Social and Personality Development Final Exam

The Family System The Coparenting System

Coparenting - To what extent do parents work together as a team in parenting? Three coparenting patterns 1. Cooperative - cohesive, consistent 2. Hostile - undermine each other 3. Imbalanced -- "gatekeeper" parent limits other parent's involvement

Amato & Cheadle (2008) Divorce Study

-Biological and adopted children in two-parent families and in divorced, single-parent families -Studied longitudinally, with cross-lagged correlational analysis -Question: What is the relationship between marital conflict/divorce and child behavior problems (mostly externalizing)? -A "genetically informed" study (yay) -Models compared: 1.Parent effects (traditional socialization model) 2.Passive genetic model (genes shared by parents and children are behind problem behavior) 3.Child effects model (c.f. evocative gene-environment correlation—child behavior contributes to marital conflict/divorce)

Amato & Cheadle Results?

-Children of divorce had more problems than children in two-parent families -Parent effects model supported: Effects of marital conflict and divorce on behavior problems in both biological and adoptive families -No passive genetic effects and no child effects on marital conflict in this study (though some find them)

School Size and Organization Big School; Small School nParticipation in extracurricular activities is linked to:

-Higher self-esteem, better school attendance, higher achievement motivation, less dropping out -Less delinquent behavior, substance use, pregnancy, depression, suicide

School Integration

-In 1954, Supreme Court mandated an end to segregated education (Brown v. Board of Education) -Desegregation was expected to improve African American students' self-esteem and achievement -Findings are mixed - some benefits -Desegregation was also expected to reduce prejudice, prepare children for a multiethnic society -Findings are more positive here, especially when different ethnic groups have equal status -But schools have resegregated in many areas: The percent of schools where more than 75% of children receive free or reduced price lunch and more than 75 percent are black or Hispanic climbed from 9% to 16% between 2001 and 2014.

The Family System The Sibling System Changes in Sib Relationships

-In adolescence, sibs become more alike, share more interests, and are less into grabbing parents' attention -Sibling rivalry and ambivalence decrease and intimacy between siblings typically increases with age

Single Parents

-In general, children in single-parent families do worse on developmental measures than children in two-parent families -If after separation or divorce, an emotional toll. -If never married, less family income. Grandparents can help

Concluding Thoughts on Policy

-It sure looks like we're failing "our kids," doesn't it? -The policy issues of poverty, child abuse, and child care are only part of the story -Other policy issues, such as education, juvenile justice, adoption, child custody, child health and safety, STIs, alcohol and drugs, are also important—and are being neglected

Poor Stage/Environment Fit in Middle School/Junior High (Eccles)

-Less closeness with teachers -Less individualized instruction (less optimal challenge) -More emphasis on grades, public evaluation, competition -More structure, less autonomy and choice

Gay & Lesbian Families

-Less traditional roles and division of labor -Face stigma & discrimination -Compared to other families: -Similar parenting styles -Similar child outcomes Moral: two parent figures (regardless of sexual orientation) better than one

Meta-analysis of parenting and adolescent self-control:Li et al. (2019)

-Li et al. (2019) meta-analysis of parenting and adolescent self-control -Concurrent r = .20 -Longitudinally, parenting predicting later self-control r = .157 -Longitudinally, adolescent self-control predicting later parenting r = .155! -High positive parenting + low negative parenting + strong parent-child relationship is the secret -Similar across cultures, ethnicities, age, gender

Volling (2017) Sibling Study

-Low-risk upper middle-class sample; trajectories of first-born behavior problems -An increase in aggression briefly for some but mainly same pre-birth levels of problem behavior -More resilience than disturbance - Predictors of problems? -Temperament: e.g., negative emotionality -Insecure attachment (esp. to mother) -Father: low parenting efficacy -Mother: depression -Family dynamics: interparental conflict, poor marital relationship, poor coparenting

ACE and outcome

-Lower social and emotional skills -Chronic depression -Adult alcoholism

Minimizing problems? with siblings

-Maintain quality time with older sib -Get father more involved -Involve older sib in care -Maintain good marital relationship (positive influence on sibling relationship)

Ray Rist (1970) Student Social Class and Teacher Expectations: The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in Ghetto Education. Harvard Educational Review: September 1970, 40 ( 3), pp. 411-451.

-Many studies have shown that academic achievement is highly correlated with social class. Few, however, have attempted to explain exactly how the school helps to reinforce the class structure of the society. In this article Dr. Rist reports the results of an observational study of one class of inner city children during their kindergarten, first- and second-grade years. He shows how the kindergarten teacher placed the children in reading groups which reflected the social class composition of the class, and how these groups persisted throughout the first several years of elementary school. The way in which the teacher behaved toward the different groups became an important influence on the children's achievement. Dr. Rist concludes by examining the relationship between the "caste" system of the classroom and the class system of the larger society. -Tigers, Cardinals, and Clowns

Positive Effects of TV: Prosocial TV

-Mister Rogers and his descendant, -Daniel Tiger -Unconditional positive regard -Prosocial values like helping, cooperating, sharing -Adored by 3-year-olds

The Family SystemThe Sibling System: What Do Sibs Contribute?

-More time interacting with siblings than with parents or anyone else -Opportunities to learn positive and negative social behavior -More emotionally intense than exchanges with other family members and friends

Dual-Career Families Are they different from single career families?

-Not much different from nonworking mothers -Reallocate their time and priorities, delegate some household work to others or do less, enroll children in preschool or after-school programs, and redefine parenting role -Fathers in families with employed mothers are more involved

Programs to Reverse Effects of Poverty Effects of Welfare Reform TANF

-Parents benefited from going to work and earning money - improved psychological well-being and less domestic violence -Children seemed to benefit from increases in family income TANF programs that provided income supplements to families had a more positive impact on children than programs that just mandated that parents get jobs -Intensive and expensive early childhood intervention programs had a larger impact than less intensive and expensive programs

Adolescent Transition to Autonomy

-Typically, close relationships with parents -Conflicts over minor issues at puberty -Change in balance of power -Development of autonomy -Authoritative parenting still best—but shift to more permissive style as autonomy grows

But there IS the dark side of peer relations

-Peer rejection -Peer neglect -Bullying -Enemies—mutual antipathies -Peer influence on antisocial behavior and adolescent problem behavior (substance use, early sex, delinquency)

Select Policy Areas

-Poverty -Child Abuse -Child Care

The Teachers' Impact Teacher Expectancies

-Pygmalion effect - Teachers' expectations that students will do well are realized ("bloomers") -Self-fulfilling prophecy - Positive or negative teacher expectations affect a student's behavior such that the expectations are fulfilled

Remarriage/Blended or Reconstituted Family

-Requires adjustment, especially if merge two sets of children -Children in stepfamilies have more emotional problems than children in intact families, at least for a while -Teens, especially girls, have a difficult time accepting parent's remarriage

Age Groupings in Schools Why negative consequences of a 7th grade/middle school transition?

-Schools are larger - alienation and anonymity -Students are less likely to become involved in school activities -Shift from a single classroom with one teacher to a variety of teachers and classes -Friendship networks are disrupted -Poor stage-environment fit: less autonomy and choice in middle school or jr. high at just the time adolescents want more >>>

Parent Influences on Academic Achievement

-Secure attachment -Authoritative parenting -Intellectually stimulating home environment -Support of success, limited criticism -Reasonable expectancies -Positive perceptions of child -Encouragement of growth mindset

Harvard Child Development Center: Three Principles to Improve Outcomes for Children and Families

-Support responsive relationships -Reduce sources of stress -Strengthen core life skills

The Teachers' Impact -Teacher expectancies contribute to differential success of minority and majority students, poor and wealthy students

-Teachers hold the highest expectations for Asian American students, lowest expectations for Latino and African American students -The performance of students in different ethnic groups mirrors expectations

Class Size and Organization

Advantages of Small Classes Teacher-child contacts are more frequent and personalized Children are better behaved, interact more with their peers, are less likely to be victimized

Programs to Reverse Effects of Poverty Input and Outcome: You Get What You Pay For

Begin early in life and continue over a long period of time Involve parents and children Focus on improving parent-child relationships and family support systems Involve community resources

Effects of Poverty (cont.)

...and show: -Low academic achievement (e.g., only 20% at or above national math, reading, science norms), dropping out -Poor attention/concentration and self-control -Atypical reactivity to stress -Inflammatory illnesses -Psychological distress--externalizing and internalizing problems -Poorer health and mental health later -More premature death in adulthood

Factors in Good Adjustment to Divorce?

1.Adequate financial support (vs. economic hardship) 2.Good parenting by custodial parent (vs. less warm, authoritative, and consistent) 3.Good parenting by noncustodial parent (vs. absent or poor parent) 4.Minimal marital conflict, good coparenting 5.Other social support 6.Minimum of other changes/stressors 7.Personal resources

Family Subsystems

1.Couple system 2.Parent-child system 3.Co-parenting system 4.Sibling system

How Do You Increase Peer Acceptance of Neglected and Rejected Kids?

1.Identify them 2.Coaching: observe model, practice, get feedback on & reinforcement for target social skills (applied social learning theory) 3.Social information-processing training (cf. Dodge) 4.Change classroom reinforcers/punishers—e.g.,train peers to ignore acting out, report bullying, reinforce prosocial behavior 5.Cooperative learning groups to encourage teamwork

Kim et al. (2013) on tiger parenting: Findings

1.Most are supportive, not tiger, parents 2.Supportive style leads to best outcomes 3.Second best is easygoing 4.Third best is tiger parenting; high academic pressure--but it isn't linked to either great achievement or poor adjustment 5.Worst is harsh parenting 6.Overall, Supportive (authoritative) parenting wins again!

Changing Family (since about 1950)

1.Postponement of marriage (women 26, men 28) 2.More unmarried parents (41% of births to unmarried women) 3.More single-parent families (27%) 4.Fewer children per family 5.More working mothers (60%+ of those with Cs under 6) 6.More divorce: 40% or more 7.More remarriage, reconstituted families 8.More gay and lesbian families 9.More children living in poverty—1 in 5 overall, more in minority groups 10.More multigenerational families/grandparents

ACE Test list

1.physical abuse 2.verbal abuse 3.sexual abuse 4.physical neglect 5.emotional neglect 6.a parent who's an alcoholic 7.a mother who's a victim of domestic violence 8.a family member in jail 9.a family member diagnosed with a mental illness 10.the disappearance of a parent through divorce, death or abandonment

Ray et al. (2017) Reading: Personality, Parents, Peers, and Delinquent Behavior

1216 male 1st time juvenile offenders, longitudinal over a year Callous-unemotional traits, parenting (warmth & monitoring), & peer delinquency to predict: Adolescent's delinquency CU traits > delinquent behavior (direct effect) CU traits > delinquent peers > delinquent behavior (indirect effect) Moderated by parenting: if parent warmth and supervision were high, no such indirect effect -Warmth without monitoring or monitoring without warmth not enough

Note on Child Sexual Abuse

27% of females, 5% of males Emotional problems, low self-esteem, lack of trust Sexualized behavior - acting out sexually to cope PTSD Especially bad if -prolonged -by a close relative -mother was not supportive

How Schools Contribute to Social Class Differences (Goudeau & Croizet Reading)

5th & 6th grade, working class (WC) & middle class (MC) Experiment 1, make performance differences visible by having students raise their hands when they have finished a problem Results? -This undermines the performance of the WC students compared to when performance differences are not visible -WC students are disadvantaged because they are less familiar than MC students with the "academic culture" (have less "cultural capital") -They aren't aware of this, come out poorly in unfair social comparisons, and therefore conclude they're dumber.

Kaiser Study Highlights (2010, so dated)

84% have internet access at home 71% have a TV in their bedroom Lots of multitasking with multiple media (30% of the time for adolescents) Use of media is increasing with time—except for reading (And good grief, this doesn't count cell phoning and text messaging!! -So maybe add to the 7 ½ hrs a day: ½ hour of phoning and 1 ½ hrs of texting High use was correlated with lower grades and lower happiness

Watching Television and Playing Video Games What They Watch

91% of prime-time network programs from 1973 through 1993 contained violence; little change since 70% of Saturday morning programs contained violence, especially cartoons More than 85% of video games have violent content Kids see nearly 14,000 sexual images or messages on TV in a year

Policy Issue 2: Child Abuse

About three quarters of a million cases of child abuse or neglect (all called child maltreatment) are substantiated in the United States annually: -about 530,000 neglected -about 120,000 physically abused -about 60,000 sexually abused -about 53,000 psychologically or emotionally abused -about 1600 died, esp. ages 0-3 Many cases go unreported. These numbers underestimate prevalence.

School Reform

Accountability No Child Left Behind (2002) said hold teachers accountable for student learning -Give tests to measure learning (Common Core curriculum and tests) -Reward teachers if students learn -Fire them or close schools if they can't improve student learning

Nesi & Prinstein (2015) READING on Social Media

Adolescents (N = 619 8th & 9th grades) Depressive symptoms at baseline and one year later Frequency of technology use, reassurance seeking, social comparison/feedback seeking "Technology-based social comparison and feedback seeking" is linked to increased depression symptoms -Especially for females -Especially for teens low in popularity -Social comparison for them may involve too many upward, not downward, comparisons to peers presenting overly positive images of self More negative social feedback too -Moral: Too much social comparison???

Types of Play

Age 1-2: First pretend-simple acts, solo Age 2-5: -Increased associative and cooperative play Parten's Types of Play (solitary, parallel, associative, cooperative) -More social pretend play Age 6+: Rule-based games By age 11-12: More understanding of rules (c.f. Piaget)

Luby et al. (2017) READING on ACEs

Age 3-6 (depressed or not) Neuroimaging and measure of emotional awareness at 7-12 General health & depression at 9-15 Focus on prefrontal cortex area, the IFG Results? -ACEs small IFG poor emot. awareness depression & poor health

Social Media Use:Pew Foundation: Teens, social media, & technology (2015)

Ages 13-17 92% online daily (24% almost constantly) Most with access to a smartphone Social media (most use more than one): -71% Facebook -52% Instagram -41% Snapchat -Lower %s for Twitter, Google+, and others Texting (send and receive about 30/day)

Rejected children

Aggressive-rejected (most) -And rejection > more externalizing, even controlling for previous externalizing, -partly because hostile attribution bias develops Withdrawn-rejected: -Internalize rejection (which aggravates rejection!) -Low self-esteem, loneliness, internalizing problems Rejected status sticks the most across grades (reputational bias)

Child Abuser Profile

All kinds of people, but: Young, single, poor, isolated unemployed mother Low self-esteem, under stress, substance abuse problems Unrealistic expectations of children Cycle of abuse: 30% of abused children become abusers Abused by partner Few with diagnosable psych disorder

Example: The Stress of Racism

American Academy of Pediatrics 2019 policy statement warning that racism can have negative long-term effects on children's health. Examples: -Lower birth weight in babies born to African American mothers who experience discrimination than in those who do not -Increase in harassment of Arab Americans after 9/11 linked to increased prematurity and LBW births among Arab-American women -Increase in prematurity and LBW among Latina mothers after an immigration raid on a meat-processing plant in Iowa in 2008 -Increase in premature births among Latina women following Trump's election -Increased depression, obesity, illness among children exposed to racism Mechanism? Racism is linked to chronically high stress hormone levels, inflammation, and chronic disease ...Not to mention mental health problems

Electronic Media and Children's Social LivesDo Children Understand What They See?

As children get older and their cognitive skills increase... -Ability to distinguish fantasy from reality improves -Understanding of cause-and-effect relations improves Helping young children understand that what they see on TV is not reality can help reduce the harmful effects of viewing...

Child Outcomes associated with Parenting Styles: Take one

Authoritative parents Well-adjusted, responsible, achieving Authoritarian parents Moody, unhappy, aimless, conforming Permissive parents Low self-control, noncompliant Neglectful/uninvolved parents Impulsive, aggressive, antisocial

Mother, Father, plus Infant

Baby changes couple system: Shift toward traditional division of labor/gender roles and lower marital satisfaction Fathers: -Capable of sensitive parenting -More playful, more gender typed (in our culture, anyway) Mothers: -More caregiving -Verbal style of interaction -Both count: e.g., father's warmth and involvement promotes: -Social competence, achievement -Fewer psychological disorders

Another Take on Effective Schools: Finland

Best schools in the world by some measures Belief everyone has something to contribute—administrators, teachers, parents, students, community Good teacher education, in-service education, respect for teachers as professionals, pay Additional teacher helps students who struggle Comfortable, relaxed classrooms No school change at age 13—teachers stay with students from primary to secondary school Parents have regular contact with teachers and read with children at home WE COULD DO THIS.

School Size and Organization

Big School; Small School? Large schools may offer more academic options But participation in extracurriculars is greater in smaller schools. Why? -More positions than students to fill them -Greater sense of obligation to participate

Widening income inequality

Both Bernie and Trump had it right: -Over decades, widening income inequality: the rich get richer, the rest go nowhere Robert Putnam, Our Kids: sociological analysis of his Ohio town and its growing income inequality and implications for kids on the right and wrong side of the tracks -End of the American Dream -His message: Poor kids are our kids too

Negative Effects of TV and Video Games:

Boys play video games more than girls -Can have positive effects such as improved spatial skills, problem solving -But linked to aggression -For boys who identify with characters especially They Displace Other Activities -Kids who watch a lot of TV are less likely to participate in organized sports and other activities outside the home and spend less time with friends Television Stereotypes Minority Groups -Characters overwhelmingly European American -Minorities more likely to play criminals than professionals

Watching Television and Playing Video Games

By age 16 most U.S. children have spent more time watching TV than attending school or sleeping The typical child lives in a home with an average of four TVs, three VCR/DVD players, two video game consoles, and two computers Children who watch lots of TV... -Tend to be from poor, African American, and single-parent families -Have parents who watch more -Have more TV sets in the house, especially in their bedrooms -Are also the most avid users of computers and video games

Nowland et al. (2018) on loneliness and social networking

Can reduce loneliness if use internet for connecting with friends and making new ones and the online and offline social worlds overlap a lot Can increase loneliness if internet use displaces offline social relationships—if use it to escape the real social world Unfortunately, lonely people tend to use the internet in ways that displace relationships

Changes in Peer Group Structure with Age

Changes in peer group structure from childhood through adolescence 1.Same-sex cliques 2.Interaction of same-sex cliques 3.Formation of mixed-sex cliques 4.Formation of crowds ( = networks of cliques with common characteristics) 5.Dating couples; breakup of the crowd Friendships -First same-sex, later cross-sex, friendships become more emotionally intimate with age

Friendship: Different Implications than Peer Acceptance

Changing bases for friendship -Early childhood: Common activity, play -Later childhood: Mutual loyalty & caring (cfchums) -Adolescence: Intimacy and self-disclosure Similarity as the main basis at all ages -With age, more emphasis on psychologicalsimilarity

Are children's problems really caused by divorce, though?

Cherlin Divorce Study -British longitudinal study (age 7 to 11) of intact couples, some of whom split -US longitudinal study (ages 7-11 to 11-16) -Parent, teacher, and test data on achievement and behavior problems Results -Many apparent effects of divorce decrease in size if you control for predivorce achievement, behavior problems, and marital conflict -Marital conflict and the ineffective parenting that follows from it have bad effects before the split -Divorce has some impacts on top of that -Moral: Worry about two-parent families with marital conflict and poor parenting

Effects of Care on Children

Child care can have good or bad effects, depending on quality Overall, few differences in development—e.g., in security of attachment, cognitive development, social relations One area of concern: Children who spend more time in child care centers are louder, more assertive, more aggressive, and more disobedient than children who spend less time -Reasons? -High stress levels? -More peer interactions? Quality of relationship with parents most important

Anderson et al. results

Child effects mainly: All mothers are less warm, more restrictive/controlling, with CD kids; CD kids comply less with any mother Some "ownness" effect supporting the transactional view (CD Moms were especially negative with their own CD kid) Moral: Bad parenting is not the main cause of CD behavior

Development of Peer Relations in Childhood & Adolescence

Childhood -Increased time with peers, decreased time with adults -Increased gender segregation, different play styles -More time with similar age kids -Simple pretend play at 1-2, social pretend play peaks at6 -From parallel play to more associative and cooperative play -Emergence of peer groups with norms Adolescence -More time with peers than adults -Significant influences on social behavior, friend choice, dress, entertainment, substance use, etc. -Complex peer group structure: cliques, crowds, gangs

Role of School in Social Development

Children today spend more time in school than ever before -5 hours a day, 180 days a year -beginning school at younger ages staying longer School as a socialization agent with both formal and informal curricula

Overall Media Use among Children and Teens Kaiser Foundation Study (2010): Trends in Media Use, Ages 8-18

Children's use of media. As children get older, they watch less TV and spend less time playing video games; they spend more time listening to music and using the computer

Adolescent Peer Group Structure

Clique - Small friendship group Crowd - Larger collection of teens with common perceived characteristics—e.g., populars, brains, etc . Gang - Group of adolescents who form an allegiance for a common purpose

Effects of Poverty on Children

Compared with children from wealthier families, poor children (especially if poor in early childhood) are more likely to -Have low birth weight -Spend more time in the hospital -Have poor nutrition -Die during childhood -Suffer from child abuse or neglect -Encounter violent crime

Class Organization: Reward Structures

Competitive: Only so many can win/succeed -Curve with only 10% As allowed Individualistic: No interdependence of outcomes -All with 90 or higher get an A Cooperative: One succeeds only if others in team succeed -e.g., average score of team determines grade (even if members are working at different levels) -Or jigsaw method where each does a piece of the assignment

School reform- School choice & Cons

Cons? -Erodes separation of church and state -Little solid evidence of greater effectiveness -Harm to public schools by diverting public funds? -Not enough $ put in to allow poor students to go to great schools -Skims off some of the best students? No clear answer: VERY politicized, MANY 3rd variable problems when compare students in different types of schools

Negative Effects of TV and Video Games: Aggression

Correlational studies, lab experiments, field experiments all say violent TV/video games can increase aggression -Correlations around .10 to .30 -Violent TV at age 8 predicts adult aggression and crime with other factors controlled -But TV & video games are only one of many factors -And sometimes only some children are affected (e.g., those most aggressive already) -Mechanisms? Observational learning of aggression Desensitization effects Creation of mean world beliefs (c.f., hostile attribution bias)

Peer Selection vs. Peer Socialization Issue

Cruz et al. (2012) longitudinal study of twins: -Certain teens, due to a genetic predisposition to drink, chose a drinking peer network (selection) -But alcohol use in peer network also predicts changes in the adolescent's drinking, even with genetics controlled (socialization) -In fact, where twins differed, the identical twin whose peer group drank a lot drank more than the co-twin whose peer group drank less. So both peer selection and socialization. Remind you of gene-environment correlation?

Parent-Child Subsystem:Parenting Styles: What Is Good Parenting?

Diana Baumrind's Parenting Types: -Authoritarian, authoritative, & permissive -Add Neglectful/Ignoring to get: Two Dimensions of Parenting -Acceptance/Responsiveness (or Warmth) Demandingness/Control

The Family System The Couple System Direct effects

Direct effects of parental conflict on child - Mark Cummings and colleagues Child distress increased as the intensity and destructiveness of their parents' fights increased Intense and destructive conflicts between parents > child emotional insecurity, depression, anxiety, behavior problems, relationship difficulties, and poor emotion regulation Constructive conflict - showing respect for each other's opinions, expressing mutual warmth and support, modeling effective conflict negotiation strategies - lessened the harmful effects of conflict on children

Parten, 1932

Frequency of activities engaged in by preschool children of different ages. With age, solitary and parallel play occur less frequently, associative and cooperative play more frequently.

Things Change: Social Media Use (Pew 2018 update)

Fully 95% of teens have access to a smartphone, and 45% say they are online 'almost constantly'—more than in 2015

Internet Use: Effects on Adjustment and Well-Being

Early studies: Negative effects -Socially isolating -But these were the pioneering nerds, surfing or talking in chat rooms with strangers More recent studies: More positive effects -Use associated with more social connectedness & well-being in some studies. Why? -Because (1) almost all do it now, and (2) they mostly interact with friends through social networking sites But moderation is important: -e.g., high use is associated with poorer academic performance, negative social effects, and mental health problems, especially for young teens

Types of Public Policy

Economic Improvement -Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) Time limits on cash assistance Work requirements Services -Help families meet their basic needs by providing food stamps, health care, child care, housing, etc.

Topics that Easily Could Show Up in Essays or Multiple Choice

Education: implications of school size, school age grouping, reward structures, teachers, school-parent relations SES and education (Goudeau study, Rist study) Contributors to effective schools Factors in ethnic differences in achievement Media: relevant theories, video deficit & magic window thinking, main messages about effects of TV, including mechanisms of effects of TV violence Main messages about internet use—hypotheses, extent of use, effects, better and worse uses Policy: primary, 2ndary, tertiary prevention Adverse childhood experiences, Luby study Poverty's effects & mechanisms of effects: resources/investment, family stress model, tolls of chronic stress, allostatic load Head Start, income supplementation effects Effects of child abuse Models of family influence and contributors to child abuse Government intervention in abuse Types & effects of child care -[Not teen pregnancy]

Television's Positive Effects

Educational TV programs like Sesame Street have positive effects on cognitive and language development Depictions of prosocial behavior increase prosocial behavior -Especially if parents watch with children and encourage prosocial behavior -Increased empathy mediates effects -Effects can endure

Internet Use: Cognitive Effects

Effects on cognition and the brain? Attention: ▪May attune brain to scan for new environmental stimuli at the expense of focused attention & sustained concentration ▪Internet and Brain qMultitasking: ▪humans can't do it well--but lots are trying! ▪interference with memory from distractions ▪Shallow learning Dopamine rush: ▪Reward centers react to getting text messages, playing video games...leading to internet addiction? But don't overdo this idea the Internet is changing our brains.

Child Outcomes associated with Parenting Styles: Take Two Parenting Styles - Baumrind's Research

Energetic-friendly children - More socially competent in every way, were likely to have authoritative parents Conflicted-irritable children - Tended to be fearful and moody, were likely to have authoritarian parents Impulsive-aggressive children - Uncontrolled, noncompliant, and aggressive, were likely to have permissive parents

American Academy of Pediatrics (2013)Recommendations for Parents?

Establish a media home use plan; have rules/limits Little or no screen time for children < 2 1-2 hours/day entertainment screen time for older children No TV/internet-connected devices in bedroom Monitor children's activity Coview TV and movies with children to reduce negative effects

Goudeau et al.

Experiments 2 and 3: manipulated students' familiarity with a letter-to-symbol coding task. -Making performance visible (via hand raising) undermines the performance of Ss less familiar with this task. -BUT making students aware that some have more familiarity with the task than they do restores the performance of the students less familiar with the task. Implications? -Schools magnify the social class achievement gap rather than reduce it through these unrecognized advantages vs. disadvantages. -It's not a level playing field, as advertised.

The Family System

Family members influence each other both directly and indirectly: Direct effects - e.g., spouse praising or criticizing other spouse; parent hugging or spanking children; children clinging or talking back to parents Indirect effects - relationship or interaction between two family members is indirectly affected by a 3rd member; e.g., mother's presence improves the quantity and quality of father-child interaction; fight with husband makes mother irritated with child

Intervention can change behavior and brain (Hanson et al., 2018)

Family parent training intervention to improve self-regulation in poor children age 11 As adults, those in the treatment group had better "functional connectivity between the hippocampus and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex" (linked to better memory, decision making, emotion regulation) Intervention gains in self-regulation better connectivity less aggression and loss of temper as young adults

FINAL Topics that Easily Could Show Up in Essays or Multiple Choice

Family systems view: subsystems lke coparenting, direct & indirect effects Parenting dimensions and types, including tiger parenting, Kim article dimensions of parenting, helicopter parenting, Four models of family influence and type of evidence supporting each Implications of diverse family types, divorce, interparent conflict, lesbian/gay families, etc. Sibling influences, adjustment to birth of new sib Peers Two worlds of childhood & theorists who emphasize parents vs. peers Main changes in peer relations with age Sociometric statuses and their contributors and implications Sociometric vs. perceived popularity Role/importance of friends Role/importance of conformity to peers Changes in adolescent peer group structure with age, cliques & crowds and significance Romantic relationship phases Socialization vs. selection issue re: peer influence Ray study on parent, peers, and delinquency

Policies to Prevent Abuse Federal and State Policies

Federal and State Policies Protecting children from abusive parents by: -Requiring that people report suspected child abuse -Removing children from abusive situations But the state is reluctant to take children out of their home ...despite evidence of benefits to children of foster care Need serious treatment programs for both the parents and the children to make reunion work

The Two Worlds of Childhood

First world: Parent-child relationships Second world: Peers -Peer—Social equal roughly the same age -Friend—Peer with whom you have a special relationship

Gender and Internet Use

Girls do more social networking/socializing Boys play more games and look more at sexually explicit images

Class Size and Organization Cooperative Learning

Goal: maximize the learning of all students and create relationships among diverse children -Positive effect on self-esteem -Increased concern for peers, helping -Reduced ethnic/racial stereotyping -And it's good for learning too, so YAY Danger: Can't let slow learners slow others down.

Capaldi & Patterson 1991

Grade-school boys' risk for poor adjustment outcomes (antisocial behavior, low self-esteem, peer rejection, drug use, depression, poor academic performance, and deviant peer associations) as a function of number of marital transitions experienced

Peer Influence from an Early Age: Michael Tomasello Strikes Again

Haun, Rekers, & Tomasello (2014) Method: 2-year-olds, chimps, and orangutans learn to drop balls in a hole in 1 of 3 boxes for a treat, then see 3 peers drop balls in a different hole Results? -Conformity = adjusting behavior to align with other people's -Half the 2-year-olds switch (conform to peers), apes stay with their own perfectly good strategy -Humans switch more when peers are still present than when they aren't, suggesting not only informational conformity (to learn how to do it) but also normative conformity (to fit in, please others) Significance? -Built into species? Born to conform? Basis for human cultures: Do what others in your group do?

Programs to Reverse Effects of Poverty Head Start

Head Start Federally funded preschool, social services, and medical and nutritional care to disadvantaged infants and preschool children -Early Head Start - infants and toddlers -Head Start -- preschool Evidence -Early Head Start effective in the short run -Head Start: gains in children's academic and social performance; effects tend to fade, some programs more successful

National ACE Data

Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) announces the release of data from the 2018 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH). In 2017-2018, one in three children under the age of 18 was reported to have suffered at least one adverse childhood experience (ACE) in their lifetime and 14 percent experienced two or more ACEs. ...the most prevalent ACE in children's lifetimes was "Parent/guardian divorced or separated" (23.4%), followed by "Lived with anyone with alcohol/drug problem" (8.0%), and "Parent/guardian served time in jail" (7.4%)

Some other parenting concepts

Helicopter parenting: Developmentally inappropriate overparenting, hovering (c.f., snowplow parents) -Often warm, authoritative Linked to: -Low autonomy, low self-efficacy in college kids -More depression and use of meds for depression/anxiety -Narcissism -Poor coping skills Critique of research? Directionality problems? Free range parenting: let them explore, develop autonomy

Getting Under the Skin: Toxic Stress Effects on Physiology

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis (HPA axis) key in stress response Can be programmed by prenatal stress to be on high alert Shaped and strongly regulated by attachment in early infancy -Parent buffering: sensitive care in secure attachment reduces cortisol output, shapes healthy stress response and regulation (Meaney'srats!) Chronic stress -Epigenetic changes (Meaney's rats!) -Allostatic load (wear & tear on body when stress mobilize systems repeatedly; indicated by high cortisol levels, high BMI, etc.) -Interference with prefrontal cortex development (planning shuts down in fight or flight situations) -Poor immune function -Shorter telomeres (faster aging, shorter life)

How Do Low SES and Especially Poverty Harm Development ?

Hypotheses 1.Limited resources/investment 2.Family economic stress and its toll on parenting 3.Chronic stress and its biological tolls on children

Models Anderson, Lytton, & Romney: Study of Models of Socialization: Children with Conduct Disorder?

Hypotheses 1.Parent effects (ineffective parent) 2.Child effects (difficult child) 3.Interactional model (at-risk child PLUS ineffective parent > CD child) 4.Transactional model (reciprocal influence over time in an evolving, unique relationship > CD child)

Perceived popularity, relational aggression, and adjustment: Or it pays to be a Mean Girl

If they are popular (but not if they are unpopular), kids get away with relational aggression without paying a price Relational aggression does not hurt peer acceptance For mid-adolescent girls, it actually predicts greater liking by boys Moral: Relational aggression works for some adolescents as a way of gaining or maintaining status/popularity

Kim et al. (2013) on tiger parenting: Critique?

Improvements on the four parenting styles in textbook? 1.Distinguishes good control (e.g., monitoring and democratic parenting) from less good control (psychological control, punitive control) 2.Separates Warmth and Hostility rather than treating them as one dimension 3.Uses dimensions rather than types

Electronic Media and Children's Social Lives Watching Television and Playing Video Games

In 2001, the American Academy of Pediatrics recommended that children under 2 years of age not be allowed to watch TV and that older children not have TV sets in their bedrooms. More recently, they recommend limited screen time. Babies ARE watching, though -40% of infants under 3 months of age look at a turned-on TV set for at least 1 hour a day -children under 2 years average about 2 hours daily

Government benefits for families in European countries increase employment of women while reducing child poverty

In Sweden: Mother and father together are entitled to up to 16 months paid leave per child, at 80% of salary Child allowance of €122/mo per child, with supplements for large families High female labor force participation Low child poverty (7.3%)

Choosing Child Care: What's a Parent to Do? Parents have to balance

In choosing child care, parents balance -Cost, convenience, and quality What's quality? -Small group of children, low child-adult ratio (e.g., 4:1 for infants), high level of caregiver training, sensitive & responsive caregivers Parents often do little comparison shopping Over the past 30 years, quality has deteriorated Quality matters, but many can't afford quality

Children in Poverty: A Social Policy Challenge

In the U.S., about 20 percent of children live in families below the poverty line ($24,300 for family of 4) Cycle of disadvantage Consequences -Parents stressed and psychological distressed -Parenting suffers -Child development suffers

The Family System The Couple System Indirect effects

Indirect effects of parental conflict through effects on parenting Marital difficulties > ineffective parenting > child problems Marital conflict > angry and intrusive parenting > angry children

Parenting and Child Age: Another Example of Child Effects?

Infancy: be sensitive and responsive!!! -Provide security, sense of trust, sense of mastery Childhood: socialize them -Instill standards, foster self-control -Kochanska's mutually cooperative orientation Adolescence: support autonomy, balance control and autonomy -Shift decision-making control from parent to child Changes in parenting style with age? -From early childhood to adolescence, less demanding/controlling, less use of power assertion, more democratic

Romantic Relationships Develop from Early to Late Adolescence (Brown)

Initiation phase: Learn to see self as romantic partner; self-conscious Status phase: Date to gain peer status Affection phase: Develop an actual human relationship Bonding phase: Emotional intimacy plus commitment

Development of Peer Relations

Interest from early infancy 6 months +: peer as social partner 18 months -Turn taking -Complementary reciprocal play: reverse roles , e.g., chaser & chasee -Sharing and conflict -Awkward

School Reform: We're Not So Hot

It's not just about spending: The U.S. spends more per student than other countries but is about average in school achievement Data: Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015, 73 countries -US high school Ss ranked 40th in world in math literacy and the scores have been declining -25th in science literacy -24th in reading literacy

The Family System The Sibling System Arrival of new sibling: Perturbing the family system

Jane Goodall Family Dynamics -Humans Too -Psychoanalytic "dethronement" view -Research: Firstborn stressed temporarily (usually not hostile, though) -Sib relationship as ambivalent: close and rivalrous -Older one sometimes loses parent time and resents it (an indirect effect in the family)

School-Family Links

Latchkey children - Let themselves into their homes after school, stay by themselves because parents work -Outcomes? Higher risk for problems such as antisocial behavior, poor grades, heightened stress, and substance abuse But OK if there is good monitoring and supervision -By parents (e.g., structuring time, monitoring via technology) -After school programs: Better social and emotional adjustment, less drug use and delinquent behavior than self care.

Ethnic Minorities and School Achievement: It's complicated!

Latinos, African Americans, Native Americans, especially low SES, underperform compared to Euro-Americans and Asian Americans. Why? -SES differences between groups -Self-fulfilling prophesies -Stereotype threat (perform poorly if think will be judged by stereotypes) -Mismatch of school culture and home culture & hidden advantages to white MC kids -Poorer instruction in low SES schools -Parent and peer influences (Steinberg study >>)

Limited Resources/Investment

Less intellectual stimulation & language exposure at home Lower quality day care Poorer educational opportunities At extreme, hunger, health hazards

Consequences of Peer Rejection

Loneliness But it helps to have at least one friend Poor adjustment in school Behavioral and emotional problems Physical health problems

Amount of internet use and mental health

Longitudinal, grades 8 to 11, cross-lagged analysis (Ciarrochi et al., 2016) Directionality question: -Do mental health problems > compulsive internet use (or internet addiction)? -Or does compulsive internet use > MH problems? -Or is the influence reciprocal? Answer -Compulsive internet use > MH problems, not vice versa

Do Children Understand What They See?

Magic window thinking - The tendency of very young children to believe that television images are as real as real-life people and objects -Three-year-olds may walk to the TV screen to wave at their favorite characters or try to touch them -They think that Big Bird and Bugs Bunny are real, that Sesame Street is a place where people actually live, that TV characters can see and hear them, and that everything on the screen exists inside the TV set

Crowds: Sociology of High School

Mean Girls Brains, populars, jocks, druggies, freaks, etc. (And some in none) Source of social identity and self-esteem (or not) Crowd membership associated with parenting: Brains: two parents who encourage academics and monitor Populars: encourage academics but do less monitoring Druggies: more single parent homes, less monitoring Crowd membership associated with later development "brains" to college with high self-esteem "jocks" to financial success and too much drinking "basket cases" to the psychologist and suicidal tendencies

Social Class Differences in Parenting

Middle-SES Parents -Individual initiative, achievement -Authoritative Working Class/Lower-SES Parents -Obedience to authority -Restrictive, authoritarian; emphasis on obedience -Less reasoning Poor parents -Harsh/punitive -Unresponsive/uninvolved

Friendship

Most children have one reciprocated best friend; those without one are lonely Friend as source of emotional support Friend can make up for poor status in peer group Not all popular kids have them, not all rejected & neglected kids lack them Sociometric status influences quality of friendship: -E.g., rejected kids consort with other rejected, antisocial kids & fight ( = deviancy training) -Neglected kids hang with other shy kids

Internet and Social Relationships

Most interactions online are with offline friends: Just a new way of socializing with friends Also use the Internet to make new friends & develop romantic relationships But most new online relationships are less intense and less supportive than face-to-face relationships

Anderson et al. design

Mothers of children with diagnosed conduct disorder (CD) child interacting with: -Own CD child -Other's CD child -Other's OK child Mothers of typical children interacting with: -Own OK child -Other's CD child -Other's OK child Allows separating parent, child, interactional, and transactional ("own child") effects

Another Take on Effective Schools: Why Do Asian Students Outperform US Students in Science and Math (Stevenson research)?

NOT higher IQs or more general knowledge More time on task More teacher-student discussion of answers More homework Committed parents who are involved—get reports from teacher, work with children Committed peers: high standards, group homework Cultural belief in hard work and effort (cf. Dweck'sgrowth mindset)

Policy Issue 3: Child Care

Need for Child Care Rise of maternal employment -General societal change -Often a necessity due to single parenthood, divorce, or difficult economic times Geographic mobility -Families live farther from extended family who might have cared for children

Sibling Relationships: Impacts of Sibs

Overall, mostly positive -Childcare (older sibs primary caregivers in many societies) -Emotional support -Socialization (e.g., social-cognitive skills like theory of mind) BUT -Lots of sibs may limit adult interaction (and IQ) -Sibs are sometimes partners in crime -A difficult/incompetent older sib can negatively affect mother's sense of self as a parent and make her less supportive of younger sib and negatively affect young sib's development -Or it can go the other way if older sib is competent (either way, an indirect effect in family)

Peer Acceptance and Status: Sociometric Techniques

Nomination method: Who are 3 kids in your class you like? 3 you dislike? Rating method: How much do you like to play with [each child in class]? Assessment of behavior: e.g., Who gets in fights? Who is a good leader?

Rebuttal to Harris? Make the Case that Parents Matter

Not much shared environmental influence, but lots of nonshared environmental influence Genetically informed studies -differential treatment of identical twins matters -Parenting matters for both biological and adopted children -Reciprocal influence (e.g., of negative parenting and aggression) -Security of attachment is more the outcome of parenting than of the child's genes/temperament -Experiments: Parenting interventions change child behavior!

Family in Context

Nuclear family: Mother, father, children Extended family and extended family household Family as system within systems—Bronfenbrenner Family as changing system

Advertising Influences Children's Choices

Observed unintended effects of advertising. Being exposed to advertising is related to children's making more purchase requests and having more materialistic attitudes; making more purchase requests lead to more conflicts with parents and more disappointments

Child Care in the U.S

Of 190 countries, 178 guarantee paid maternal leave by law and over 50 offer paid paternal leave as well. The United States and Papua New Guinea were the only countries without a national policy of paid parental leave In U.S., mothers get 12 weeks unpaid leave if they worked a year+ in a company with 50+ employees Up to half don't qualify; many who qualify can't afford to take it Little subsidy for child care; costs up to ¼ of a poor family's income Some employers and some states do better, BUT... Child care needs include: parental leave, flexible work hours, affordable, high-quality child care, preschool programs like Head Start, after school programs

Negative Effects of Media vs Face-to-Face Interaction

Online survey of girls 8-12 (Pea et al. 2012) More media use and more media multitasking are negatively correlated with social well-being/social success More face-to-face interaction is positively correlated with social well-being/social success

Models of Family Influence and Divorce

Parent Effects Model Parenting deteriorates (Santa Claus father; less warm, authoritative, and consistent mother) Child Effects Model More problems if difficult temperament Child's genes can influence both parenting and child outcomes Interactional Model -Difficult child + stressed parent > problems -Sometimes worse outcomes if live with other-sex parent than if live with same-sex parent Transactional Model -Reciprocal influence over time—coercive cycles between mothers and boys especially Plus ecological factors

Models of Influence in the Family

Parent Effects Model ◦Parent influences child Child Effects Model ◦Child influences parent Interactional Model Combo of particular kind of parent and particular kind of child is what matters Transactional Model ◦Reciprocal influence over time, each affecting the other's next behavior until a pattern evolves

Models of Family Influence and Child Abuse

Parent effects model: -High risk parent profile Child effects model: -One target child, higher risk if hyperactive, difficult, disabled, sickly Interactional model: -Parent with low sense of internal control as parent + challenging child > abuse Transactional model: -Something goes wrong in a particular parent-child relationship as it unfolds, cf coercive cycles; look at whole family system Plus ecological factors >

Types of Public Policy- Interventions

Parent-Directed Interventions -Supports parents psychologically, improves their child-rearing skills Intervention with Parents and Children -Children are helped through preschool education, child care, and health benefits; parents are assisted through education, job training, and parenting-skills training Interventions Targeting Children Directly -Improve the quality of schools in poor areas, fund after-school programs Programs aimed at problems after they have developed -Programs to reduce gang violence or encourage pregnant teens to stay in school

Influences on Peer Acceptance, Sociometric Popularity?

Parenting: secure attachment, authoritative parenting Temperament—e.g., sociability, good emotion regulation, low negative emotionality, low inhibition Cognitive ability (IQ) Physical traits: attractiveness, body build, early maturation for boys Social and social-cognitive skills (cf. Dodge social-information processing applied to entering a group), competent social behavior*** Goals in social interactions: e.g., build good relationships vs. dominate vs. avoid other Conformity to group norms: blending in (vs. being disruptive) Conformity to cultural expectations: e.g., shyness previously an advantage, now a disadvantage for Chinese children

Two Worlds of Childhood Revisited

Parents and peers support development differently We need both Parents: attachment, secure base for exploration, love/emotional support, basic social skills, values, rules/guidance Peers: social identity, sense of belonging, perspective taking & social skills, dating skills Friends: intimacy & emotional support Typically, peers are a more positive than negative influence on development and reinforce rather than undermine parents

Adolescent Parent and Peer Dynamics

Parents still important Good parenting can prevent bad peer influence Parents and peers often share important values Early to mid adolescence: peak pressure to conform to group norms -Rigid group boundaries -Use of relational aggression to enforce norms -Peak conformity to engage in antisocial behavior at 14-15 Peer influence mostly positive if parents...? -Influence neighborhood and friend choices positively -Built a secure attachment -Use authoritative parenting -Stay involved & monitor Usually not parent versus peer war

School-Family Links

Parents' Involvement in Schools -Parental involvement > children doing better academically and socially Increasing Parents' Involvement in Schools -Welcome parents, let them know how they can become involved, encourage parent-teacher communication -Recognize/respect parent/community ethnic/cultural values

Why is peer rejection associated with later maladjustment?

Peer rejection > [poor social skills or low self-esteem or stress or affiliation with maladjusted peers or... mediators] > maladjustment Third variable problem if: Child problem behavior > peer rejection and > maladjustment Directionality problem: Child problem behavior < > Peer rejection Evidence: Both child problem behavior (e.g., aggression) and peer rejection contribute to later maladjustment

Class Organization Peer Tutoring

Peer tutoring - Older, more experienced student tutors a younger, less experienced one -Tutors and tutees benefit -Tutors often gain more -Vygotsky says "Yay!"

Social Media Use: Positive or Negative Effects?

Pew Foundation (2011) study of ages 12-17 -The social life of teens is now there -69% say peers are mostly kind to each other online, 20% say mostly unkind (vs. adults: 85% kind, 5% unkind) -15% have been a target of mean or cruel behavior in past 12 months -But more report positive effects (78%) than negative effects (41%) of the internet on them -Worst concerns: porn, predators, cyberbullying -Most parents monitor and control—e.g., friend their child, check websites visited by child, use parental control options

Effects of Child Abuse

Physical damage -Brain damage - e.g., shaken baby syndrome -Biological effects such as atypical stress reactivity Insecure attachment (esp. disorganized) Cognitive deficits (e.g., low achievement) Social deficits (low empathy, poor social relations) Emotion regulation problems Internalizing and externalizing problems

Theorists Highlighting Peers

Piaget—learn to negotiate, take others perspectives, cooperate with equals (Kohlberg too) Harry Stack Sullivan —chumships (9-12) can compensate for poor parent-child relationship or peer rejection and prepare us for romantic relationships -Peer group: social skills, self-esteem, social identity -Friends: social skills, emotional support Judith Harris —Group socialization theory: peer culture socializes kids. Genes matter too, but parents are overrated.

Peer Acceptance: Sociometric Statuses

Popular (liked) -Attractive, intelligent, socially competent, emotionally regulated -Neglected (neither liked nor disliked) Shy but not necessarily socially anxious and withdrawn or socially unskilled -Rejected (disliked, not liked) -Aggressive-rejected -Withdrawn-rejected (timid, anxious, odd, socially unskilled) Controversial (liked and disliked) Leaders who are sometimes aggressive Average

Effects of TV Watching: Overview

Positive -Education -Prosocial programming (can increase empathy) Negative -Biased perceptions -Aggression and desensitization to aggression -Displacement of other activities -Stereotyping of minorities -Sexualization/stereotyping of females -Unhealthy lifestyle choices (and other negative effects of ads)

Establishing peer influence is as hard as establishing parent influence

Positive correlation between an adolescent's drinking and his/her friends' drinking: Why? ISSUE: Do friends/peer groups/crowds reflect character or mold character? Peer selection: Adolescents who drink select friends who drink Peer socialization: Friends who drink increase an adolescent's drinking -How determine which? -Longitudinal study with cross-lagged correlation: measure both adolescent and peer drinking at two or more points of time -Better yet, use twins and control genetic influences

Kim et al., 2013 on Tiger Parenting: Eight Dimensions of Parenting

Positive dimensions -Warmth -Inductive reasoning -Monitoring -Democratic parenting Negative dimensions -Hostility -Psychological control -Shaming -Punitive parenting

Ecological Factors & Child Abuse

Poverty Parent unemployment Neighborhood lacking in resources, safety, sense of community (even controlling for poverty) Cultural and historical factors -Increased divorce rate, geographical mobility, need for child care; decreased health coverage -Cultural tolerance of physical punishment, violence More likely as these factors pile up

Evidence: Evans et al. (2005)

Poverty & Chaotic environment leads to Poor adolescent outcomes: -Helplessness -Psychological distress -Poor self-regulation

Divorce (Mavis Hetherington)

Predivorce -Parent conflict, distress -Post-Divorce Crisis -1-2 years -Parents, children, at risk for depression, other emotional problems -Child behavior problems, peer relation problems, lower achievement -Additional adjustment challenges if into a blended family Longer-term adjustment -Most negative effects fade by 6 yrs. out -Continuing problems for maybe 20% -As adults, some show lower life satisfaction, less closeness to parents, higher separation/divorce rates

Types of Programs (Public Policy)

Primary prevention - Prevent problems before they develop Secondary prevention - Help those already at risk for problems Tertiary prevention = Help those who already have problems--reduce the impacts

Policies to Prevent Abuse

Public service announcements Educate parents about child behavior and development (Yay, developmental psych!) Train parenting skills Connect families with support networks & hotlines during known times of conflict (e.g., when report cards are sent home, end of the month) Intervene directly with children (e.g., teach self-protection skills)

Kim et al (2013) Reading: Methods

Question: Which parenting styles lead to the best adolescent outcomes? Chinese American sample (444 families initially, ages 12-15, mothers and fathers, assessed every 4 years in early, mid, and late adolescence) Short scales measure eight dimensions of parenting Outcome measures: -Academic achievement, educational attainment, academic pressure -Depression, alienation, family obligation

School-Parent Relations

School Culture vs. Home Culture For low SES, minority children, lower achievement if -Different cultural values and norms at school vs. at home -Example: individualistic (school) vs. collectivistic (home) orientation -Example: Middle SES culture of school vs. low SES culture of home

School reform- School choice & Pros

School choice -Private, often religious, schools -Charter schools (public but under different mgt) -Vouchers to allow parents to choose school they want, public or private Pros? -Allows choice -Helps poorer students access private schools? -Makes public schools better through competition?

Age Groupings in Schools

School transitions at different ages/grades based on school organization: 8-4 vs. 6-3-3 vs. 5-3-4 Students transitioning to junior high in 7th grade (6-3-3 transition) experience more social and academic problems than children who stay in their familiar elementary school setting (8-4 transition) Harder adjustment if make other transitions at same time (e.g., puberty, residence change, parental divorce)

School-Family Links: Bronfenbrenner's Mesosystem at Work

Schools as a Buffer/Protective Factor for Some Children -If problems at home, school can buffer children -insecure attachment to parent offset by close teacher-child relationship -unsupportive/uninvolved family offset by supportive classroom environment (clear rules, well organized)

Online Social Networking Effects: Worse for Younger Teens

Self-report, n = 10,930 in Europe, ages 14-17 (Tsitsikaet al., 2014) Heavier use (2 + hrs/day) linked to: -More internalizing problems, especially among younger (14-15) -Lower academic performance and activities, especially among younger -But more social competence among older heavier users -So level of development moderates the relationship between heavy use and adolescent outcomes here

Schools as Social Communities

Sense of community develops from sharing goals and values and supporting each others' efforts With a strong sense of community, children have more positive attitudes toward school, more prosocial behavior, fewer maladaptive behaviors

Bailey et al., 1995; Golombok & Tasker, 1996

Sexual orientation of adult children raised by lesbian mothers, gay fathers, and single-parent heterosexual mothers. Children with gay or lesbian parents are just as likely to have a heterosexual orientation as children raised by heterosexual parents

Neglected children

Shy, quiet, and less aggressive than other children. Subgroups: -Socially reticent - watch others from afar, hover near but do not interact -Socially uninterested - not anxious or fearful, just prefer to play alone

The Family System The Couple System Effects of parental conflict on children's social development explained

Social Learning Theory Children learn how to interact with people and resolve conflicts by watching their parents Attachment Theory Exposure to conflict > emotional insecurity > to later problems in social interactions

The Family SystemThe Parent-Child System

Socialization of Children as Family Function Socialization becomes more deliberate as children achieve greater mobility and begin to use language Socialization efforts increase through the preschool years Socialization goals include having children behave politely, get along with others, value honesty and hard work, learn skills needed in work & society

Sociometric Popularity vs. Perceived Popularity (in Adolescence)

Sociometric popularity: Who is liked? Perceived popularity: Who is popular? -Are seen as cool, attractive, central, high status, powerful -Set the norms -Aren't always liked Some are—Socially skilled, prosocial, etc. Some aren't—Tend to be dominant, even aggressive; e.g., use relational aggression to social climb

Dual-Career Families/Mothers Working

Spillover effects from work to family, both positive and negative (Bronfenbrenner's exosystem) -Positive female role model > higher aspirations and self-esteem for girls -Quality time with parent counts -Day care? ▪No big impacts for most; can even help disadvantaged children; quality of parent-child relationship is key qLatchkey children? ▪OK if monitored; not OK if run wild

Peer Groups/Peer Culture

Starting around 6 to 10, true peer groups that: -Interact regularly -Provide sense of belonging -Have norms -Have structure—dominance hierarchy Peer influence through the usual mechanisms: -Modeling -Reinforcement/punishment -Social comparison

Chronic stress tolls on children (Evans and Kim (2013):

Stressors associated with chaotic environments -Physical (noise, crowding, hazards, etc.) -Psychosocial (family turmoil, separation, conflict, etc.) Chronic stress -Strains biological systems allostatic load leads to more reactive stress response (cortisol), inflammation, poor metabolic control, etc. -Reduces self-regulatory capacities needed to cope with stress (delay of gratification, self-control, attention, working memory, etc.) -Results in avoidance coping rather than active coping

Effective Schools: What Matters Most?

Student aptitude and student body makeup (e.g., low SES kids do better in predominantly middle SES schools) Climate (safe, supportive, sense of community) Academic environment (academic emphasis, challenge, good management, discipline, culturally relevant curriculum, authoritative teaching style, etc.) **Teacher effectiveness —a year's difference in progress over a year between children taught by the best teachers (1.5 year gain) vs. the worst (.5 year gain) Good fit between student and environment—person x environment interactions

Negative Effects of Television and Video Games Television Stereotypes Females

TV emphasis on gender stereotypes, sexualization of women, recreational sex High school students who are more frequent viewers of sex-laden prime-time programs support recreational sex and endorse sexual stereotypes The more adolescents watch TV, the more they assume peers are sexually active and the more likely they are to be sexually active themselves

Other Negative Effects of Television

TV watching is linked to poor health behaviors -Junk food commercials negatively affect food preferences -Couch potatoes lead sedentary lifestyles and become obese -Advertising increases materialism and parent-child conflict

The Teachers' Impact

Teacher-Student Relationship Close, warm relationship → better school adjustment, self-esteem, and peer acceptance Particularly beneficial for minority children Discipline and Management Authoritative teaching style Behavior management techniques relying on sound reinforcement principles—but without undermining intrinsic motivation

The Informal School Agenda

Teaching rules, norms, and values children need to get along in society -Preparing citizens -Developing social skills

Romantic Relationships

Teenage Love Affairs Matter Myth 1: Adolescent romantic relationships are rare and brief -Are common and often last months—longer with age Myth 2: Adolescent romantic relationships are unimportant -Have impacts, both good and bad (e.g., higher self-esteem—or depression) Myth 3: Romantic relationships simply mirror other social relationships -Their quality is related to that of relationships with parents and peers & friends, but they have a different quality and serve different needs

Negative Effects of Television and Video Games

Television Biases Perceptions -Representations of life and society are often inaccurate -Those who watch a lot of TV overestimate the danger and crime in the world and underestimate the trustworthiness and helpfulness of other people (= mean world beliefs)

Public Policy for Children

The U.S. government spends the most on the military, entitlement programs (mainly for older adults), and debt Far less on programs for children Among developed countries, the United States has the highest rate of poverty--but spends the least to reduce it.

The Media: Big Picture

The media are an important context for human development--a major socialization agent along with parents, peers, schools Huge portion of child and adolescent time is spent with TV, computers, internet, video games, music, phones, other media Media aren't inherently bad; they can have positive or negative effects depending on (1) the uses made of them, (2) characteristics of the user -Better in moderate doses -Better if active use than passive use -Better if minimal damaging social comparisons -Better if adolescent is older But offline socializing beats online socializing -Transactional model wins: we each "co-construct" our social media environments

Some hypotheses in the literature about social effects of social media

The rich get richer: High use helps those who are well-adjusted, but can hurt those who are less well-adjusted Compensation: Use can make up for poor offline relationships or social isolation -Military adolescents who move a lot can benefit -In one study, lonely adolescents who experimented with identity online gained social competence Displacement: Displaces more developmentally valuable activities such as face time with peers and parents Transactional view: For good or ill, we co-construct our media world

Cultural & Racial/Ethnic Differences in Parenting: Tiger Mothers

Tiger Mother style (Chua article): Terms to describe it (from American perspective)? -Authoritarian parenting -Power assertion -Psychological control -Conditional (not unconditional) love -Emotional/verbal abuse?

Is The Internet Responsible for Increased Mental Health Problems in Teens?

Twenge et al. (2017): national surveys of U.S. adolescents in grades 8 through 12 (N = 506,820) and national statistics on suicide deaths for ages 13 to 18. Adolescents' depressive symptoms, suicide-related outcomes, and suicide rates increased between 2010 and 2015, especially among females. Adolescents who spent more time on new media were more likely to report mental health issues, and adolescents who spent more time on nonscreen activities (in-person social interaction, sports/exercise, homework, print media, and attending religious services) were less likely. Since 2010, adolescents have spent more time on new media screen activities and less time on nonscreen activities. Could this account for the increases in depression and suicide in this time period? BUT in another Twenge study (2018), social media use didn't predict later depression--greater depression predicted more later media use (among adolescent girls)! NOT SETTLED YET!

Models Larsson et al. (2008): More support for the transactional model

Twins at ages 4 & 7 Cross-lagged correlational analysis Parent negativity (impatient, angry, frustrated) and child antisocial behavior influence each other reciprocally over time Bidirectional or reciprocal (transactional) influence.

Kim et al. (2013) on tiger parenting

Types distilled: 1.Supportive: high positives, low negatives, cf. authoritative) Largest % 2.Harsh: Low positives, high negatives (cf. authoritarian) Smallest % 3.Easygoing: Low positives, Low negatives (cf., neglectful/ignoring?) 4.Tiger parents: High on both positive and negative dimensions, combo of authoritative and authoritarian? (Is this a good operationalization?)

Choosing Child Care: What's a Parent to Do?

Types of Child Care In-Home Care - Nanny or relative comes to the family's home -Nanny expensive, relative cheap Family child care home - Caregiver cares for three or four children in her home -convenient and relatively inexpensive; licensed by the state; typically don't offer organized educational activities Center care - A licensed and regulated child care facility operated by trained professional caregivers and providing educational and play opportunities -expensive

Do Infants Learn from Video?

Video deficit up to about age 2-3: don't imitate or learn from video models as well as from live models -Baby Einstein-type vocabulary building videos don't have much impact -Better if the model talks to infants personally & is responsive to them Live video teaching (e.g., Skype) is more effective than taped video teaching Need to form a relationship with person (Mister Rogers?) They're probably learning something despite the video deficit--but what?

Media and Development Theories

Vygotsky: Tools of the culture shape thought? Bandura: Lots of observational learning Bronfenbrenner: Proximal processes, the exo- and macro-systems

How Can Parents Reduce TV's Negative Effects?

Watch TV with children Be active mediators and help children understand and interpret the programs they are watching Express disapproval of inappropriate content/behavior on TV Encourage children to empathize with victims and take their perspective Restrict exposure to violent and other negative material Use controls (the v chip) more often

What is Quality Child Care?

What to look for: Plenty of materials Ample staff Balance between structure and free time Great caregivers Low staff turnover

Reduce Adverse Childhood Experiences

What would you include on a list of "adverse childhood experiences"? -Focus on trauma and chronic stress -Take the ACE Test -ACE Study Overview

Still Another Concern: Technoference

When technology interrupts social interactions and, in turn, development -TV on in background: negative effects on complexity of child play, parent-child interaction, cognitive & language development -Parents distracted by their iPhones: the still face experiment all over again?! Can reduce child learning -Use of phones or ipads to distract or calm young children, like pacifiers: interferes with learning other emotion regulation strategies

Tiger Parenting- Why does it seem to work?

Why, then, does it seem to work? Chinese culture—concept of training based on love Chinese character (guan) meaning "to govern" and "to love" Filial piety (respect for parents) Not really authoritarian in our sense Understood differently by Chinese children in their cultural context? E.g., high control doesn't arouse anger, is understood as loving For Euro-American kids, high control is intrusion on autonomy

Rand Conger's family stress model

family economic stress > poor parenting > poor adolescent adjustment

Family Systems Theory

◦A "whole" with interrelated parts ◦Each affects and is affected by the others ◦Reciprocal influence of individuals and subsystems ◦Perturbations change the system ◦But patterns of interaction solidify over time and systems resist change