SOCIAL INEQUALITY EXAM 1

Ideology:

A component of cultural reproduction that justifies or obscures our ability to see the structural forces behind existing power and oppression.

Cultural Reproduction:

Ideas that convince us to support existing structures of inequality, especially by controlling the way we interpret the world.

Who was the legal scholar who invented the term "intersectionality?"

Kimberlé Crenshaw

What does the Igbo word "nkali" mean?

Something that claims to be greater than another

What was the structural problem in the company's hiring practices that made Emma's problem invisible?

The African-American employees were all men working in manufacturing and the female employees were all white women working in clerical jobs

Resistance -

The exercise of agency through culture to expose or change the structural forces of oppression. A culture of resistance can protect us from the power of "ideology" and motivate social action and social change, but it's not easy and tends to backfire into reproduction.

Agency:

The extent to which people are capable of changing structure (or just making their own decisions, despite how the social world is structured).

How do unemployment rates compare by race and ethnicity across the whole time series? (Make sure to include the group called "Hispanic or Latino.")

Unemployment rates compare by race and ethnicity across the whole time series by having similar line trend shapes with dips in unemployment rate between 2003 to 2007, 2014 to 2020, and 2021 to present, and peaks in unemployment rates from 2008 to 2014 and 2020 to 2021. -White had an unemployment between 4% and 9% for the majority of the time series. -Black or African American had an unemployment rate between 6% to 16.5% for the majority of the time series. -Asian had an unemployment rate between 2% and 8% for the majority of the time series. -Hispanic or Latino had an unemployment rate between 4% and 13% for the majority of the time series. All races and ethnicities had a steep peak in unemployment rate at or around April 2020 between around 14% to 19%

3. Do high or low aspirations matter for student outcomes? How?

"The regulation of aspirations is perhaps the most significant of all the mechanisms contributing to social reproduction ... an essential component of social reproduction is the process by which individuals in a stratified social order come to accept their own position and the inequalities of the social order ... (p113)." Evidently, structural inequality, institutionalized discrimination, and racism are the main causes of inequality. Clarendon Heights boys are constrained by the structures around them as well as by their own merit.

. Were racist respondents less friendly toward music genres associated with African-American artists and audiences?

"racism is significantly associated with increased dislike for music genres disproportionately liked by Black of Hispanic respondents". The racist respondents had more of a dislike for rap, reggae, blues, jazz, gospel and Latin music than the less racist respondents. Even though racism is not the only factor for the dislike of these music genres it is a significant factor.

classifying structures in Kozol

-No regular trash collection -Chemical plants spilling - toxic plant emissions -Toxic soil and air -Exposure to raw sewage -Education system having little to no resources -Unemployment rates through the roof - no job opportunities -75% of population is on welfare -Backyards being used as dumpsites -Lead poisoning -98% African American -"drug trade, funerals and bars and prostitution" are largest business operations -Poor nutrition and food insecurity -Fear of violence

Blackwell - The Curb Effect Examples of curb cuts and (a) the original policy, (b) the intended target/effect, and (c) one major additional effect

1. (a) addition of bike lanes on streets. (b) targeted the safety of cyclists on heavily packed roads. (c) the risk of injuries to cyclists dropped quickly and that a large plus for this implementation was also the safety of pedestrians in, on, or around streets. Another fortunate effect of these bike lanes was that they ended up adding "economic value" to neighborhoods. 2. (a)creation of the GI Bill. (b)Serviceman's Readjustment Act of 1944 essentially created what we know as the white American middle class. The target group being veterans, the GI Bill allowed around 8 million veterans to get a college education, as specified on page 31. (c)A major effect of this GI Bill was that it "boosted homeownership", and went from 44% to 60% in just around 6 years. Unfortunately, the GI Bill did not provide absolute inclusivity for Black veterans, who were excluded by local government 3. (a) public transit. easier access to public transit makes for easier access to good education. This, in turn, helps people to be ready to take on the workforce. (b)The intended target of this application seemed to be a largely non-white population, as well as those who are female-identifying people in our society. These groups, mostly people of color, have been separated from these kinds of opportunities in the past, as stated on page 32. (c)A possible, if not already somewhat evident benefit of easier access to public transportation is a new influx of job opportunities for these "transit-related jobs"

Other mechanisms (besides the ones in your first list) that contribute to the systematic oppression of the citizens of East St. Louis. This list would be more about power and oppression than physical segregation and smokescreens.

1. Men living in East St. Louis typically do not have the education to get jobs dealing with chemicals and metal plants which leaves public education, drug trade, funerals, bars, and prostitution as the next available employment positions 2.A pornography theatre is a present in town but there is no movie theatre or center for children along with a "***** house" that is in a nicer building than the sewage filled schools. 3.A bridge that runs across the Mississippi river into St. Louis was closed off to East St. Louis residents a day before an annual fourth of July fair. Reasons for this were said to be due to teenage muggers who have been present in the past. Many people of East St. Louis do not own cars and were therefore not able to attend the celebration. 4.St. Louis legislator states he believes the "people who run things" are what's wrong with East St. Louis but refuses to help or financially the town even though a portion of the damage and sewage issues comes from water drains of more wealthy towns. 5.The "bluffs" or white community of St. Louis is unwelcoming to the residents of East St. Louis and would like to remain separated and away from them, for instance a young girl went to a bookstore in the bluffs and was stared at and asked what she was doing there 6.The city has a rising infant death rate due to all hospitals and birthing wards being closed due to lack of funding 7.Classes offered at schools in the city are extremely underfunded and incomplete. Materials for almost all subjects are missing or damaged. An advanced Home Ec. Class teaches students how to work in jobs such as fast-food chains, rather than teaching how to work a job that they can build a substantial life out of.

Take the following four theorists from Chapter 2 and put their theories in order from economic determinism to cultural autonomy.

1. Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis 2. Pierre 3. Paul Willis and Henry Giroux

defining features of social structure

1. Social structures are said to enable and constrain social action 2. Roads are a terrific example of how social structures repeatedly take us to the same destination even when we're trying to go somewhere new. That's called reproduction 3. classification- Learn to look for social structures that classify people according to social class, ability, race, gender, or anything else relevant. 4. Social Structures have 2 kinds of duality -- two things making each other at the same time: -----4aFirst, is "the mutual constitution of culture and structure." Even the most material of structures (such as mountains or oceans) are also always cultural at the same time ------4b Second, is the duality of structure and agency -- twin forces competing for your every thought and action. Even the most non-material social structures (ideas like "honorable" or "delicious") have a certain amount of staying power because people follow the patterns subconsciously.

Describe a "preparation-for-bias" talk.

A "preparation-for-bias" talk is the way that minorities talk to their children about race (7). The goal of these conversations is educating their children on the fact that discrimination will surround them daily. While also acknowledging that discrimination is going to be prevalent in their lives, they also make sure that their children don't let the barrier of discrimination stop them from being who they are. A "preparation-for-bias" also instills a sense of ethic pride in their children as well through educating their children to be proud of their ethnic history.

According to Coser, Marx says that workplace alienation can cause people to become alienated relative to several different things/people. What are they?

According to Coser, "man is alienated from the object he produces, from the process of production, from himself, and from the community of his fellows." As the world of objects becomes more powerful, man's inner life becomes poorer and the more alienated he feels from himself. As a result the actual production of the product is also alienating in an active way. When man confronts himself and becomes alienated from himself he also confronts other men and becomes alienated from his community.

Initially, the term intersectionality was used to help understand people with two marginalized identities. Who were they?

African-American women

Why did Adichie, a Nigerian, have many stories of America while the American student she describes had only a single story of Nigeria?

America's cultural and economic power makes more stories about America available

I left out Basil Bernstein and Shirley Brice Heath. What are their theories of economic reproduction?

Basil Bernstein and Shirly Brice Heath both fall into the middle category of the economic determinism to cultural autonomy spectrum. --Basil Bernstein studied the educational ramifications of different linguistic patterns of children from different social groups (page 16). He discovered that children from working-class families had restricted linguistic codes and children from middle-class families had elaborated linguistic codes (page 17). He also found that schools use elaborated codes which put working-class students at a disadvantage. -- Shirley Brice Heath also studied language patterns, but she looked at the impact of race on the working class populations in specific communities (page 18). Her studies found that black working-class children are not socialized to cope with the language patterns used in school and are at a disadvantage (page 18). She also found that white working-class children developed many of the cognitive and linguistic skills required to be successful in elementary school, but failed to develop skills for sustained academic success and fell behind as well later in school (page 18). The basic point of both of these theorists is that because there is a mismatch between the language at home and the language needed for academic success in school, school is a serious setback for many working class and non-white children (page 18). Both Bernstein and Heath established theories about the power of linguistic cultural capital and demonstrated the consequences of not having the "right" linguistic cultural capital in the education systems. Their theories emphasized how a lack of success in the education system due to linguistic differences can lead to economic disadvantages later in life. These children are more likely to face social and economic hardship in adulthood.

Cultural Resistance to Ideology -

Because ideology is cultural, resistance to it tends also to be cultural, so cultural resistance is any attempt to clear the fog of ideology, exposing the structure of oppression and helping its victims see that they are not actually part of the elite class, nor do they benefit from its exercise of power. In short, it helps fight ideology.

1. Explain why middle-class debt is considered "good" for the economy (though less good for the people carrying debt).

By making credit available, the middle-class is able to indulge in luxuries and a higher-class lifestyle that they otherwise wouldn't be able to. With more "money" they are able to buy more goods and thus become a bigger class of consumers that feeds the economy. This ultimately puts the middle-class consumers deeper into debt as they continue to play "Keeping up with the Joneses," by using the credit to purchase things they cannot afford, and things they struggle to pay off like student loans, homes, and credit card balances (5). However, the wealthier of society will continue to profit and pour into the credit available to the middle-class, ultimately creating a cycle of gain by the capitalist and loss by the consumer.

ideology

Definition: "In Weber's terms, ideology is the "myth" by which the powerful ensure belief in the validity of their domination" (MacLeod p. 227). In that sense, ideology is any culture that justifies social inequality.

. How does economic mobility in Canada compare to the US? What do you think of that? I'll tell you that one reason for this enormous difference is that executive compensation in the US has become so high and so different from the wages of other workers.

Economic mobility in Canada is higher than in the US. According to Chetty and the data that he used, "the set of children who are born to families in the bottom quintile of the income distribution, about 7.5% of those kids make it the top fifth of the income distribution" in America. On the other hand, in Canada, that number is 13.5%. Chetty explains that basically in Canada, the American dream is almost twice as likely. I think that this puts a lot more pressure on the "American dream" as a whole. In America, according to Chetty's data, it is a lot less attainable to improve economic mobility. Chetty goes on to explain that within America itself, that number can change, depending on location, and be similar to the number in Canada. People are looking at America as a whole and this "dream" when in reality it is more attainable in certain parts of America than others. I also think that knowing the executive compensation in the US has become so high makes it seem even more out of reach for someone to achieve the American dream.

How does encouraging middle-class debt influence wealth inequality (as opposed to income inequality).

Encouraging middle-class debt influences wealth equality in many ways, as the article states. As the types of jobs available to the middle-class become less abundant, people who fall into that category are not receiving the same opportunities as high or low-paying jobs. Economist, Martin Hart-Landsberg, highlights what could be behind this odd rise and fall of the middle-class. As products and services raise their prices, middle-class Americans are having to compensate by taking on credit card debt in order to keep their lives running. As for the wealthier population, if they are already in a wealthy position then they have more of an opportunity to become even wealthier in regards to things like the stock market. Robert Reich mentions that the wealthier class of Americans don't need to "borrow" as they are already well off. In turn, middle-class Americans rise and fall and unfortunately end up in debt.

There are many different measures and theories of social class, but for Marx social class all comes down to one thing. What is that one thing?

For Marx, social class all comes down to the notion of alienation, and how these "alien powers" that confront us are forces that were created by an individual themselves, along with the "increasing alienation of man" in general. I took this to mean that our personal consciousness and the way we see the world around us is a reflection on the way we see ourselves in the rank of positions that contribute to production in society. The entity's that drive one, such as money, are what disconnects/alienates one from "the object he produces, from the process of production, from himself, and from the community of his fellows". By becoming more powerful and expendable as a worker an individual becomes less themselves and more as a producer in society.

Henry Giroux's theory of resistance.

Giroux's theory emphasizes the individual's choice to resist and how they react to their own life experiences plus the limitations put on themself (MacLeod 21).

What is McLeod's verdict on aspirations in Chapter 8?

His verdict on aspirations is they "provide a conceptual link between structure and agency in that they are rooted firmly in individual proclivity (agency) but also are acutely sensitive to perceived societal constraints (structure)" 115. Also in the reading, it mentions, on the issues of aspirations, Bourdieu and Passeron's theoretical formulations in Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture imply a circular relationship whereby objective probabilities are internalized as subjective hopes that reinforce structures of constraint

1. List at least three ways that the two groups Hughey studied are similar.

Hughey says that even those these two groups look and talk differently, they have many similarities. Some similarities that he talks about: 1.he says that "both groups spend a great deal of time defending who they are and what they do from outsiders", 2.these two organizations also "detest jokes about their activism" and "they work very hard to be taken seriously," 3.he says that both groups "worry about the future of race relations and white people in the US, if not global," 4.and Hughey states that "both white nationalist and white antiracist see themselves as autonomous individuals making independent choices that reflect their authentic desires and true selves." 5.Additionally, he talks about how both organizations had members that use the "dominant understandings of the race today to continually re-create and re-form both their individual and collective white racial identities."

How/why is "white identity" at the center of Hughey's argument? (Hint: Bonillia-Silva can help you, here.)

Hughey talks about how his goal is to draw attention to how "whites come to construct their own identities in ways that are simultaneously distinct and surprisingly similar" (4). When trying to understand racial identity there is a "racial hierarchy" (4), that serves communities as a "commonsense" system for organizing social action throughout many social contexts (4). These dominant meanings throughout our racial identities continue to reproduce the ongoing racial inequality. His goal was to make people understand that if one is identifying as "white identity" they are setting themselves in a category that perpetuates the social hierarchy order.

How does the idea of essentialism (defined in Module One) play out among the people Hughey interviews?

Hughey was comparing two groups in his study that would look at finding the meaning of what white racial identity was to them. In both his groups he found that both spent an amount of time trying to defend who they were as a group and how they were different from outsiders (page 3). Hughey in a way is looking to see what characteristic they have inherited within their own experience to define them as who they are, but later on Hughey explains his focus which touches into a concept which is very similar in definition to essentialism. In his interviews he focuses on Symbolic boundaries which is defined as, "Symbolic Boundaries are the conceptual divisions that people make between object, between themselves and other people, and between practices"

Define and compare economic determinism & cultural autonomy. (MacLeod also calls these "deterministic models of reproduction" and "the relative autonomy of individuals in their own cultural settings."

In economic determinism, humans are viewed as the effects of structural determinants, and in this view, humans simply act as role-bearers (pg 21). However, culturalism seeks to first understand an individual's culture and experiences before seeking to connect that culture and experiences into the demand of capitalist social relations. Economic determinism: Deterministic models of reproduction have structural requirements of the capitalist economic society as its starting point. These theories seek to demonstrate how individuals in society are bound to fulfill predefined roles that then lead to the perpetuation on a class society (pg 11). Cultural autonomy: Cultural models reflecting the relative autonomy of individuals in their own cultural settings begin with understanding the experiences of individuals, and only after recognizing cultural and personal factors relating to an individual does the model attempt to connect those experiences with the requirements of a capitalist society (pg 12).

In Chapter Eight, McLeod revisits the theorists we talked about in Module 2 (Paul Willis, Bowles and Gintis, Henry Giroux, Pierre Bourdieu). In light of the evidence MacLeod collected in this book, which end of the spectrum (which theorists and which kinds of theories) did he find to be lacking?

In revisiting the theorists from earlier chapters, MacLeod finds both sides of the spectrum to be lacking, but the economic determinist side is more so. These theories cannot account for the contributions of individual cultural practices and attitudes of the lower class that lead to social reproduction. Furthermore, MacLeod states that cultural autonomy theories are lacking in that they fail to "connect the micro-processes they document to the macro forces that constrain working class individuals" (152). Instead, he proposes a sort of mixture that integrates both theories to allow for a full picture.

List the ethnic categories and percent's for each.

In the United States, there is a report of 61.6% of White individuals, 12.4% of Black or African American individuals, 6% Asian individuals, 1.1% Amerindian and Alaska native, .2% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 8.4% are listed as other and 10.2% are of two or more races. In Mexico, the ethnic categories are recorded at Mestizo individuals at 62%, predominantly Amerindian 21%, Amerindian at 7%, and 10% are other/mostly European.

Pierre Bourdieu's Theory of cultural reproduction.

In this theory, Bourdieu states that children gain their cultural capital from their parents. Cultural capital includes knowledge, disposition, and skills that are passed from generation to generation (MacLeod 14). This theory explains why there is much inequality in resources and schools because the wealthy only help others in their economic group.

Do unemployment statistics include people in prison in the number of people who are unemployed? How does the answer to this question influence our sense of unemployment and the health of the economy? How does it influence matters of social justice?

Inequality is disguised in this way because employment data often does not include the those mostly poor men who are locked away in prison(37). When prisoners are counted among the unemployed, we find that racial inequality in employment and earnings is much greater than when we ignore them in the count (37). This would influence our sense of unemployment and the health of our economy because the penal system produces inequality by reducing the wages and employment prospects of released prisoners (37). Further, the low-wage, unstable employment they experience when they return to society only worsens the divisions of race and class

In Crenshaw's analogy, each road is a form of discrimination, and the cars are policies and practices along those roads. What role does the law play in Crenshaw's analogy?

It addresses crashes on the roads, but not at the intersections.

1. Take the major points from my summary of Bonillia-Silva's article, above, list them, and put matching page references beside each.

It is the normal outcome of racialized social systems. (467, 469, 470, 471, 473, 474, 475) It makes perfect sense in our world. It is not irrational! (468, 475) It is a social-structural problem, not merely individual. (468, 470, 473, 476) It does not require explicit action--or people. (472, 473, 475) Racial classifications change; so does racism. (470, 471, 472, 473) If we sent everyone to therapy to address their own racism, the racialized social structure would remain and reproduce racism. (476) We re-make racism every day. *us* *me* (471, 472) It's not an "original sin" of colonialism and slavery in the past, even though that history helped establish today's structures. (468, 472)

What did Katz study and why? What did she find?

Katz studied the children's minds and their development of racial bias. Her study consisted of 100 black children and 100 white children (3). When the children were 6-month-olds, she showed them images of faces of different races, and she concluded that the babies stared longer at pictures of a face that was not their parents' race (4). ---Katz took two approaches to her study, first, showing the kids photographs of other children, and asking them to say whom they would want to be friends with (4). 86% of them chose children of the same race (4). ----In her second approach, Katz asked children to sort cards into piles once they were 5 and 6 years old. She found that 68% of the children split the deck of cards based on race, while 16% split the deck based on gender (4). She states, "I think it is fair to say that at no point in the study did the children exhibit the Rousseau type of color-blindness that many adults expect." (4). Katz showed how important it is for parents/adults to teach babies and young children about other races to prevent a biased mindset. Her findings showed how essential it is to talk about race to children at a young age because that is a crucial period in which children develop their conclusion about race

According to MacLeod, the U.S. education system plays a crucial role in the legitimation of inequality. How?

MacLeod discusses the US educational system, and mentions that Bowles and Gintis argue that "...schools train the wealthy to take up places at the top of the economy while conditioning the poor to accept their lowly status in the class structure" (12). MacLeod also mentions that "...through its institutional relationships, the system of education in the United States "tailors the self-concepts, aspirations, and social class identifications of individuals to the requirements of the social division of labor." (12).. These students of a lower socioeconomic status go to school expecting the same level of education as all other students, but ultimately do not.

Which of MacLeod's groups had the longest history (generations) living in the projects?

MacLeod's group called the "Hallway Hangers" have had the longest history of living in the projects. They have a shared desire to escape the projects, and help their families. (3-4) The reading states that the "Hallway Hangers families have lived in public housing for at least twenty years, and some are second-generation tenants

MacLeod is using the following definition of ideology. Compare that with everyday meanings for that word and discuss reasons this definition is more useful for sociological analysis. Here's the quote from MacLeod p.227: In Weber's terms, ideology is the "myth" by which the powerful ensure belief in the validity of their domination.

MacLeods definition is much more useful for a sociological analysis; in the American Dream example it is much more realistic to describe the American Dream as a myth because of how unachieveable it actually is for those with low income and struggling with dept rather then to describe the American Dream as a systems of beliefs that influences our society. 'Ideology' is commonly used to describe ideas or ways of thinking in a society that translate to social behavior. The Oxford Dictionary defines 'Ideology' as "a set of beliefs, especially one held by a particular group, that influences the way people behave." MacLeod describes an 'Achievement Ideology' in the first chapter which is the ideology of the American Dream---the belief that America is full of opportunity and all you have to do is work hard and build yourself up to success. However, as we know from common trends in our readings (The Disappearing Middle) that rich get richer and as of recent the poor just go into more and more dept---it doesnt matter how hard Americans work when they are forced to take on new debt. MacLeods definition of ideology describes how its a myth that people in power bestow upon those who are not---using their power as 'proof' that the system of beliefs (ideologies) are beneficial and therefore 'valid.' However, it is a 'myth' because those positions of power are nearly impossible to achieve.

How does MacLeod delineate the difference between aspirations and expectations, and what is the relationship between these two concepts?

Macleod explains that in articulating one's aspirations, an individual weighs his or her preferences more heavily; while expectations are tempered by perceived capabilities and available opportunities (62). Further, aspirations are one's preferences relatively unsoiled by anticipated constraints and, on the other hand, expectations take these constraints squarely into account (62). The relationship between these two concepts would be that they both involve assessments of one's desires and abilities, and the character of the opportunity structure (62).

How does Marx make use of social structures and social institutions, as defined in Module Two?

Marx makes use of social structures and social institutions by explaining that "all major institutional spheres in capitalist society" are intertwined with alienation. The concept of alienation is not only a personal issue, but one in which man is alienated from the social institution in which he is involved. Most notable, the concept of man being alienated from his "species-being." This is the relationship of man within his work and relationship with other men.

Means & Medians:

Measuring income and wealth using means (averages) results in numbers that are skewed toward extreme cases (the very rich), making the average US income appear very large. Medians are usually a better measure. as they represent the income of the person in the middle of an income or wealth distribution.

Who is affected by that problem?

Reporters, policy makers, politicians (all of them)

Social Structures --

Social structures are habits of action made up of ideas, and material structures, often, but not always in the form of social institutions.

In September 2020—when many K-12 schools didn't resume in-person classes, 1.1 million people dropped out of the labor force, and 80% of them were women. How do you think that affects inequality in the United States? Remember to incorporate the definition of unemployment from #2.

The 80% of 1.1 million women who dropped out of the labor force either went from being employed to unemployed and not seeking a job or unemployed but no longer seeking a job (Broad-strokes report). This is most likely due to the expectations for women to stay home and take care of their children (RAND Corporation). The article points out that a significant amount of women's labor force participation rate drops during the start of school--August and September (Figure 2). The article also points out that women with kids leave the labor force at much higher rates than men women on average make 18% less than men . It makes more sense for the person in the household who is making more money to continue working while the other stays home and continues to care for the children. This is how women dropping out of the labor force affects inequality in America--there is a continuous loop of women trying to create a career for themselves while also trying to start a family and then end up not having enough time or enough money to support their career and their children simultaneously

Define essentialism, according to the article; now compare it to the definition, above.

The Bronson and Merryman: "The spontaneous tendency to assume your group shares characteristics—such as niceness, or smarts.". The definition Professor Bryon gave us: "a belief that something has an inherent set of characteristics that makes it what it is and determines its possibilities; the doctrine that essence is prior to existence." The differences between these two definitions are that the first definition does not mention that essentialism deals with an inherent quality that is assumed to be there from birth. Saying that it is a spontaneous tendency makes it sound like it is a belief that could potentially only occur once. The first definition also lacks the part that states that essentialist beliefs determine one's possibilities and opportunities in life.

What's the significance of the Diverse Environment Theory? Has the theory been confirmed?

The Diverse Environment Theory indicates that if a child is exposed to a variety of ethnicities, races, and cultures from a young age the environment then becomes the message. In other words, if a kid grows up within a diverse environment they will not see race as a definitive factor. (Page 4) --The significance of the theory is that many parents genuinely believe by not bringing up the notion of race to their child at a young age and simply having them surrounded by and within a diverse environment that would have more of an impact on the child and not create a bias. Evidently, this was not the case. (katz study/ preteens and teenagers who go to diverse schools tend to segregate themselves with people who are from the same ethnic background)

What is the role of race in MacLeod's study? You might think it's backwards at first, but MacLeod easily demonstrates that the kids just look around and assess their probably of being stuck in Clarendon Heights and/or ending up in jail. How does that work (differently) for the two groups?

The Hallway Hangers are a group of (majority) white teenagers who live in Clarendon Heights and are very troublesome. They do drugs, get in fights, and have all been arrested or charged several times for various reasons. The Hallway Hangers all agree that you have to be 'bad' to be cool and/or fit in with them. Being 'bad' means drinking, doing drugs, not trying too hard in school or anything in general. They look down on those who get good grades or 'try hard.' The Hallway Hangers resent a group of (majority) black teenagers (and black people in general) referred to as 'The Brothers.' They are very racist towards them (regularly calling them racial slurs) and feel as if they are taking over Clarendon Heights as well as taking opportunities away from them. (This racism also mostly stems from racial riots that took place in the early 70s.) The Brothers are almost opposite of the Hallway Hangers. The Brothers do not drink or smoke and they regularly attend school and also have never been arrested. They are involved in school and sports. The Hallways Hangers' parents did not have huge expectations for their children and only wanted them to get a job--doesn't really matter what job as long as it's a job. On the other hand, The Brothers' parents have higher expectations for success for their children and expressed that they want their children to have successful careers and build their way up to higher income.

tell us how the government measures unemployment, exactly. It's pretty simple, but has some weaknesses. What kinds of people who don't work are not counted as unemployed?

The U.S. determines the unemployment rate by dividing the unemployed individuals by the total number of individuals in the labor force. This is then converted into a percentage. The government measures unemployment as someone who is not currently working, but is actively searching for a job, as stated in the section on who is counted as unemployed. To measure the percentage of unemployment in the country, the government releases a survey called the Current Population Survey, with the survey sample aiming to be representative of the entire population since it would be nearly impossible to account for every employed and unemployed individual (Where do the Statistics Come From). The people who do not work that are not counted as unemployed are individuals that do not have a job and are not looking for work (not in the labor force). There are some weaknesses and criticisms about how restrictive the unemployment measure seems to be, looking over individuals who have become discouraged in their job search. This discouragement leads job seekers to stop looking for jobs and therefore cannot be counted as unemployed

1. According to MacLeod, the U.S. education system plays a crucial role in the legitimation of inequality. How does it do that? (What mechanism is involved?)

The US education system plays a crucial role in the legitimation of inequality by "sorting students according to ostensibly meritocratic criteria" (pg 114). This means that schools use academic credentials as currency, therefore when students do well or poorly in school they believe it is based on merit. When students internalize their failures, their self esteem suffers and they then accept that their occupational outcome in life is a product of their own shortcomings. Low self-esteem that is developed in school is then continued in adult life, leading these individuals to believe that their position in society is their own fault. Subsequently, when individuals are convinced that they are the ones responsible for their low position in society, the mechanism of social reproduction continues.

What is the current total unemployment rate?

The current total unemployment rate is 3.5% (July 2022) (Civilian unemployment rate graph).

6. Which group was interested in demonstrating that they were "BAD" (as in "bad ass")? Write their name and describe them by race and a couple other descriptors.

The group that was interested in demonstrating that they were "BAD" are the Hallway Hangers because "being bad entails the consumption of alcohol and the use of drugs on a regular basis

Crenshaw tells the story of Emma, a black woman who applied for a job at an automobile manufacturing plant and argued race and gender discrimination were the reason she wasn't hired. What was the judge's response?

The plant hired both African-Americans and women

What kind of system is characterized by an absolute inability to change social locations (from rich to poor, for example).

The public housing system. We can see this through the time most of the families of the hallway hangers have lived there. This ranges from 13-30 years (54). The housing system creates a cycle for families and eventually gets them stuck with this role in society. We also can see how the hallway hangers create a group of people who will stay in this cycle, which helps the social reproduction theory. I think our stratification of society and inequalities faced by many different demographics is another reason for individuals to be stuck in their social locations.

unemployment

The term unemployment only considers those who are actively seeing a job; meaning that you can be jobless and not considered unemployed if you are not applying to jobs, sending resumes, etc. To be considered in the labor force, you must be either employed or unemployed

Given the decline in middle class jobs (and the stagnation in pay for the remaining jobs), what must middle-class people do to prevent falling into a lower class? How does that affect their wealth? (Hint: The answer is in the Overview, above.)

There has been a great decline in middle class jobs, most of which are trade jobs, due to the automation of these jobs in recent years. With this decline of the jobs that fall in the vary middle of the ladder, it is pushing these workers into college . While earning a college degree would in theory prevent these workers from falling into a lower class it can also be a great source of debt, as tuition is steadily increasing. This debt to obtain a better job can often be debilitating for both the middle class worker and even sometimes their families. Attending college can also prevent you four (or more) years of earning potential and experience in your field . So while these middle class employees may be pushed to attend college in efforts to avoid falling into a lowerclass it can also negatively affect their wealth by attributing a great deal of debt to repay.

ethnic pride

These talks give minority children a sense of pride and confidence in themselves ultimately attributing their successes in their lives to their effort and ability (7). However, one prediction made by a clinical psychologist named April Harris-Britt claims that predicting frequent discrimination towards minority children could actually be more harmful than actually experiencing the discrimination itself and can create a negative outlook on the way these minority children view the world around them (7). Having these talks are important but also are recommended by Harris-Britt to be done in a moderate fashion rather than as often to protect the way their children view others and their world around them (7).

Bowels and Ginits' Correspondence principle.

This theory states that schools teach wealthy children in ways so they can stay wealthy and train the poor to accept their roles in low-status jobs. This will help future capitalist employers. (MacLeod 12).

What happened in Vittrup's study, including the follow-up.

Vittrup conducted a study to see if children's videos with multicultural storylines have any beneficial effect on children's racial attitudes, in which White families with children between the ages of five and seven were split into three groups. One group was to show their children multicultural themed videos, the second group got videos that were to be used as jumping off points for discussion about interracial friendships, and the third group was given a checklist of topics to discuss with their children, but no videos. Vittrup found that parents in the third group who were supposed to talk about racial equality on their own immediately dropped out of the study because they didn't want their children to see color and they themselves didn't want to point it out to the first she though there was no difference between the groups bc parents would divert to, "everyone is equal" because they didn't know what else to say. However, after looking a little more closely she found that six of the families that had gone through with talking about interracial friendships ended up having their kids dramatically improve their racial attitudes in as little as one week(2). This shows that talking about race is important for kids who are developing at a young age.

What is Crenshaw's explanation for our inability to notice and remember certain kinds of new information?

We need "frames" to make sense of new information

As we continue to fall into the COVID-19 Recession, what role do gaps in income and wealth play in individual economic mobility?

When the Recession happened, income inequality grew and the government got people to spend more by promoting easy credit for the people who are less wealthy. However, much of the profits made from easy credit made the wealthy richer and therefore widened the gap between the rich and the poor even more. As income inequality continues to grow, debt continues to increase and build up for the poor. Moreover, as debt increases more people have to rely on credit. This cycle continues to grow. So, as we are continuing to fall into the COVID-19 Recession, the gaps are widening even more. While people are trying to pay off their debts, it will be even harder to close the gap due to more debt piling up from the COVID-19 Recession. This impacts individual economic mobility because it will be difficult for those dealing with the debts of the previous recession to improve their status.

4. The last article in the compilation (by Lisa Wade) discusses the disappearance off middle-class jobs, and it relies on research by a different author (Martin Hart-Landsberg). The first chart focuses on the US and compares the wages of the richest 10% and the average worker (at the 50% mark), relative to the poorest 10%. In other words it shows how much each group is or isn't pulling away from the bottom. What is the trend for each group?

While looking at the chart you can see that since the 1970s, there has been an increase in income disparity, but since the late 1980s, the wealthiest have continued to outpace the ordinary American while the poor have not been catching up. Due to their growing options for employment that pay them more than the 50%-10%, the affluent are getting richer and richer aand this chart really demonstrates that. People in the middle class appear to be growing poorer and poorer due to the decline in the number of middle-paying jobs. The 50% - 10% you notice from 1990 the group have remained stationary. Although it appears that the ordinary individual has not been moving away from the lowest 10%, the top 90% continue to distance themselves from that group.

Did the COVID-19 recession affect men and women differently? How so? What do you think is the story behind that?

Women seemed to face higher unemployment rates at the peak of the COVID-19 outbreak (normally its men) _pandemic had a greater effect on women's unemployment because it is typically women who work in more social settings. Women, stereotyped for gentle and caring nature, are typically the professions that work with people the most closely. For example, teachers, therapists, and housecleaners/nannies are all considered to be primarily female held professions.

What are the barriers and pitfalls that working-class students face?

Working-class students face an abundance of barriers and pitfalls that other students may not face when attending a university. For example, this article talks about the social pressures that come with the partying atmosphere present at most larger schools, and how this partying can be extremely costly for "students of lesser means, who need to grow up sooner, cannot afford to be financially irresponsible, and need the credentials and skills that college offers." Additionally, this article helps to explain how what a particular student gets out of their college experience is organizationally produced in a way that is mean to serve socially oriented students (fraternities, sororities, easy majors) but can also appeal to students of different classes who would benefit more from a "mobility pathway". Another barrier that these students face is the notion that majors can be changed and that its not big deal to change it multiple times, because for some family's this is extremely unaffordable and a very costly change to make. A regionally campus could server these students better due to its ability to cater to students who work for their school and have a lower social economic status. According to this article the best predictor of success found within the students was whether there was "a good fit between a given student's resources and agendas, and the structure of the university."

Adichie argues that people who have bought into a singular story line need to see it reproduced in order to recognize that story as

_authentic

Adichie argues that stereotypes are not so much untrue but

_incomplete

Institutions --

a set of habits and social relationships that people observe as stable. Institutions operate within and across a society. Examples of institutions that operate in our society are education, politics, the economy, families, fast food, and the internet

Quintiles

are the most common way to compare tiers within a population. Quintiles are just five equally sized groups, each representing 20% of the population from the poorest fifth/20% to the richest 20%.

How does MacLeod define aspirations? Where does he say aspirations come from, and what does he think they might do? Where does he place this idea in his continuum from deterministic to culturally autonomous models?

aspirations = a reflection of one's perception on the likelihood that they see themselves succeeding in their goals and also includes an "internalization of objective probabilities" (15). --Aspirations come from the individual themselves and their habits as well as their environment. ----He says that, "aspirations are not the product of a rational analysis; rather, they are acquired in the habitus of the individual" He mentions, "a lower-class child growing up in an environment where success is rare is much less likely to develop strong ambitions than is middle class boy or girl growing up in a social world" -- this shows that people who grow up with limited resources are unlikely to have big dreams/aspirations for what they want to do in life; since, they were not exposed to these opportunities growing up. He defines the deterministic theory as an "attempt to demonstrate how individuals are obliged to fulfill predefined roles that ensure the perpetuation of a class society" (11). An example he gives of the deterministic theory is when he is talking about how lower class individuals don't have the same aspirations as middle-class workers; since there are more job opportunities available for them such as "construction, the armed forces and professional athletics" (4). He defines the culturally autonomous model as "experience of individuals, and only after understanding people on their own terms" (11-12). An example he offers of the culturally autonomous model is the experience between middle class individuals and lower class individuals is different due to the fact that they come from very distinct environments where resources are limited for some & unlimited for others and the job opportunities are slim for the the lower class compared to the middle class.

How does MacLeod explain the fact that the Brothers have lower-than-expected performance at school?

attributes the Brother's lower than expected performance at school to the notion of cultural capital. He expands on that idea by stating that the cultural capital of lower classes is devalued by schools while the cultural capital of upper classes is rewarded, meaning the "rules of the game" are skewed in favor of upper class individuals; leading them to attain higher grades

What elements of college life (structure) might be causing working-class students to fail and/or drop out?

drinking, greek life, exotic majors(take longer to graduate)

What is the difference between equality and equity? Explain this, especially in terms of creating good social policy. Maybe mention curb cuts.

equality is defined as "giving everyone the right to ride on the bus" equity is defined as "ensuring that there are curb cuts so people in wheelchairs can get to the bus stop and lifts so they can get on the bus." Furthermore, it is encouraging fairness by having rules, laws, and conditions put in place so everyone is able to participate, grow and reach their full potential. Equity is a way to combat inequality, the article gives the example of improving the pay and quality of low-wage jobs. In terms of creating good social policy, equity plays a part in putting policies or curb cuts that recognizes that everyone has different circumstances and each individual or group of people should be compensated based on their situation.

Go through the paper and list the effects of color-blind parenting.

families withdrew themselves, kids believed that their parents did not like other races, kids thought they were not allowed to talk about race, developmental period for talking about race could potentially close

What is the story (about curbs) behind this article? (blackwell article)

first "curb cut" installed in Berkeley, California. Blackwell describes the moment of this curb cut being installed as "a free speech movement, an antiwar movement, a civil rights movement -- a movement for a movement" (pg. 2). This moment of accessibility became a turning point and thousands of curb cuts were installed across the country (pg. 2). What started as a "curb cut" soon turned into the passing of the Americans with Disabilities Act, passed on July 6, 1990 by President George H.W. Bush, which "prohibited disability-based discrimination and mandated change to the built environment" (pg. 2). Soon, everyone was benefiting from these curb cuts, leading into the idea of the "curb cut effect." This story provides the background information necessary for understanding the article, as well as including a detailed example and definition of what the "curb cut effect" is. (everyone benefits)

After reading the article, go to the "Special Circumstances" section of our course syllabus. Explain how Mills is relevant to this policy. How could you use Mills to frame a request for a change in some element of the course? Why do you think my policy works that way? Do you think you need to argue that everyone experienced the same hardship, or might you argue that a structurally-produced hardship creates inequality?

he policy for this course outlines the difference between special and collective circumstances. Special circumstances are more of an individual problem, which the syllabus says is tragic/great, however it won't make it more likely for a student to be given special treatment on deadlines or extra credit. Collective circumstances, as explained in the syllabus, are issues/things occurring with multiple students or certain groups at once that pose a larger problem. In Mills' concept, private trouble relates most to those "special circumstances", and public issues relate most to "collective circumstances". Using Mills to request a change of some sort in the course would be most effective if posed as a "collective circumstance" or a public issue. It does not sound quite as pressing when it is posed as a personal, singular issue as opposed to when it's posed as a problem that a group of students are having. My personal understanding of why the policy for this class works this way is to eliminate being taken advantage of. If one student receives extra credit or a deadline pushed back, then they might assume that they can always use this excuse and take advantage of the grace of the professor.

How does the intersection of social class with Greek life and/or parties play into dropping out?

here is a clear intersection of social class with Greek life and partying because of the financial demands that are required of those who choose to engage in the activities. Monica, who didn't choose to rush a sorority, didn't have the financial means for the $60 t-shirt and the costly membership fee

During the 1990s: If a young black man dropped out of school, what was more likely to happen? Would he likely would find employment or land in prison?

if a young black men dropped out of school, they were more likely in prison than in a job.

To address that problem, Crenshaw invented a new term. What is it?

intersectionality

3. How would you characterize the different forms of inequality like race, class, gender, nationality, sexuality orientation, age, ability, and economic inequality? Would you say they

intertwined and work together, often in the same institutions. I think intersectionality can be referenced to understand this better. Intersectionality is the idea that aspects of people's social identities combine to form various modes of discrimination and privilege. These different identities overlap and become intertwined, and I believe that the same institutions reinforce these differences in ways that promote inequality.

Cultural Hegemony

is a form of ideology that involves imposing elite culture, itself, on the masses, not just legitimating the idea that elites deserve their rewards but that their culture and beliefs should be everyone's culture and beliefs.

The Gini Coefficient

is a single number that summarizes the concentration of income or wealth in a given population.

Relative Mobility

is the change in a person's economic position, relative to everyone else. That is, we sort everyone into quintiles according to their economic position at birth, and do it again when they turn 30. Did their quintile/rank change? That's relative mobility

Absolute Mobility

is the change in actual earnings from one point to another, especially your household income at birth compared to your household income at age 30.

Wealth

is the value of a person or family's assets minus their unsecured debts. Many people and families have negative wealth (more debt than assets). "Secured debt" is generally not counted in the equation. This mostly refers to home mortgages and car loans. So long as the home or car is worth more than what is owed, the debt can be paid by selling the asset, so it doesn't count against net wealth, while home equity (the value of the home minus what is owed) counts as an asset. Credit card debt (often called consumer debt), medical debt, and student loans are the most common types of unsecured debt. Finally, wealth and debt can be retained over the course of years and generations, so they have longer-term effect on a person's trajectory through life, and demonstrate greater inequality in the U.S. economic system.

Debt

is, of course, money owed. It also figures into wealth calculations, but is generally measured as a ratio of debt to income (debt divided by income). If you owe $20,000 and earn $40,000, your debt-to-income ratio is 0.5 or 50%. Credit and debt are also important forces in our economy because they prop up spending when times are tight, and spending is the fuel of our economy. Credit also encourages spending among the lower two-thirds of wage earners, and that's important (to the economy) because the wealthy save more of their income than other people do. When inequality increases, the middle and lower classes lose their ability to spend. At the same time, greater portions of the nation's total income go to the wealthy, who spend less and save more. Credit shifts spending to the increasingly less-and-less-wealthy so that total spending doesn't decline, along with the economy.

7. Did any of the kids have middle-class aspirations? Who? (You don't need names. Describe groups or characteristics.)

it appears that the Hallway Hangers have low aspirations for their futures and professions, whereas the Brothers have higher, middle-class aspirations. In example, the boys of the Hallway Hangers shared that they and their parents only hoped for them to have a job and not be unemployed. The Brothers, however, stated that their parents hoped for them to be lawyers, go to college, or get office jobs that didn't require heavy manual labo

How do unemployment rates compare between men and women across the whole time series?

it can be seen that the unemployment rate of men, 20 years and older was 3.2%, while the unemployment rate of women, 20 years and old was 3.4% ---Across the whole time series, the unemployment rate comparing men and women seems to be about the same, but at times the men's unemployment rate is higher. ---There are two times where there is a very large difference between the two. First in 2008, and the second in 2020. In 2008, the men's unemployment rate was significantly higher than the women's, and in 2020, the women's unemployment rate is much higher. (It can be assumed that the unemployment rate was so high in 2008 because of the recession, and in 2020, it is most likely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020, many mothers were unable to return to work because their children were sent home from school, and they could not afford childcare.)

Is alienation only relevant to work, the economy and capitalism, or can the idea be applied to other social institutions?

lienation is absolutely not just relevant to work, the economy and capitalism and can be applied to other social institutions. "Alienation hence confronts man in the whole world of institutions in which he is enmeshed" (Coser). The reading discusses how alienation affects individuals within society based on the institutions they are involved in themselves. How could one be alienated from an institution they have no affiliation with? "In an alienated society, the whole mind-set of men, their consciousness, is to a large extent only the reflection of the conditions in which they find themselves and of the position in the process of production in which they are variously placed" (

In sociology, we refer to the kind of singlular story lines that Adichie describes as _____.

monolithic

2. How might you use Bonillia-Silva to explain overt racism in contemporary U.S. politics, especially the extent to which many observers have been surprised by the sudden appearance of racism and white nationalism since Trump?

n Bonillia-Silva's paper he states that one of limitations of racism is that it is a static phenomenon. He states, "when a society's racial structure and its customary racial practices are rearticulated, this rearticulation is characterized as a decline in racism" (467). This can go hand in hand when trying to explain the overt racism suddenly appearing since Trump. Trump's entire tagline was to "Make America Great Again", and many white supremacists rearticulated this into making it a slogan for white nationalism. Also, when Trump would address Covid-19 as the "China virus" or the "Wuhan Flu" this redirected white nationalists to blame and become racist towards Chinese people, rather than be concerned about a deadly virus. Silva in the earlier parts of the paper also bring up many Marxist views by explaining how classism and racism work together

What's the main effect of education on the number of genres a person is likely to enjoy / how eclectic they are likely to be? I

n reading the article, I found the line chart to be very helpful in understanding what it was trying to convey. The study found that people with the higher levels or education were less likely to reject the music genres. That does not mean, however, that these people did not reject any of the genres. The highly educated group was most likely to reject "rap, heavy metal, country, and gospel" which were the "four types of music with the least educated audiences" (Bryson pg. 894). The more education the person had, the more likely they were to be musically tolerant/eclectic, however, even those considered musically tolerant were most likely to reject or exclude music that is commonly associated with the lower class

Even omnivores dislike a few specific genres, however. Which ones are they? What's significant about disliking those genres as opposed to disliking other unpopular genres such space music and opera?

omnivorous taste may include high-status types of music that are popular among non-Whites, especially 'world music' genres like reggae and Latin music, while excluding low-status genres like gospel and country regardless of their association with race or ethnicity" (887). It is also said that heavy metal is the most disliked genre of music across the board as well as rap music widely being rejected by these omnivores. Bryson suggests that this could be a source of cultural capital. There are three characteristics of cultural capital that would meet the specifications for this pattern of music taste. They are cultural tolerance, familiarity with the culture is restricted, and it can be the base line for social exclusion. Bryson states, "The types of music most often disliked by tolerant respondents are consistently the genres whose audiences are the least education... exclusion of low-status music genres is stronger than identification with high-status genres" (894). What is significant about omnivore disliking these specific genres is that it shows that they are generally tolerant, but tend to lean towards more high class status music. It is shown that education tolerance is a pretty big factor for these music omnivores. Also, when looking at who listens to the least favored music genres, the majority is non-White listeners. Bryson concludes, "Broad patterns of taste, then, tend to exclude low-status genres more than other types of music" (894).

Define and compare these two terms: reproduction & resistance. Where does economic determinism and cultural autonomy fit in to this theory?

reproduction theory= attempts to show how and why the United States can be depicted more accurately as the place where the rich get richer and the poor stay poor rather than being depicted as the land of opportunity. It identifies barriers to social mobility and based on preconditions. resistance theory= is the destabilizing roles of non conformity in the process of social reproduction. It is based on action and opposition. (Page 8) Theorists differ in their idea of how deterministic social reproduction is and what role individual autonomy might play. Economic determinism fits into this theory because it shows how economic relationships are the basis of all other societal organizations. A culture is autonomous when it expresses past, present and future aspirations of the people. Autonomy fits into this theory because it begins with the experiences of individuals in the process of social reproduction.

Income

s money earned in a given period of time, and it can refer to individual or household income--usually adjusted for the number of people in that household. Income may come from wages, salary, business profits, capital gains (profits from assets), "transfers" (such as social security, disability, or unemployment checks), even gifts and lottery winnings. Sometimes, income is measured only in wages and salary, however. Be sure you know what is measured when you see such reports.

List the five key factors Chetty attributes to geographic difference in the U.S. compared to other places.

segregation income inequality measures of family structure social capital school quality

That process of culturally creating ideas about the essential nature of things is called

social construction.

What social institution is mythically supposed to produce equality of opportunity in the United States stratification system?

the institution of education in the United States produces equality of opportunity by granting individuals the ability to create and choose the life they want for themselves. This view allows social and economic stagnation or decline to be attributed to the individual while ignoring institutional barriers. Because blame is shifted to the individual, institutions and their actors can continue to act freely. The claim that equality of opportunity is produced by our educational systems is overly simplistic as it does not account for external factors. For example, chapter three of MacLeod's work discusses racial factors between the Brothers and the Hallway Hangers.

In the 2nd chart that Lisa Wade presents (also from Hart-Landsberg). The rise and fall of high-, middle-, and low-paying jobs is compared across 17 Western nations. What is the overall trend, and how does the US compare?

there are less and less middle-paying occupational positions. Across 17 countries not a single one of them is in positive numbers. The United States has less middle-class paying positions than the Netherlands and Portugal, however, there are more opportunities than in the United Kingdom and Austria. Therefore, the United States tends to be in the middle when it comes to the number of opportunities for the middle-class. The United States also seems to be mutual when in comparison to the other countries. For instance, Austria has the highest number of upper-class paying jobs and the U.S is less than half of that average. However, Ireland has the highest number of lowest-paying occupations and the U.S. is less than half of that number. The Unites States seems to be painfully average in this global trend, yet wealth inequality runs rampant and continues to threaten our economy.

How do you think COVID-19 has, had, or might influence these outcomes for either university?

think COVID-19 would've had an influence on the "party-ness" of MU and would have changed the outcomes. When COVID-19 hit, many classes and schools were forced to move online. Campuses closed and I think that would have gotten rid of in-person activities that you would often see like clubs, classes, Greek life, and sports events. There would be some parties but I know the number of parties would be decreased. If we look at the example of Karen and Monica, I think COVID would limit their "distractions" and have them more focused on their studies and they would have gotten better grades. Maybe with these factors, they would have decided to stay at MU and pursue their original majors

Adichie argues that power lies in both the ability to tell another person's story and

to make it the definitive story of that person

Paul Willis' observations

we see boys who grew up in a working-class household happily take jobs on a working-class level (MacLeod 20). In this example, we can culture shaping structure. Willis states that trying to see things as either cultural or structural is far too restricted since there are many other factors that come into play and we need to see things with more complexities.

What is the curb-cut effect in general terms? Include the economic term for this pattern and the idea of the common good (from the end of the article).

what can happen when barriers are broken for inclusion and equity and in turn more groups/people will end up benefitting other than just the intended group. It is usually an unintended outcome that allows everyone to enjoy the benefits and also makes a situation more equitable which is proving that equity doesn't mean some people end up losing what they had to give other groups the same benefits. The economic term used for this pattern from the article (pg. 2) was positive externality which means that there is a positive effect on unrelated groups. The idea of the common good at the end of the article (pg. 6-7) discusses how making systems and institutions equitable doesn't have to be a political topic and it has been proven that making things equitable benefits all people and groups and is for the common good of our society.

MOODY- Duke University's James Moody

—an expert on how adolescents form and maintain social networks—analyzed data on more than 90,000 teenagers at 112 different schools from every region of the country. ---asked students to name their five best male friends and their five best female friends then matched the ethnicity of the student with the race of each named friend, then compared the number of each student's cross-racial friendships with the school's overall diversity. __ HE found that the more diverse the school, the more the kids self-segregate by race and ethnicity within the school, and thus the likelihood that any two kids of different races have a friendship goes down.