Script

A pre-existing knowledge structure for interpreting event sequence. Pre existing knowledge structure involving event sequences e.g. going to a doctor's office, a movie theatre, a restaurant, or a grocery shop. Example: I stopped to get some groceries but there weren't any baskets left so by the time I arrived at the check out counter I must have looked like a juggler having a bad day.

Schema (plural schemata)

A pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the normal expected patterns of things. Familiar patterns from previous experience that we use to interpret new experiences

Frame

A pre-existing knowledge structure with a fixed static pattern. Static pattern to the schema; a frame shared by everyone within a social group is a prototypical version; Apartment for rent. &500.763 6683.

Performative hypothesis

A proposal that, underlying every utterance, there is a clause with a verb that identifies the speech act. Assumption that underlying every utterance (U) there is a clause containing a performative verb (Vp) which makes the illocutionary force explicit the basic format of the underlying clause: I (hereby) Vp you (that) U Examples: Clean up this mess! I hereby order you that you clean up this mess. The work was done by Mary and myself. I hereby tell you that the work was done by Mary and myself. The performative hypothesis is the hypothesis (proposed in Ross 1970), that every sentence is associated with an explicit illocutionary act, i.e. is derived from a deep structure containing a performative verb.

Scalar implicature

A scalar implicature is a quantity implicature based on the use of an informationally weak term in an implicational scale. (all, most, many, some, few, always, often, sometimes) In the utterance "some of the boys went to the party", the word some implicates "not all of the boys went to the party." The words "none, some, and all" form an implicational scale, in which the use of one form implicates that the use of a stronger form is not possible. meaning of the negative of any value higher on a scale than the one uttered.

Spoken interaction

A social activity which is governed by two main principles: speakers take turn and speakers co-operate. Features - lack of clear sentence boundaries, simple structure, repetitiveness, normal non-fluency, monitoring features, interaction features, features reflecting informality

Explicit performative

A speech act containing a performative verb that explicitly expresses the act being performed. A distinction between explicit performatives ("I promise it will never happen again") and primary or implicit performatives ("It will never happen again," functioning as a promise). I order you to leave! I hereby order you that you clean up this mess. (NOTClean up this mess!) I hereby tell you that the work was done by Mary and myself. (NOT The work was done by Mary and myself.)

Commisive

A speech act in which the speaker commits him or herself to some future action, e.g. a promise or a threat.

Expressive

A speech act in which the speaker expresses feelings or attitudes, e.g. an apology. I am really sorry that you were fired

Representative

A speech act in which the speaker states what is believed or known.

Declaration

A speech act that brings about a change by being uttered, e.g. a judge pronouncing a sentence. "words change the world" S causes X I hereby declare you to be the mother of the Year. I hereby, declare that this thesis is my own work.

Directive

A speech act used to get someone else to do something, e.g. an order. A kind of speech act that the speaker's intention to make someone else to do something which means makes the world fit words. The directive utterances consist of asking, inviting, ordering, begging, requesting, suggesting, recommending, demanding, permitting, etc. Speaker wants X Would you pass me the salt please? Go and do your homework.

Implicit performatives

A speech act without a performative verb. Implicit performatives are performative utterances with performative verbs but they are not explicitly stated. With an implicit performative, the sentence does not have an explicit performative verb, but it has illocutionary force which is known from the context. I won't do it again. (the performative verb - "I promise" is missing)

Insertion sequence

A two part sequence that comes between the first and second parts of another sequence in conversation. An insertion sequence is a sequence of turns that intervenes between the first and second parts of an adjacency pair. The person towards whom the first part of an adjacency pair has been directed may want to undertake some preliminary action before responding with the second part .a request for clarification by the recipient will take place after the first pair part but before the second pair part .this is an insertion sequence. Here turn 1 and 4 make up one adjacency pair inserted between the two parts of the first pair. P: Martin would you like to dance M: Is the floor is slippery? P: No its fine. M: then I'd be happy to dance

Adjacency pair

A unit of conversation. A sequence of two utterances produced by different speakers in conversation. The second is a response to the first, e.g. question-answer sequence. The turns are functionally related to each other in such a fashion that the first turn requires a certain type or range of types of second turn.

Performative verb

A verb that explicitly names the speech act.

Range of reference

All the possible referents identifiable by the use of a word. Bear - a verb Bear - a noun You - multiple people You - one person

Reference

An act by which a speaker uses a word, or words, to enable a listener to identify someone or something.

Speech act

An action performed by the use of an utterance to communicate. A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. We perform speech acts when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal. Types Representatives: assertions, statements, claims, hypotheses, descriptions, suggestions. Commissives: promises, oaths, pledges, threats, vows. Directives: commands, requests, challenges, invitations, orders, summons, entreaties, dares. Declarations: blessings, firings, baptisms, arrests, marrying, juridial speech acts such as sentencings, declaring a mistrial, declaring s.o.out of order, etc. Expressives: Speech acts that make assessments of psychological states or attitudes: greetings, apologies, congratulations, condolences, thanksgivings...

High involvement style

An active, fast-paced, overlapping way of taking part in conversation.

Speech event

An activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. It contains a central speech act that may include other utterances leading up to and subsequently reacting to that central action. Example of a speech event: Him: Oh, Mary, I'm glad you're here. Her: What's up? Him: I can't get my computer to work. Her: Is it broken? Him: I don't think so. Her: What's it doing? Him: I don't know. I'm useless with computers. Her: What kind is it? Him: It's Mac. Do you use them? Her: Yeah. Him: Do you have a minute? Her: Sure. Him: Oh, great. The above conversation may be called a 'requesting' speech event without a central speech act of request. The analysis of speech events is clearly another way of studying how more gets communicated than is said.

General conditions

Belong to the category of felicity conditions. Preconditions on performing a speech act, e.g. the participants can understand the language being used and they are not role-acting or being nonsensical. General conditions: It refers to all that is needed for performing a successful communicative act, for example that both speaker and hearer speak the same language. Content conditions: It has to do with certain conditions we expect to receive in a message taking into account the context (for example for a promise we expect a sentence in future.)

Conventional implicature

An additional unstated meaning associated with the use of a specific word (e.g. but, yet, even). It doesn't depend on context for its interpretation. ‑ isn't based on the cooperative principle or the maxims ‑ doesn't have to occur in conversation ‑ doesn't depend on special contexts for its interpretation Speakers convey their conventional implicatures by means of linguistic conventions. Consider the example of a speaker saying, "He is an Englishman; he is, therefore, brave." According to Grice, the speaker has only literally said that he [the person referred to] is an Englishman and that he is brave. The speaker has conventionally implicated that his bravery is a consequence of his Englishness by means of the conventional meaning of 'therefore'. An additional unstated meaning that has to be assumed in order to maintain the co-operative principle and the maxims. It is connected with the fact that speakers mean more than what they actually say. It depends on context for its interpretation.

Implicature

An additional unstated meaning of an utterance. An implicature is something the speaker suggests or implies with an utterance, even though it is not literally expressed. Implicatures can aid in communicating more efficiently than by explicitly saying everything we want to communicate. Conversational implicature - an indirect or implicit speech act: what is meant by a speaker's utterance that is not part of what is explicitly said. Scalar implicatures - A scalar implicature is a quantity implicature based on the use of an informationally weak term in an implicational scale. (all, most, many, some, few, always, often, sometimes) In the utterance "some of the boys went to the party", the word some implicates "not all of the boys went to the party." Generalized conversational implicature - when no special background knowledge of the context of utterance is required to make the necessary inferences - "an X" not "speaker's X" Particularized conversational implicature A particularized implicature is a conversational implicature that is derivable only in a specific context. (when some locally recognized inferences are required to work out the conveyed meanings) Q: Hey, coming to the wild party tonight? A: My parents are visiting. Conventional implicature - Speakers convey their conventional implicatures by means of linguistic conventions. Consider the example of a speaker saying, "He is an Englishman; he is, therefore, brave." Mary suggested black, but I chose white. p & q (+>p is in contrast to q)

Particularized conversational implicature

An additional unstated meaning that depends on special or local knowledge. A particularized implicature is a conversational implicature that is derivable only in a specific context. (when some locally recognized inferences are required to work out the conveyed meanings) Q: Hey, coming to the wild party tonight? A: My parents are visiting. Leila: Whoa! Has your boss gone crazy? Mary: Let's go get some coffee.

Generalized conversational implicature

An additional unstated meaning that does not depend on special or local knowledge. Expressions with the form "an X" usually imply that "X" is not closely related to the speaker or subject, as in the following expression: John walked into a house yesterday and saw a tortoise. This expression implies that the house is not John's house.

Tautology

An apparently meaningless expression in which one word is defined as itself. Tautology is a statement which repeats an idea, using near-synonymous morphemes, words or phrases, "saying the same thing twice". "I want to live while I am alive" "Only the lucky ones get lucky." Tautology and pleonasm are not consistently differentiated in literature. Like pleonasm (redundancy - a free gift, black darkness, burning fire) , tautology is often considered a fault of style when unintentional. Intentional repetition may emphasize a thought or help the listener or reader understand a point. Sometimes logical tautologies like "Boys will be boys" are conflated with language tautologies but a rhetorical tautology is not inherently true.

Positive politeness strategy

An appeal to solidarity with another. Positive politeness strategies are intended to avoid giving offense by highlighting friendliness. These strategies include juxtaposing criticism with compliments, establishing common ground, and using jokes, nicknames, honorifics, tag questions, special discourse markers (please), and in-group jargon and slang.

Potential presupposition

An assumption typically associated with the use of a certain linguistic form. Presuppositions are associated with the use of a large number of words, phrases, and structures. These linguistic forms are considered as indicators of potential presuppositions, which can only become actual presuppositions in contexts with speakers. There are several types of potential presuppositions: Existential - the X - the X exists Factive - I regret leaving. - I left. Lexical - He managed to escape. - He tried to escape. Structural - When did she die? - She died. Non-felicity conditions - He pretended to be happy. He wasn't happy. Counterfactual - If I weren't ill... - I am ill.

Negative politeness strategy

An attempt to demonstrate awareness of another's right not to be imposed on. Negative politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearer's negative face and emphasize avoidance of imposition on the hearer. By attempting to avoid imposition from the speaker, the risk of face-threat to the hearer is reduced. These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposing on the listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than in bald on record strategies and positive politeness strategies. Would you know where Oxford Street is? Could you please pass the rice? You couldn't find your way to lending me a thousand dollars, could you? I hope offense will not be taken.

Negative politeness

An attempt to demonstrate awareness of another's right not to be imposed on. Negative political strategies are intended to avoid giving offense by showing deference. These strategies include questioning, hedging, and presenting disagreements as opinions. Negative politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearer's negative face and emphasize avoidance of imposition on the hearer. By attempting to avoid imposition from the speaker, the risk of face-threat to the hearer is reduced. These strategies presume that the speaker will be imposing on the listener and there is a higher potential for awkwardness or embarrassment than in bald on record strategies and positive politeness strategies. Would you know where Oxford Street is? Could you please pass the rice? You couldn't find your way to lending me a thousand dollars, could you? I hope offense will not be taken.

Solidarity strategy

An emphasis on the closeness of speaker and addressee. Involves personal information, first names, nicknames etc . We, let's, dialect, nicknames.

Face threatening act

An utterance or action which threatens a person's public self-image. FTAs threatening the speaker's self-image include apologies, acceptance of a compliment, breakdown of physical/emotional control, self-humiliation, confession Criticism: "I think your report was not concise enough." - The hearer's positive face is threatened because s/he is blamed for having done sth. badly, i.e. his/her self-image is negatively evaluated. Expression of emotions: "You're feeling sad because of your ex-boyfriend, aren't you?" -The speaker addresses a topic which involves a state of emotional weakness on the part of the hearer, i.e. the speaker does not care about the 'public self-image' of the hearer, thus threatening his/her face.

Pragmatic accent

Aspects of talk that indicate what is assumed to be communicated without being said.

Distal

Away from the speaker, connected with deictic expressions such as that and there. In contrast with proximal terms (e.g. this, here, now) near speaker. Distal terms (e.g. that, there, then) are away from speaker.

Hedges

Cautious notes expressed about how an utterance is to be taken, used when giving some information. Hedges allow speakers and writers to signal caution, or probability, versus full certainty. Hedges can also allow speakers and writers to introduce or eliminate ambiguity in meaning. They indicate that the speakers are not only aware of the maxims, but also want to show that they are trying to observe them. 1. So, to cut a long story short, we grabbed our stuff and ran. 2. As far as I know, they're married. 3. I don't know if this is important, but some of the files are missing. 4. I'm not sure if this makes sense, but the car had no lights. Some more examples: Not to change the subject, but is this related to the subject? I won't bore you with all the details, but it was an exciting trip. I may be mistaken, but I thought I saw a wedding ring on her finger. This may be a bit confused, but I remember being in a car.

Metalinguistic function

Concentrates on the code, i.e. on the language itself - when language is used to talk about language itself (code), the communication is metalinguistic. A good example would be: "What are you saying? Are you speaking in English or what?". The same occurs when language is used to explain the meaning of a word.

Poetic function

Concentrates on the structure of the message to be conveyed. The poetic function: focuses on "the message for its own sake" (the code itself, and how it is used) and is the operative function in poetry as well as slogans. It is dominant in literature.

Pragmatic connection

Conventional association between a person's name and a kind of object within a socioculturally defined community. i.e: "Can I borrow your Shakespeare?" "Picasso's on the far wall" Given the context, the intended and inferred referent is not a person but probably a book.

Person deixis

Definition: Person deixis is deictic reference to the participant role of a referent, such as the speaker the addressee, and referents which are neither speaker nor addressee. Person deixis is commonly expressed by the following kinds of constituents: Pronouns Possessive affixes of nouns Agreement affixes of verbs Kinds: First Person Deixis Second Person Deixis Third Person Deixis

Perlocutionary effect

Depending on circumstances, we produce an utterance on the assumptin that the hearer will recognize the effect we intended. This effect is generally known as perlocutionary effect.

Mitigating device

Expression used to soften an imposition, e.g. please.

Honorific

Expression which marks that the addressee is of higher status. An honorific is a title that conveys esteem, courtesy, or respect for position or rank when used in addressing or referring to a person. Would your majesty like some tea? (sarcasm) The Reverend is a kind and virtuous man.

Deictic expressions

Expressions used for 'pointing' via language (indexicals) A deictic expression or deixis is a word or phrase (such as this, that, these, those, now, then, here) that points to the time, place, or situation in which a speaker is speaking. Deixis is expressed in English by way of personal pronouns, demonstratives, adverbs, and tense. Have you seen that cute puppy? She used to be much kinder then.

Deference strategy

Feature of interactive talk emphasizing negative politeness, the non-personal, and freedom from imposition. Impersonal 'formal politeness', expressions referring to neither the speaker, nor the listener, emphasis on the speaker's and the hearer's independence There is a poetry reading in a cafe downtown this evening, If you could make it it would be great.

Background entailment

Foreground entailment Rover chased three squirrels. Background entailments a. Something chased three squirrels. b. Rover did something to three squirrels. c. Rover chased three of something. d. Something happened. The speaker communicates, typically by stress, which entailment is assumed to be in the foreground, or more important for interpreting intended meaning. a. Rover chased THREE squirrels. b. ROVER chased three squirrels.

Social deixis

Forms used to indicate relative social status. Social deixis marks "social relationships in linguistic expressions with reference to the social status or role of participants in the speech event". Some linguistics therefore see social deixis as a part of person deixis. The way we organize our utterances is influenced by our and our addressee´s social rank and our relationship to the other participants of the speech event. In many languages this fact is reflected in the pronominal system which distinguishes between a formal and an informal address in the second personal pronoun. Such a differentiation is called T/V distinction inspired by the French forms tu et vous (Grundy 2000, 26; Mey 2001, 274; Yule 1996, 10). As is generally known the contemporary English does not follow such a distinction though the Early Modern English did.

Temporal deixis

Forms used to point to location in time. Temporal indexicals are expressed in time adverbials like "now, then, soon, lately, recently, ago, today, tomorrow, yesterday" and in "complex time adverbials like last Monday, next year, or this afternoon consisting of a deictic modifier and a non-deictic measure word". Of course we also measure time in non-deictic systems like "calendar time and clock time" (Yule 1996, 14) but these measurements are learned much later than the deictic ones.

Spatial deixis

Forms used to point to location. Spatial deixis is expressed not only by adverbs "here/there" but also in place adverbials (e.g. left, behind, etc.) which indicate the speaker´s location during the speech event. Can create distance or closeness.

Domain

Has to do with how language varies according to the activity in which it plays a part. Domain Dominant function Subordinate functions Journalism referential expressive, conative Advertising conative referential, poetic Religion expressive conative, poetic Law referential metalinguistic, conative Literature poetic expressive, referential Conversation phatic referential, expressive

Mode

Has to do with the medium in which the language is transmitted, thus it concerns the (spoken x written language). As a continuum from 'typical' speech to 'typical' writing 'Typical' speech Conversation in a pub Seminar Telephone conversation Personal letter Job interview Radio discussion Television advertisement Lecture Sermon Script of a play Television news Newspaper Business letter Scientific book 'Typical' writing

Tenor

Has to do with the relationship between the speaker and the addressees, influencing the degree of formality of expression.

Overlap

More than one speaker talking at the same time in conversation

Illocutionary act

Illicutionary act - the delivery of a particular speech act When we form an utterance, we have some kind of function in our mind. This dimension is considered to be an illocutionary act. An illocutionary act is a complete speech act, made in a typical utterance.

Content conditions

In order to count as a particular type of speech act, an utterance must contain certain features, e.g. a promise must be about a future event, and must be a future act of the speaker. Conventionality of procedure: the procedure (e.g. an oath) follows its conventional form. Appropriate participants and circumstances: the participants are able to perform a felicitous speech act under the circumstances (e.g. a judge can sentence a criminal in court, but not on the street) Complete execution: the speaker completes the speech act without errors or interruptions

Essential condition

In performing a speech act, a requirement that the utterance commits the speaker to the act performed. For example, by uttering a promise, the speaker intends to create an obligation to carry out the action as promised

Clause as a basic syntactic unit

In spontaneous speech, sentences are often difficult to delimit: they may simply be unfinished, because the knowledge of the addressee makes completion unnecessary, or they may not be discernable as units at all. Therefore, the clause may be a more appropriate unit for analysing speech than the sentence. In its simplest form, a clause in grammar is a subject plus a verb. The subject is the entity "doing" the action of the sentence and the verb is the action that subject completes. A clause creates a complete thought (an idea or a statement that can stand alone).

Illocutionary force indicating device

Indication in the speaker's utterance of the communicative force of that utterance. "There are different devices used to indicate how an illocutionary force must be interpreted. For example, 'Open the door' and 'Could you open the door' have the same propositional content (open the door), but they represent different illocutionary acts—an order and a request respectively. These devices that aid the hearer in identifying the illocutionary force of the utterance are referred to as the illocutionary force indicating devices

Register (style)

Is language variation according to its use. It can be subdivided into three categories of language use, each of which affects the language variety. They are tenor (the participants in a discourse, their relationships to each other, and their purposes), mode (written, spoken), and domain (has to do with how language varies according to the activity in which it plays a part).

Referential function

Is one of the three basic language functions, the others being conative and expressive. It means conveying some information to the addressee. Corresponds to the factor of Context and describes a situation, object or mental state. The descriptive statements of the referential function can consist of both definite descriptions and deictic words, e.g. "The autumn leaves have all fallen now." Similarly, the referential function is associated with an element whose true value is under questioning especially when the truth value is identical in both the real and assumptive universe.

Conative function

Is one of the three basic language functions, the others being referential and expressive. It means that the language is used to persuade somebody to do something. A function of language or, more generally, communication, that is focused on, and concerned with influencing the behaviour of, the addressee, and thus concerned with persuasion. Jessica, come in for dinner! Open the window, please.

Simultaneous speech

More than one speaker talking at the same time in conversation.

Observing a maxim

It means following one or all of the maxims which are part of the co-operative principle.

Flouting a maxim

It means not following one or all of the maxims which are part of the co-operative principle. Quantity - giving more or less information than required by the situation Relation - making a response or observation which is very obviously irrelevant to the topic in hand Quality - saying something which is blatantly untrue or for which the speaker lacks adequate evidence Manner - be clear and brief

Indexicals

Like deictic expressions, forms used for 'pointing' via language.

False start

Means that the sentence is broken off mid-way as a result of a change of mind. These phenomena are edited out in written language, and consequently appear in spoken language.

Proximal

Near the speaker, connected with deictic expressions such as this and here.

Ordered entailments

On any occasion, when producing an utterance the speaker indicates how possible entailments are to be ordered. The speaker communicates, typically by stress or some grammatical structure, e.g. it-cleft construction, which entailment is assumed to be in the foreground, i.e. more important for interpreting intended meaning than any other possible entailments. It was ROVER that chased the squirrels. It wasn't ME who took your money.

Maxim

One of the four sub-principles of the co-operative principle. Quantity - Make your contribution as informative as is required. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. Quality - Try to make your contribution one that is true. Do not say what you believe to be false. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. Relation - be relevant Manner - Be perspicuous. Avoid obscurity of expression. Avoid ambiguity. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). Be orderly.

Quantity

One of the maxims, in which the speaker has to be neither more nor less informative than is necessary.

Relation

One of the maxims, in which the speaker has to be relevant.

Quality

One of the maxims, in which the speaker has to be truthful.

Manner

One of the maxims, in which the speaker is to be clear, brief, and orderly. To fulfil this maxim we should be perspicuous (clear and easily understood) 1. Avoid obscurity of expression. 2. Avoid ambiguity. 3. Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity). 4. Be orderly. Example: Man: Does your dog bite? Woman: No. (The man reaches down to pet the dog. The dog bites the man's hand.) Man: Ouch! Hey! You said your dog doesn't bite. Woman: He doesn't. But that's not my dog.

Expressive function

One of the three basic language functions, the others being referential and conative. It means that the language is used to express the speaker's feelings. One of the functions of a linguistic sign, consisting in the ability to express the speaker's emotional state and his subjective attitude toward designated objects and phenomena of reality. Expression can be conveyed through the use of various linguistic elements.

Conversational style

Particular way of participating in conversation. Many of the features which characterize the turn-taking system of converstation are invested with meaning by their users. High involvement style - participation in a conversation is active, the speaking rate is fast, with almost no pauses between turns and with some overlap or even completion of the other's turn. High considerateness style - slower rate, longer pauses between turns, no overlaps to avoid interruption or completion - non-interrupting and non-imposing

Regularity

People tend to behave in fairly regular ways when it comes to using a language. Some of the regularity comes from the fact that people are members of social groups and follow general patterns of behavior expected within the group. Most people within a linguistic community have similar basic experiences of the world and share a lot of non linguistic knowledge. Compare the following examples: 1. I found an old bicycle lying on the ground. The chain was rusted and the tires were flat. 2. I found an old bicycle. A bicycle has a chain. The chain was rusted. A bicycle also has tires. The tires were flat.

Deixis

Pointing' via language, using a deictic expression. deictic expressions (indexicals) are any linguistic forms used to accomplish this 'pointing' deixis: a/ person deixis (honorifics, social deixis, T/V distinction) b/ spatial deixis (deictic projection, psychological distance) c/ temporal deixis honorifics - expressions which indicate higher status social deixis - forms used to indicate relative social status (first, name, last name, combination, titles, ranks) T/V distiction - French forms 'tu/vous', German 'du/Sie', Spanish 'tú/Usted' Spatial - There are only 2 adverbs here and there for the basic distinction in present E. Location from the speaker's perspective can be fixed mentally as well as physically. Temporal - In temporal deixis, distal terms can be used to communicate not only distance from current time, but also distance from current reality or facts.

Cultural schemata

Pre-existing knowledge structures based on experience in a particular culture. Cultural schema theory holds that human beings employ classification to understand members of other cultures, and add new data to previously available categories. Cultural schemas for social interaction are cognitive structures that contain knowledge for face-to-face interactions in a person's cultural environment. Schemas are generalized collections of knowledge of past experiences that are organized into related knowledge groups; they guide our behaviours in familiar situations. Cultural schemas do not differ from other schemas, except that they are shared by certain cultural groups rather than individuals

Constancy under negation

Quality of the presupposition of a statement remaining true when the statement is negated. A way to prove that something is a presupposition of a particular sentence. If a negative version of a sentence has the same presupposition, then the presupposition holds Examples: I am sorry you failed the test (presup = you failed the test) I am not sorry you failed the test (negative) (Presup = you failed the test)

Pro-forms

Referring expressions, mostly pronouns, used for substitution. Used for anaphoric reference. A pro-form is a type of function word or expression that stands in for (expresses the same content as) another word, phrase, clause or sentence where the meaning is recoverable from the context. Peel five apples. Slice them and cook them in sugar and cinnamon. My grandmother started walking five miles a day when she was sixty. She's 97 now, and we don't know where the hell she is.

Sincerity conditions

Requirements on the genuine intentions of a speaker in order for an utterance to count as a particular speech act. More on conditions: felicity conditions - general conditions (e.g. speakers understand the language) content conditions (e.g. a promise is a future act of the speaker) preparatory conditions (e.g. with a promise, the event will not happen by itself and it will have a beneficial effect) sincerity conditions (e.g. for a promise, the speaker genuinely intends to carry out the future action) essential conditions (e.g. the utterance changes the speaker's state from non-obligation to obligation)

Normal non-fluency

Results from the unprepared nature of speech and refers to phenomena such as hesitation, unintended repetitions, false starts, fillers, grammatical blends and unfinished sentences. Not to be found in written text.

Politeness

Showing awareness of another person's public self-image. Politeness comprises linguistic and non-linguistic behavior through which people indicate that they take others' feelings of how they should be treated into account.

Positive politeness

Showing solidarity with another. Positive politeness means communication/ community, solidarity, familiarity, symmetry/ balance/ the horizontal feature of communication,"a highly sociable environment".

Entailment

Something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentences, not speakers, have entailments. In pragmatics (linguistics), entailment is the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one (A) requires the truth of the other (B). For example, the sentence (A) The president was assassinated entails (B) The president is dead. A relationship between two sentences such that if the first is true, the second must also be true, as in "Her son drives her to work every day." and "Her son knows how to drive."

Presupposition

Something that the speaker assumes to be the case prior to producing an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions. An implicit assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in discourse. Examples of presuppositions include: Jane no longer writes fiction. Presupposition: Jane once wrote fiction. Have you stopped eating meat? Presupposition: you had once eaten meat.

Psychological distance

Speaker's marking of how close or distant something is perceived to be. The truly pragmatic basis of spatial deixis is actually psychological distance (I don't like that).

Deictic projection

Speakers act as if they are somewhere else. Speakers are able to project themselves into other locations prior to actually being in those locations (I'll come later.). In some contexts, spatial deixis is used metaphorically rather than physically, i.e. the speaker is not speaking as the deictic centre. I am coming home now. (on the phone, calling from work, still doing something) I am on my way now. (speaking on the phone, still in my pyjamas at home)

Social closeness

Speakers are socially close if they e.g. know each other well, if they are of the same social status, age, sex, etc.

Social distance

Speakers are socially distant if they are e.g. complete strangers, or if they are of different social status, age, sex, etc.

Preparatory conditions

Specific requirements prior to an utterance in order for it to count as a particular speech act, e.g. when we promise to do something, the event will not happen by itself and it will have a beneficial effect. Requires that the speech act is embedded in a context that is conventionally recognized, thus, just by uttering a promise, the event will not happen by itself.

Direct speech act

Speech act where a direct relationship exists between the structure and communicative function of an utterance, e.g. using an interrogative form to ask a question. Sentence function = Sentence type declarative - statement (Mary has blue eyes.) interrogative - question (Do you want some sugar in your coffee?) imperative - command/request (Do your homework!)

Indirect speech act

Speech act where an indirect relationship exists between the structure and communicative function of an utterance, e.g. the use of an interrogative not to ask a question, but to make a request. Do you have to stand in front of the TV? You're standing in front of the TV. You'd make a better door than a window. The most common types of indirect speech acts in English have the form of an interrogative, but are understood as requests, as in: Could you pass the salt? Would you open the window? Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness in English than direct speech acts.

Ellipsis

The absence of a word or words from a structural slot. The omission from a clause of one or more words that are nevertheless understood in the context of the remaining elements. John can play the guitar, and Mary (can play) the violin. Fred took a picture of you, and Susan (took a picture) of me. Sam did it, Fred didn't (do it)

Zero anaphora

The absence of an expression in a structural slot where one is assumed, as a way of maintaining reference. Zero anaphora is the use of a gap, in a phrase or clause, that has an anaphoric function similar to a pro-form. It is often described as "referring back" to an expression that supplies the information necessary for interpreting the gap Peel the potatoes. Cook ___ for ten minutes.

Attributable silence

The absence of talk when a speaker is given the right to speak in conversation. So what do you think about this?

Felicity conditions

The appropriate conditions for a speech act to be recognized as intended. Certain expected or appropriate circumstances for the performance of the speech act to be recognized as intended. I sentence you to six months in prison. I now pronounce you husband and wife. Not appropriate if the speaker is not e.g. a judge in a courtroom In using speech acts one has to fulfill certain conditions regarding the act that is being uttered. For example, when one is making a promise to another person, he/she has to fulfill the condition of that the hearer or the promisee to have a need something to be promised, and the speaker or the promiser will have the intention to fulfill that need; therefore the act of promising will be valid to be regarded as felicitous condition. In definition felicity condition is a state when the utterances made has met the appropriate conditions such as, appropriate context, conventional existence, authority, and also speaker's sincerity.

Counterfactual presupposition

The assumption that certain information is the opposite of true. It is the assumption that what is presupposed is not only untrue, but is the opposite of what is true, or contrary to facts. For instance, some conditional structures, generally called, counterfactual conditionals, presuppose that the information, in the if-clauses, is not true at the time of utterance. If you were my daughter, I would not allow you to do this. I were rich I would by a diamond necklace.

Non-factive presupposition

The assumption that certain information, as presented, is not true. Non-factive presupposition is one that is assumed not to be true. Verbs like 'dream', 'imagine', and 'pretend' are used with the presupposition that what follows is not true.

Factive presupposition

The assumption that information stated after certain words, e.g. know, regret, is true. It is the assumption that something is true due to the presence of some verbs such as "know" and "realize" and of phrases involving glad, for example. Thus, when a speaker says that she didn't realize someone was ill, we can presuppose that someone is ill.

Structural presupposition

The assumption that part of a structure contains information being treated as already known. The listener perceives that the information presented id necessarily true, or intended as true by the speaker - wh-question constructions. When did she travel to the USA? (she did travel) Where did you buy the book? (you did buy the book)

Existential presupposition

The assumption that someone or something, identified by the use of a noun phrase, does exist. It is the assumption of the existence of the entities named by the speaker. For example, when a speaker says "Tom's car is new", we can presuppose that Tom exists and that he has a car.

Lexical presupposition

The assumption that, in using one word, the speaker can act as if another meaning (word) will be understood It is the presupposition that use of one word with is asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the presupposition that another (non; asserted) meaning is understood. Other examples involving the lexical presupposition are, 'stop', 'start', 'again'. For example: She stopped smoking (>> he used to smoke) They start complaining (>> they weren't complaining before) You're late again (>> you are late before)

Locutionary act

The basic act of uttering a meaningful linguistic form. The act of producing a meaningful linguistic expression. In speech-act theory, a locutionary act is the act of making a meaningful utterance, a stretch of spoken language that is preceded by silence and followed by silence or a change of speaker—also known as a locution or an utterance act.

Turn-taking

The change of speaker during conversation.

Floor

The current right to speak in a conversation.

Floor-holding device

The device which the current speaker can use to hold the floor in order to finish what they want to communicate. There are three points I'd like to make first ... There's more than one way to do this one example would be ... Did you hear about Cindy's new car? she got it in ...

First part

The first utterance in an adjacency pair - provokes a responding utterance FIRST PART SECOND PART 3. A: What's up? B: Nothing much. A: How's it going? B: Jus' hangin' in there. A: How are things? B: The usual. A: How ya doin'? B: Can't complain. 4. A: What time is it? B: About eight thirty. A: Thanks. B: You're welcome. A: Could you help me with this? B: Sure.

Antecedent

The initial expression used to identify someone or something for which anaphor is used later in the text. Willy said he liked chocolate. She arrived in the morning, when everyone was home.

Co-text

The linguistic environment in which a word is used. It is part of context. The linguistic environment of a word. Context - the non-verbal environment in which a word is used. Put another way, the surrounding situation in which a word is used is its context whereas the surrounding words is its co-text, the most obvious manifestation of which is collocations

Inference

The listener's use of additional knowledge to make sense of what is not explicit in an utterance. An inference is an idea or conclusion that's drawn from evidence and reasoning. An inference is an educated guess. We learn about some things by experiencing them first-hand, but we gain other knowledge by inference — the process of inferring things based on what is already known.

Foreground entailment

The main logical consequence of an utterance, emphasized by the speaker.

Positive face

The need to be connected, to belong to a group. Positive face refers to one's self-esteem. Speakers can do this by using positive politeness.

Negative face

The need to be independent, not imposed on by others. Positive face refers to one's self-esteem, while negative face refers to one's freedom to act. These two aspects of face are the basic wants in any social interaction; during any social interaction, cooperation is needed amongst the participants to maintain each other's face.

Turn

The opportunity to speak at some point during a conversation.

Context

The physical environment in which a word is used. Context refers to those objects or entities which surround a focal event, in these disciplines typically a communicative event, of some kind. Context is "a frame that surrounds the event and provides resources for its appropriate interpretation"

Projection problem

The problem of the presupposition of a simple structure not surviving when being part of a more complex structure. If you do various things to a clause, like negate it, question it, or say it's unlikely, the claim of the clause is no longer affirmed. But the presupposition still remains intact. So I can negate The current king of France is bald, and say that The current king of France is not bald at all.

Second part

The second part or response utterance in an adjacency pair

Illocutionary force

The speaker's intention behind the speech act uttered. The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance, i.e. what it 'counts as', which is generally known as the illocutionary force of an utterance. In speech-act theory, illocutionary force refers to a speaker's intention in delivering an utterance or to the kind of illocutionary act the speaker is performing. Also known as an illocutionary function or illocutionary point. By using illocutionary force, the speaker: asserts suggests demands promises, or vows.

Deictic centre

The speaker's location and time. A deictic center is a reference point in relation to which a deictic expression is to be interpreted. The deictic center is most typically the present time, location, participant role, and so forth of the speaker. Proximal terms are interpreted in terms of the speaker's location, i.e. deictic centre. - this, here, now Example: I'm over here now.

Preferred

The structurally expected next utterance used in a response.

Dispreferred act

The structurally unexpected next utterance as a response, e.g. an invitation is normally followed by an acceptance, so a refusal is a dispreferred act. (disagree, refuse, decline) Note: Adjacency pairs represent social actions. Not all social actions are equal when they occur as second parts of some pairs, some are preferred and some are dispreferred. For example, an acceptance is structurally more likely than a refusal. This structural likelihood is called preference. Preference structure divides second parts into preferred (the structurally expected next acts) and dispreferred (the structurally unexpected next acts). In any adjacency pair, silence in the second part is always an indication of a dispreferred response. How to do a dispreferred second Examples 1. delay/hesitate pause; er; em; ah, 2. preface well; oh 3. express doubt I'm not sure; I don't know 4. token Yes that's great; I'd love to 5. apology I'm sorry; what a pity 6. mention obligation I must do X; I'm expected in Y 7. appeal for understanding you see; you know 8. make it non personal everybody else; out there 9. give an account too much work; no time left 10. use mitigators really; mostly; sort of; kinda 11. hedge the negative I guess not; not possible

Cross-cultural pragmatics

The study of differences in expectations based on cultural schemata among different communities regarding how meaning is constructed. Individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and culture - both productively and when attempting to speak the language and to act in the culture and receptively when attempting to grasp and understand the language and culture as practiced by natives. A conversation happened between a Chinese girl and an Aussie girl. A: I love your dress, it is amazing! C: No, no, it is only an ordinary dress. Then the conversation fell into ice. It is normal for westerner especially English speaker to say "Thank you" when their dress are appreciated by others. But in this case, the Chinese girl used her chi-English thinking and directly translated her native language thinking into English to say no. The Aussie girl may think her aesthetic taste being laughed. It is ironic that it is the culture difference causes the misunderstanding. Another example happened in students from Asian countries especially Japan, Korea and China. Teachers from western culture background may find that it is difficult to let those students to call their given name directly without using the title "Mr, MS or Professor". In these countries teachers and elders are respected and their authority must not be challenged.

Interlanguage pragmatics

The study of how non-native speakers communicate in a second language. The study of the communicative behaviour of non native speakers attempting to communicate in their second language.

Semantics

The study of how words literally connect to things, or more generally, the investigation of meaning in language. The study of the relationships between linguistic forms and entities in the world. Semantics is the study of the relationship between words and how we draw meaning from those words. People can absolutely interpret words differently and draw different meanings from them. Some examples of semantics will help you see the many meanings of English words. Semantics involves the deconstruction of words, signals, and sentence structure. It influences our reading comprehension as well as our comprehension of other people's words in everyday conversation. Semantics play a large part in our daily communication, understanding, and language learning without us even realizing it. For example, in everyday use, a child might make use of semantics to understand a mom's directive to "do your chores" as, "do your chores whenever you feel like it." However, the mother was probably saying, "do your chores right now."

Discourse analysis

The study of language use with reference to the social and psychological factors that influence communication. Focuses on the spoken or written record of the process by which language is used in some context to express intention. Discourse analysis is a research method for studying written or spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real life situations.¨ When you do discourse analysis, you might focus on: - The purposes and effects of different types of language - Cultural rules and conventions in communication - How values, beliefs and assumptions are communicated - How language use relates to its social, political and historical context

Pragmatics

The study of speaker meaning as distinct from word or sentence meaning. The study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social contexts and the ways people produce and comprehend meanings through language. The term pragmatics was coined in the 1930s by psychologist and philosopher Charles Morris. Pragmatics was developed as a subfield of linguistics in the 1970s.

Syntax

The study of the structures connecting linguistic forms. The study of the relationships between linguistic forms. Syntax is the grammar, structure, or order of the elements in a language statement. (Semantics is the meaning of these elements.) Usually, we think of syntax as "word order." However, syntax is also achieved in some languages such as Latin by inflectional case endings.

Cataphora

The use of a word, typically a pronoun, to introduce someone or something that is more fully identified later in the text. is the use of an expression or word that co-refers with a later, more specific, expression in the discourse. The preceding expression, whose meaning is determined or specified by the later expression, may be called a cataphor. Cataphora is a type of anaphora. Her friends complained about Catherine's behavior. A little boy, James, was the only one in the playground.

Anaphor

The use of a word, typically a pronoun, used to maintain reference to someone or something already mentioned. Anaphor is the use of an expression that depends specifically upon an antecedent expression and thus is contrasted with cataphora, which is the use of an expression that depends upon a postcedent expression. She was happy, and so was I. Susan's friends have been criticizing her for complaining.

Ideational function

The use of language as a means of giving structure to thought and experience. Halliday's term for a linguistic function referring to the content or idea expressed in an utterance. This is presented as one of three essential metafunctions reflected in all adult language usage (compare interpersonal function; textual function).

Interpersonal function

The use of language for maintaining social roles and taking part in social interaction. The interpersonal function refers to the grammatical choices that enable speakers to enact their complex and diverse interpersonal relations. A speaker not only talks about something, but is always talking to and with others.

Textual function

The use of language in the creation of well-formed text.

Exclusive we

The use of we that excludes the addressee. Exclusive "we" specifically excludes the addressee (that is, another word for "we" means "he/she/they and I, but not you"), regardless of who else may be involved.

Inclusive we

The use of we that includes both the speaker and the addressee.

Coherence

There is some familiarty and expected relationship when hearing an utterance. We tend to connect the meanings of utterances, even when those connections are not explicitly made. (I love my new car. - The hearer knows that the speaker bought a new car which makes the utterance coherent) The familiar and expected relationships in experience which we use to connect the meanings of utterances, even when those connections are not explicitly made.

Referential use (of referring expressions)

Using an expression to identify someone or something when the person or thing is assumed to be known. Referential use is the use that a speaker makes of a definite noun phrase when he uses the content of the noun phrase to identify an individual. The definite noun phrase in "The murderer of Smith is insane" is used referentially when the speaker intends to refer to a particular person which he knows to be the murderer of Smith.

Attributive use (of referring expressions)

Using an expression to identify someone or something without being committed to the existence of an actual person or thing. The definite noun phrase in "the person who won the lottery must be happy" is used attributively if the speaker does not intend to refer to a particular person which he knows to have won the lottery (that would be the referential use), but to the (possibly unknown) person who won the lottery, whoever that person may be.

Pre-request

Utterance before a request to check if a request can be made.

Pre-announcement

Utterance before an announcement to check if an announcement can be made. A preannouncement is a presequence for an announcement of news. It consists of a turn in which the announcing participant checks on the newsworthiness of the item, and may also consist of a turn in which the recipient allows or disallows the newsworthiness of the item before beginning a request-acceptance or question-answer sequence to elicit the announcement. Pre sequences (pre request, pre invitation, pre announcement) Her: Do you have a spare pen? Him: Here. (hands over a pen)

Pre-invitation

Utterance before an invitation to check if an invitation can be made. Him: What are you doing this Friday? (=pre invitation) Her: Hmm, nothing so far. (=go ahead) Him: Come over for dinner. (=invitation) Her: Oh, I'd like that. (=accept) Him: Are you doing anything later? (=pre invitation) Her: Oh, yeah. Busy, busy, busy. (=stop) Him: Oh, okay. (=stop)

Face saving act

Utterance or action which avoids a potential threat to a person's public self-image. Speaker says something to lessen a possible threat or to maintaining a good self image. The definition of face saving is something done to try to lessen embarrassment or to make one's self look better in a situation where a person is embarrassed or made to look bad. An example of face saving is saying "Oh I was going to break up with her anyway" after your girlfriend dumps you.

On record

Utterances directly addressed to another. If a person goes 'on record' when uttering an FTA, the intention is unambiguously expressed and therefore clear to all participants. If one goes on record, one can express the FTA baldly, i.e. in most concise way possible to utter sth. Example: "Please make coffee."

Off record

Utterances not directly addressed to another. If a person goes off record, there is more than one possible intention attributable to the speaker, i.e. he/she cannot be 'blamed' to have committed to a certain intention. Example: "I'm so tired. A cup of coffee would help."

Bald on record

Utterances, e.g. orders, directly addressed to another in which the illocutionary force is made explicit. A direct way of saying things, without any minimisation to the imposition, in a direct, clear, unambiguous and concise way, for example "Do X!" There are different kinds of bald on record usage in different circumstances. This is because the speaker can have different motives for her/his wants to do the FTA with minimum efficiency. The motives fall into two classes; one is where the face threat is not minimised and therefore ignored or irrelevant, and the other is where in doing the FTA baldly on record, the speaker minimizes face threats by implication. Move!

Backchannels/Backchannel signals

Vocal indications of attention when someone else is talking. They are produced by the current hearer to indicate to the current speaker to go on speaking. In linguistics, a backchannel during a conversation occurs when one participant is speaking and another participant interjects responses to the speaker. A backchannel response can be verbal, non-verbal, or both. Backchannel responses are often phatic expressions, primarily serving a social or meta-conversational purpose, such as signifying the listener's attention, understanding, or agreement, rather than conveying significant information. Examples include such expressions as "yeah", "uh-huh", "hmm", and "right".

Perlocutionary act

We do not simply create an utterance with a function without intending it to have an effect. This third dimension is labelled as perlocutionary act