Social Movement final

The Equal Rights Amendment

A constitutional amendment originally introduced in Congress in 1923 and passed by Congress in 1972, stating that "equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." Despite public support, the amendment failed to acquire the necessary support from three-fourths of the state legislatures. What is its significance to this course? Government once again failed to uphold rights of women, act in their favor. Neither republicans nor democrats supported the Amendment enough to ratify it. Government taking a stand against women's rights. Here, the 1972 passage represented a victory for women but its ultimate failure tells of the inherent gender discrimination within society and governance

Freedom Rides

On May 4, 1961, a group of 13 African-American and white civil rights activists launched the Freedom Rides, a series of bus trips through the American South to protest segregation in interstate bus terminals. The Freedom Riders, who were recruited by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), a U.S. civil rights group, departed from Washington, D.C., and attempted to integrate facilities at bus terminals along the way into the Deep South. African-American Freedom Riders tried to use "whites-only" restrooms and lunch counters, and vice versa. The group encountered tremendous violence from white protestors along the route, but also drew international attention to their cause. Over the next few months, several hundred Freedom Riders engaged in similar actions. In September 1961, the Interstate Commerce Commission issued regulations prohibiting segregation in bus and train stations nationwide.

Brown vs Board

On May 17, 1954 the United States Supreme Court handed down its ruling in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. The Court's unanimous decision overturned provisions of the 1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision, which had allowed for "separate but equal" public facilities, including public schools in the United States. Declaring that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," the Brown v. Board decision helped break the back of state-sponsored segregation, and provided a spark to the American civil rights movement.

Weatherman

Weatherman, also known as Weathermen and later the Weather Underground Organization, was an American left wing extremist organization that carried out a series of bombings, jailbreaks, and riots from 1969 through the 1970s.

Welfare Capitalism

Welfare capitalism, one of the possible solutions to worker's rights and economic development, is a leading idea. At a basic level, welfare capitalism is a business-favored policy that believes the private sector can provide social welfare programs more effectively than the federal government. Welfare capitalism is usually seen as the opposite of the welfare state. The welfare state involves heavy government regulation and labor unions providing social welfare policies.

The personal is Political

"The personal is political" was a frequently heard feminist rallying cry, especially during the late 1960s and 1970s. The exact origin of the phrase is unknown and sometimes debated. Many second-wave feminists used the phrase "the personal is political" or its underlying meaning in their writing, speeches, consciousness-raising, and other activities. Carol Hanisch's essay explains the idea behind the phrase "the personal is political." A common debate between "personal" and "political" questioned whether women's consciousness-raising groups were a useful part of the political women's movement. According to Hanisch, calling the groups "therapy" was a misnomer, as the groups were not intended to solve any women's personal problems. Instead, consciousness-raising was a form of political action to elicit discussion about such topics as women's relationships, their roles in marriage, and their feelings about childbearing

Abbie Hoffman

Abbot Howard "Abbie" Hoffman (November 30, 1936 - April 12, 1989) was an American political and social activist and anarchist[1][2][3] who co-founded the Youth International Party ("Yippies"). Hoffman was arrested and tried for conspiracy and inciting to riot as a result of his role in protests that led to violent confrontations with police during the 1968 Democratic National Convention, along with Jerry Rubin, David Dellinger, Tom Hayden, Rennie Davis, John Froines, Lee Weiner, and Bobby Seale. The group was known collectively as the "Chicago Eight"; when Seale's prosecution was separated from the others, they became known as the Chicago Seven. While the defendants were initially convicted of intent to incite a riot, the verdicts were overturned on appeal. Hoffman continued his activism into the 1970s, and remains an icon of the anti-war movement and the counterculture era.[4][5] Abbot Howard "Abbie" Hoffman (November 30, 1936 - April 12, 1989) was an American political and social activist and anarchist[1][2][3] who co-founded the Youth International Party ("Yippies"). Hoffman was arrested and tried for conspiracy and inciting to riot as a result of his role in protests that led to violent confrontations with police during the 1968 Democratic National Convention, along with Jerry Rubin, David Dellinger, Tom Hayden, Rennie Davis, John Froines, Lee Weiner, and Bobby Seale. The group was known collectively as the "Chicago Eight"; when Seale's prosecution was separated from the others, they became known as the Chicago Seven. While the defendants were initially convicted of intent to incite a riot, the verdicts were overturned on appeal. Hoffman continued his activism into the 1970s, and remains an icon of the anti-war movement and the counterculture era.

Wagner Act

Also known as the Wagner Act, this bill was signed into law by President Franklin Roosevelt on July 5, 1935. It established the National Labor Relations Board and addressed relations between unions and employers in the private sector.After the National Industrial Recovery Act was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, organized labor was again looking for relief from employers who had been free to spy on, interrogate, discipline, discharge, and blacklist union members. In the 1930s, workers had begun to organize militantly, and in 1933 and 1934, a great wave of strikes occurred across the nation in the form of citywide general strikes and factory takeovers. Violent confrontations occurred between workers trying to form unions and the police and private security forces defending the interests of anti-union employers. In a Congress sympathetic to labor unions, the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) was passed in July of 1935. The broad intention of the act, commonly known as the Wagner Act after Senator Robert R. Wagner of New York, was to guarantee employees "the right to self-organization, to form, join, or assist labor organizations, to bargain collectively through representatives of their own choosing, and to engage in concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining or other mutual aid and protection." The NLRA applied to all employers involved in interstate commerce except airlines, railroads, agriculture, and government.

Timothy Leary

American writer and psychologist who was a big advocate of psychedelic drugs such as LSD. He was a leader in the counter culture movement, often encouraging people to think for themselves, question authority and experiment with drugs and other ways of living. associated with counterculture, LSD, cannabis, Harvard University, psychology. Ram Das, spirituality. encountered within the study of the counterculture, and the drug culture that went along with it. Overall significance: representative of a new way of thinking about the world, of challenging authority and exploring the mind.

Double V Campaign

Black-Americans' campaign to earn victory in the home front (fight discrimination at home) and victory overseas (fighting the enemy Axis powers)

Marcus Garvey

Born in Jamaica, Marcus Garvey (1887-1940) became a leader in the black nationalist movement by applying the economic ideas of Pan-Africanists to the immense resources available in urban centers. After arriving in New York in 1916, he founded the Negro World newspaper, an international shipping company called Black Star Line and the Negro Factories Corporation. Born in Jamaica, Garvey aimed to organize blacks everywhere but achieved his greatest impact in the United States, where he tapped into and enhanced the growing black aspirations for justice, wealth, and a sense of community. During World War I and the 1920s, his Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) was the largest black secular organization in African-American history. Possibly a million men and women from the United States, the Caribbean, and Africa belonged to it.

Ruben Salazar

Born in Mexico and raised in El Paso, Salazar got his break with The Los Angeles Times in 1959, at a time when the staff was nearly 100 percent white and male. But Salazar was not out to correct society's evils against Mexican Americans; he just wanted to be a top-notch reporter and refused to be pigeonholed as the "Mexican reporter." Like so many other immigrants before and since, Salazar found himself in a rift between profoundly different cultures. The result was a kind of poignant double life. In public, Salazar downplayed his Mexican roots. He owned a home in ultra-conservative Orange County and, at the request of his white wife, raised his children to speak English only. Yet there was another Ruben even his wife hardly knew. "It was almost as though he changed uniforms on the way home from work," recalls colleague Charlie Ericksen.

The Briggs Initiative

California Proposition 6 was an initiative on the California State ballot on November 7, 1978 and was more commonly known as "The Briggs Initiative". Sponsored by John Briggs, a conservative state legislator from Orange County, the failed initiative would have banned gays and lesbians, and possibly anyone who supported gay rights, from working in California's public schools. The Briggs Initiative was the first failure in a movement that started with the successful campaign headed by Anita Bryant and her organization, "Save Our Children" in Dade County, Florida to repeal a local gay rights ordinance. Harvey Milk was instrumental in fighting the measure and opposition from Ronald Reagan helped defeat it. Three weeks after The Briggs Initiative was defeated, Harvey Milk was assassinated in San Francisco's City Hall. Anita Bryant received national news coverage for her successful efforts to repeal a Dade County, Florida ordinance preventing discrimination based on sexual orientation. This success sparked additional efforts elsewhere to repeal legislation that added sexual orientation or preference as a protected group to anti-discrimination statutes and codes (in a step beyond mere repeal of anti-discrimination measures, Oklahoma and Arkansas actually banned gays and lesbians from teaching in public schools, thus achieving in those states what ended up being defeated in California).

Consciousness-raising

Consciousness raising (also called awareness raising) is a form of activism, popularized by United States feminists in the late 1960s. It often takes the form of a group of people attempting to focus the attention of a wider group of people on some cause or condition. Common issues include diseases (e.g. breast cancer, AIDS), conflicts (e.g. the Darfur genocide, global warming), movements (e.g. Greenpeace, PETA, Earth Hour), and political parties or politicians. Since informing the populace of a public concern is often regarded as the first step to changing how the institutions handle it, raising awareness is often the first activity in which any advocacy group engages. However, in practice, raising awareness is often combined with other activities, such as fundraising, membership drives, or advocacy, in order to harness and/or sustain the motivation of new supporters, which may be at its highest just after they have learned and digested the new information. The term awareness raising is used in the Yogyakarta Principles against discriminatory attitudes[1] and LGBT stereotypes, as well as the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to combat stereotypes, prejudices, and harmful practices toward people with disabilities.[2]

Dan White

Dan White assassinated San Francisco Mayor George Moscone and San Francisco Supervisor Harvey Milk, a gay rights activist, in 1978.Born in San Francisco in 1946, Dan White became infamous in 1978 when he assassinated San Francisco Mayor George Moscone and San Francisco Supervisor Harvey Milk in City Hall following a dispute with Moscone. He was convicted of manslaughter in a highly controversial trial. Dan White shot dead America's first openly gay elected official, Harvey Milk, and San Francisco Mayor George Moscone in November 1978, the case caused a sensation that would go down in history as the "Twinkie Defense" and make Milk into a gay icon. Daniel James White was born on September 2, 1946 in Long Beach, California. He was the second of nine children and often described as an "an all-American boy." He excelled in sports in high school and went on to serve in the Vietnam War as a paratrooper. He returned home to work first as a policeman and then as a fireman in San Francisco. In 1977, he was elected to the Board of Supervisors on a conservative platform. White was was troubled by growing official tolerance of overt homosexuality and crime. He represented a predominantly white middle-class section that was hostile to the growing homosexual community of San Francisco and became part of a loosely formed coalition to oppose Mayor George Moscone and his liberal ideas. He also had frequent disagreements on policy with fellow supervisor Harvey Milk. In the 1970s, many psychiatrists still considered homosexuality to be a mental illness, and there was no real national gay organization. Moscone was an early supporter of gay rights, and had managed to abolish a law against sodomy. He was also the first mayor to appoint large numbers of minority groups, including gays and lesbians, to influential positions within San Francisco. Milk was the first openly gay man to be elected to an official position of any significance in America. He had previously served in the Korean War and when he returned to Manhattan he become a Wall Street investment banker. He soon tired of it though and befriended gay radicals who frequented Greenwich Village. In 1972, Milk moved to the Castro, the heart of San Francisco's gay community, where he ran for election as a city supervisor three times before he succeeded. His persistence led many to dismiss him as nothing more than an attention seeker. However, he believed that the root cause of the gay predicament was their invisibility in governing roles; the gay community nicknamed him "The Mayor of Castro Street." On joining the board, Dan White was forced to resign his job as a fireman due to a provision in the city charter that barred anyone from holding two city jobs. He started a restaurant business, but it failed due to the pressures of his work for the city. Finding it impossible to support his family on the meager supervisor's salary of $9,600 a year and the increasing back seat he felt he was being forced into by Moscone, Milk and other progressive board members, he abruptly resigned his seat after Milk's gay rights bill got passed. White had opposed it. White's colleagues and constituents convinced him to retract his resignation, so he approached Moscone and asked to be reappointed to the board. Although Moscone considered White's plea, he had already been strongly influenced by Milk and other board members to appoint liberal-minded federal housing official Don Horanzy, instead. On November 27, 1978, Dan White went to City Hall with a loaded .38 revolver. In order to avoid the metal detectors, he entered through a basement window that had been left open for ventilation. He proceeded to the Mayor's office, where the two men began arguing until Moscone suggested they go to a more private room so that they could not be heard. Once there, Moscone refused to reinstate White to his previous position, and White shot the mayor twice in the chest and twice in the head. He then went down the corridor and shot Milk, twice in the chest, once in the back, and twice again in the head. Soon after, he turned himself in at the police station where he used to work. Years later, reports came out that White had also planned to assassinate Assembly member Willie Brown and fellow supervisor and attorney Carol Ruth Silver, but he was unable to find them that day. During a videotaped confession, White came across as a pathetic man who was barely able to explain why he had assassinated his colleagues. His defense lawyer, Douglas R. Schmidt, claimed White had acted in the heat of passion and not out of malice. He made a plea of "diminished capacity," due to extreme stress in White's home life and depression. Describing White's emotional state, psychiatrist Martin Blinder, one of five defense therapists, explained that in the days leading up to the shootings, White grew slovenly and abandoned his usual healthy diet and indulged in a diet of sugary junk food like Coke, doughnuts and Twinkies instead. Newspapers across the country picked up on a great headline, and today the term "Twinkie defense" is a derogatory label implying that a criminal defense is artificial or absurd. The jury found White guilty of voluntary manslaughter instead of first-degree murder. White was sentenced to a maximum of seven years and eight months in prison and never expressed public remorse for the murders. Peaceful demonstrations by Castro's gay community outside City Hall turned violent. 5,000 policemen responded by entering nightclubs armed with truncheons and assaulting patrons. By the riots' end, 124 people were injured, including 59 policemen. The incident became commonly known as "The White Night Riots." White served five years, one month and nine days at Soledad State Prison and was released on parole on January 6, 1984. He lived away from his family in Los Angeles for a year and then asked to return to San Francisco. New Mayor Dianne Feinstein issued a public statement asking him not to. Ignoring her wishes, he returned to a city where he was not welcome. Dogged by fears of retaliation, his marriage fell apart and he became increasingly depressed, eventually committing suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning at the age of 39.

Sacco and Vanzetti

Despite worldwide demonstrations in support of their innocence, Italian-born anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti are executed for murder. On April 15, 1920, a paymaster for a shoe company in South Braintree, Massachusetts, was shot and killed along with his guard. The murderers, who were described as two Italian men, escaped with more than $15,000. After going to a garage to claim a car that police said was connected with the crime, Sacco and Vanzetti were arrested and charged with the crime. Although both men carried guns and made false statements upon their arrest, neither had a previous criminal record. On July 14, 1921, they were convicted and sentenced to die. Anti-radical sentiment was running high in America at the time, and the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti was regarded by many as unlawfully sensational. Authorities had failed to come up with any evidence of the stolen money, and much of the other evidence against them was later discredited. During the next few years, sporadic protests were held in Massachusetts and around the world calling for their release, especially after Celestino Madeiros, then under a sentence for murder, confessed in 1925 that he had participated in the crime with the Joe Morelli gang. The state Supreme Court refused to upset the verdict, and Massachusetts Governor Alvan T. Fuller denied the men clemency. In the days leading up to the execution, protests were held in cities around the world, and bombs were set off in New York City and Philadelphia. On August 23, Sacco and Vanzetti were electrocuted.

Radicalesbian

Feminist author and activist Betty Friedan warned members of the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1969 of the "lavender menace" threatening the women's movement. According to Friedan, the presence of lesbians in the women's movement would destroy the credibility of feminists, who would then be written off as a bunch of "man-haters." A group of GLF women, including author Rita Mae Brown and Karla Jay, decided to disrupt the Second Congress to Unite Women in May 1970. They crashed the conference wearing t-shirts emblazoned "LAVENDER MENACE" and distributed copies of a manifesto entitled "The Woman Identified Woman." The manifesto placed lesbianism at the center of feminist politics as a political, cultural, and erotic resistance to patriarchy. Feminism was never the same again. In the years that followed, many feminists declared themselves "political lesbians" to affirm their solidarity with lesbians and the centrality to their personal and cultural work of a commitment to other women. A cadre of these GLF women split off to form the Radicalesbians. In these early years, many of these lesbian activists continued to work closely with their gay peers, but in the later 1970s many chose to work exclusively with other lesbian activists to create woman-only spaces. These new spaces provided the ground for the cultural and political work of lesbian feminism.

Ku Klux Klan

Founded in 1866, the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) extended into almost every southern state by 1870 and became a vehicle for white southern resistance to the Republican Party's Reconstruction-era policies aimed at establishing political and economic equality for blacks. Its members waged an underground campaign of intimidation and violence directed at white and black Republican leaders. Though Congress passed legislation designed to curb Klan terrorism, the organization saw its primary goal-the reestablishment of white supremacy-fulfilled through Democratic victories in state legislatures across the South in the 1870s. After a period of decline, white Protestant nativist groups revived the Klan in the early 20th century, burning crosses and staging rallies, parades and marches denouncing immigrants, Catholics, Jews, blacks and organized labor. The civil rights movement of the 1960s also saw a surge of Ku Klux Klan activity, including bombings of black schools and churches and violence against black and white activists in the South.

National for the Advancement of Colored People

Founded in 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was one of the earliest and most influential civil rights organization in the United States. During its early years, the NAACP focused on legal strategies designed to confront the critical civil rights issues of the day. They called for federal anti-lynching laws and coordinated a series of challenges to state-sponsored segregation in public schools, an effort that led to the landmark 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education, which declared the doctrine of "separate but equal" to be unconstitutional. Though other civil rights groups emerged in the 1950s and 1960s, the NAACP retained a prominent role within the movement, co-organizing the 1963 March on Washington, and successfully lobbying for legislation that resulted in the 1964 Civil Rights Act and 1965 Voting Act.

National Black Feminist Organization

Founded in May 1973, the National Black Feminist Organization (NBFO) addresses the double burden of sexism and racism faced by black women. The first meeting took place in New York City, New York and included prominent activists Michele Wallace, Margaret Sloan, Flo Kennedy, Faith Ringgold, and Doris Wright. The 1973 Statement of Purpose for the NBFO declared the organization was formed, "to address ourselves to the particular and specific needs of the larger, but almost cast-aside half of the black race in Amerikkka, the black woman." The formation of the NBFO was officially announced on August 15, 1973. Margaret Sloan, chair of the organization, invited black women to join NBFO in the August 15th announcement, and on August 16th, received over 400 inquiries from interested women. The first conference was held in December of 1973. As testament to the group's popularity, by February of 1974 there were over 2,000 members and 10 chapters across the nation, a huge and rapid increase from the original 30 founding members.

The Bonus Army

In 1924, a grateful Congress voted to give a bonus to World War I veterans - $1.25 for each day served overseas, $1.00 for each day served in the States. The catch was that payment would not be made until 1945. Members of the Bonus Army encamp within sight of the Capitol, 1932 However, by 1932 the nation had slipped into the dark days of the Depression and the unemployed veterans wanted their money immediately. In May of that year, some 15,000 veterans, many unemployed and destitute, descended on Washington, D.C. to demand immediate payment of their bonus. They proclaimed themselves the Bonus Expeditionary Force but the public dubbed them the "Bonus Army." Raising ramshackle camps at various places around the city, they waited. The veterans made their largest camp at Anacostia Flats across the river from the Capitol. Approximately 10,000 veterans, women and children lived in the shelters built from materials dragged out of a junk pile nearby - old lumber, packing boxes and scrap tin covered with roofs of thatched straw. Printer Friendly Version >>> In 1924, a grateful Congress voted to give a bonus to World War I veterans - $1.25 for each day served overseas, $1.00 for each day served in the States. The catch was that payment would not be made until 1945. Members of the Bonus Army encamp within sight of the Capitol, 1932 However, by 1932 the nation had slipped into the dark days of the Depression and the unemployed veterans wanted their money immediately. In May of that year, some 15,000 veterans, many unemployed and destitute, descended on Washington, D.C. to demand immediate payment of their bonus. They proclaimed themselves the Bonus Expeditionary Force but the public dubbed them the "Bonus Army." Raising ramshackle camps at various places around the city, they waited. The veterans made their largest camp at Anacostia Flats across the river from the Capitol. Approximately 10,000 veterans, women and children lived in the shelters built from materials dragged out of a junk pile nearby - old lumber, packing boxes and scrap tin covered with roofs of thatched straw.

Missisipi Freedom Summer

In 1964, civil rights organizations including the Congress on Racial Equality (CORE) and Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) organized a voter registration drive, known as the Mississippi Summer Project, or Freedom Summer, aimed at dramatically increasing voter registration in Mississippi. The Freedom Summer, comprised of black Mississspians and more than 1,000 out-of-state, predominately white volunteers, faced constant abuse and harrassment from Mississippis white population. The Ku Klux Klan, police and even state and local authorities carried out a systematic series of violent attacks; including arson, beatings, false arrest and the murder of at least three civil rights activists.

1968 Miss America Pageant

In 1968 feminists targeted the Miss America Pageant for protest. They staged a theatrical demonstration outside of the Atlantic City Convention Center on the day of the pageant. The protest was one of the first media events to bring national attention to the emerging Women's Liberation Movement. Over the next decade, the women's movement would rival the civil rights movement in the success it would achieve in a short period of time. 1968 was a year of great upheaval in the United States. It was a year of shocking events, including the assassinations of Martin Luther King and Robert Kennedy. The country also was in the midst of the Vietnam War , which caused great internal division in the country. The violent antiwar demonstrations at the Chicago Democratic National Convention that year offered evidence of how divided the country was. The pageant protest was organized by the New York Radical Women (N.Y.R.W.), a group of women who had been active in the civil rights, the New Left, and the antiwar movements. Their experiences in those movements had offered them conflicting messages. As organizers and civil rights activists they were dedicated to working for freedom, yet these organizations were also plagued with their own sexism towards women. Women volunteers, for example, who came to work in the South during the Freedom Summer voter registration project in 1964, were automatically expected to cook and clean in the houses where volunteers lived. Among the first groups to press for a separate women's rights movement was the N.Y.R.W.

Malcolm X

In New York City, Malcolm X, an African American nationalist and religious leader, is assassinated by rival Black Muslims while addressing his Organization of Afro-American Unity at the Audubon Ballroom in Washington Heights. Born Malcolm Little in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1925, Malcolm was the son of James Earl Little, a Baptist preacher who advocated the black nationalist ideals of Marcus Garvey. Threats from the Ku Klux Klan forced the family to move to Lansing, Michigan, where his father continued to preach his controversial sermons despite continuing threats. In 1931, Malcolm's father was brutally murdered by the white supremacist Black Legion, and Michigan authorities refused to prosecute those responsible. In 1937, Malcolm was taken from his family by welfare caseworkers. By the time he reached high school age, he had dropped out of school and moved to Boston, where he became increasingly involved in criminal activities. In 1946, at the age of 21, Malcolm was sent to prison on a burglary conviction. It was there he encountered the teachings of Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam, whose members are popularly known as Black Muslims. The Nation of Islam advocated black nationalism and racial separatism and condemned Americans of European descent as immoral "devils." Muhammad's teachings had a strong effect on Malcolm, who entered into an intense program of self-education and took the last name "X" to symbolize his stolen African identity. After six years, Malcolm was released from prison and became a loyal and effective minister of the Nation of Islam in Harlem, New York. In contrast with civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr., Malcolm X advocated self-defense and the liberation of African Americans "by any means necessary." A fiery orator, Malcolm was admired by the African American community in New York and around the country.

The Stonewall Uprising

Just after 3 a.m., a police raid of the Stonewall Inn-a gay club located on New York City's Christopher Street-turns violent as patrons and local sympathizers begin rioting against the police. Although the police were legally justified in raiding the club, which was serving liquor without a license among other violations, New York's gay community had grown weary of the police department targeting gay clubs, a majority of which had already been closed. The crowd on the street watched quietly as Stonewall's employees were arrested, but when three drag queens and a lesbian were forced into the paddy wagon, the crowd began throwing bottles at the police. The officers were forced to take shelter inside the establishment, and two policemen were slightly injured before reinforcements arrived to disperse the mob. The protest, however, spilled over into the neighboring streets, and order was not restored until the deployment of New York's riot police. The so-called Stonewall Riot was followed by several days of demonstrations in New York and was the impetus for the formation of the Gay Liberation Front as well as other gay, lesbian, and bisexual civil rights organizations. It is also regarded by many as history's first major protest on behalf of equal rights for homosexuals.

Mattachine Society (est. 1950)

Many argue the Gay Rights Movement begins with the Mattachine Society - Formed by Harry Hay - a non-profit organization for educating the public in all aspects of homosexuality, for assisting the individual gay in coping with problems related to his homosexuality, for effecting changes in social attitudes towards gays and for securing the repeal of laws discriminating against gays in housing, employment and assembly. - At first, difficult for Hay to attract members - Founding members were mostly members of the Communist Party, and the initial structure was based on the Communist Party: cell groups and levels of membership. - Initial goals were: (1) Unify homosexuals isolated from own kind. (2) Educate homosexuals and heterosexuals toward an ethical homosexual culture paralleling cultures of the Negro, Mexican and Jewish peoples. (3) Lead the more socially conscious homosexual to provide leadership to the whole mass of social deviates. (4) Assist gays who are victimised daily as a result of oppression - Shifted in 1953 towards more liberal and less radical ideology: Harry Hay forced to leave8

Cesar Chavez

Mexican-American Cesar Chavez (1927-1993) was a prominent union leader and labor organizer. Hardened by his early experience as a migrant worker, Chavez founded the National Farm Workers Association in 1962. His union joined with the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee in its first strike against grape growers in California, and the two organizations later merged to become the United Farm Workers. Stressing nonviolent methods, Chavez drew attention for his causes via boycotts, marches and hunger strikes. Despite conflicts with the Teamsters union and legal barriers, he was able to secure raises and improve conditions for farm workers in California, Texas, Arizona and Florida. His introduction to labor organizing began in 1952 when he met Father Donald McDonnell, an activist Catholic priest, and Fred Ross, an organizer with the Community Service Organization, who recruited Chavez to join his group. Within a few years Chavez had become national director, but in 1962 resigned to devote his energies to organizing a union for farm workers.

Corky Gonzales

Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzáles (June 18, 1928 - April 12, 2005) was a Mexican American boxer, poet, and political activist. He convened the first-ever Chicano youth conference in March 1969, which was attended by many future Chicano activists and artists.The conference also promulgated the Plan Espiritual de Aztlán, a manifesto demanding self-determination for Chicanos. As an early figure of the movement for the equal rights of Mexican Americans, he is often considered one of the founders of the Chicano Movement.

Ruben Salazar

Ruben Salazar (March 3, 1928 - August 29, 1970)[1] was a reporter for the Los Angeles Times, the first Mexican-American journalist from mainstream media to cover the Chicano community.[2] Salazar died during the National Chicano Moratorium March against the Vietnam War on August 29, 1970, in East Los Angeles, California. An investigation determined that his death was accidental, after Salazar was struck by a tear-gas projectile fired by a Los Angeles County Sheriff's deputy. No criminal charge was filed, but Salazar's family reached an out-of- court financial settlement with the county.

Students for a Democratic Society

Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), American student organization that flourished in the mid-to-late 1960s and was known for its activism against the Vietnam War.

1968 Democratic Convention

The 1968 Democratic Convention, held on August 26-29th, stands as an important event in the nation's political and cultural history. The divisive politics of the convention, brought about by the Vietnam war policies of President Johnson, prompted the Democratic party to completely overhaul its rules for selecting presidential delegates -- opening up the political process to millions. The violence between police and anti-Vietnam war protesters in the streets and parks of Chicago gave the city a black-eye from which it has yet to completely recover. The following is a brief history of the events leading up to the convention, the convention itself and the riots surrounding it.

American Federation of Labor

The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was organized in 1886. Its president was Samuel Gompers, who served until 1925. During Gompers' presidency, the AFL rose to more than 4 million members by 1920, after which its membership declined until 1933, when it was not much more than 2 million. The purpose of the AFL was to organize skilled workers into national unions consisting of others in the same trade. Their purpose was not political, and aimed simply at shorter hours, higher wages, and better working conditions.

American Indian Movement

The American Indian Movement (AIM) is an American Indian advocacy group in the United States, founded in July 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota.[1] AIM was initially formed to address American Indian sovereignty, treaty issues, spirituality, and leadership, while simultaneously addressing incidents of police harassment and racism against Native Americans forced to move away from reservations and tribal culture by the 1950s-era enforcement of the U.S. federal government-enforced Indian Termination Policies originally created in the 1930s.

Black Belt Thesis

The Black Belt is a region of the Southern United States. The term originally described the prairies and dark fertile soil of central Alabama and northeast Mississippi.[1] Because this area was developed for cotton plantations based on enslaved Black/African-American labor, the term became associated with these conditions. It was generally applied to a much larger agricultural region in the American South characterized by a history of cotton plantation agriculture in the 19th century and a high percentage of African American workers outside metropolitan areas. They were enslaved before the Civil War, and many continued to work in agriculture for decades afterward.

The Civil rights of 1964

The Civil Rights Act of 1964, which ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin, is considered one of the crowning legislative achievements of the civil rights movement. First proposed by President John F. Kennedy, it survived strong opposition from southern members of Congress and was then signed into law by Kennedy's successor, Lyndon B. Johnson. In subsequent years, Congress expanded the act and also passed additional legislation aimed at bringing equality to African Americans, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Congress of Industrial Organizations

The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), was a federation of unions that organized workers in industrial unions in the United States and Canada from 1935 to 1955. Created by John L. Lewis in 1935, it was originally called the Committee for Industrial Organization, but changed its name in 1938 when it broke away from the American Federation of Labor. The CIO supported Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal Coalition, and was open to African Americans. Both the CIO and its rival the AFL grew rapidly during the Great Depression. The rivalry for dominance was bitter and sometimes violent. The CIO (Congress for Industrial Organization) was founded on November 9, 1935, by eight international unions belonging to the American Federation of Labor. In its statement of purpose, the CIO said it had formed to encourage the AFL to organize workers in mass production industries along industrial union lines. The CIO failed to change AFL policy from within. On September 10, 1936, the AFL suspended all 10 CIO unions (two more had joined in the previous year). In 1938, these unions formed the Congress of Industrial Organizations as a rival labor federation. The Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 required union leaders to swear that they were not Communists. Many CIO leaders refused to obey that requirement, later found unconstitutional. In 1955, the CIO rejoined the AFL, forming the new entity known as the American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO).

The crusades of Justice

The Crusade for Justice was marked for being an urban rights and a cultural movement. The movement started in Denver, Colorado during the year of 1965. Similar to the rest to the rest of the Chicano social movements, the Crusade for Justice focused to seek for justice for Chicanos during the 1960s. The Crusade for Justice supported the student cause of the 1960s. This movement organized and participated as well on the wave of student walk outs of 1968s across the Southwest region of the United States. The Crusade for Justice, as well as the Mexican American Youth Organization, opposed to police brutality incidents in behalf of Chicanos. The several incidents that involved police brutality harmed the ideology of the social movement. Another issue that the Crusade for Justice focused on was the rare episodes of legal cases framed up by the police concerning Mexican-Americans. An important aspect of the Crusade for Justice was its strong opposition to the Vietnam War. The Crusade for Justice argued that the Vietnam War affected the Mexican-American community by enlisting dozens of Chicanos into the Army of the United States and by buying large amounts of food from the rich land owners. The movement and its leaders were just not happy with the Vietnam War; for example Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales. Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales, the main leader and founder of the Crusade for Justice Movement, sought to keep the fighting to improve Mexican-American community situation. Even though Gonzales had some beliefs in common with other Chicano activists, he had some other different opinions about society. With the creation of the Crusade for Justice, he set the goal to establish Chicano's communities under the control of the same Mexican-American people. Gonzales wanted to embrace the Chicano culture. "Corky" desired to end the discrimination at schools and to incorporate Mexican-American culture to the scholar agenda. The Crusade for Justice comprised mainly of young Chicanos students, a particular aspect of the Chicano Movement as a whole.

East Coast Homophile Organizations

The Eastern Regional Conference of Homophile Organizations (ERCHO) was an early homophile organization founded in 1969. ERCHO had its roots in an earlier organization, 1963's East Coast Homophile Organizations (ECHO),[1] and was a regional American homophilic organization—a forerunner to the contemporary gay rights movement that flourished after the Stonewall riots. The group was set up by the lesbian group Daughters of Bilitis.[2] After the Stonewall riots in 1969, a motion was passed by ERCHO to have an annual celebration of the riots—the origin of current Pride parades.[3][4] The conference decided to make the event non-political rather than radical, a tradition that extends to Pride marches today.[5] ERCHO (and a number of other similar homophile movements) collapsed after the rise of radical gay liberationist politics following the Stonewall riots

Equal pay of 1963

The Equal Pay Act of 1963 is a United States labor law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex (see Gender pay gap). It was signed into law on June 10, 1963, by John F. Kennedy as part of his New Frontier Program.[1] In passing the bill, Congress stated that sex discrimination:[2] depresses wages and living standards for employees necessary for their health and efficiency; prevents the maximum utilization of the available labor resources; tends to cause labor disputes, thereby burdening, affecting, and obstructing commerce; burdens commerce and the free flow of goods in commerce; and constitutes an unfair method of competition. The law provides (in part) that: No employer having employees subject to any provisions of this section [section 206 of title 29 of the United States Code] shall discriminate, within any establishment in which such employees are employed, between employees on the basis of sex by paying wages to employees in such establishment at a rate less than the rate at which he pays wages to employees of the opposite sex in such establishment for equal work on jobs[,] the performance of which requires equal skill, effort, and responsibility, and which are performed under similar working conditions, except where such payment is made pursuant to (i) a seniority system; (ii) a merit system; (iii) a system which measures earnings by quantity or quality of production; or (iv) a differential based on any other factor other than sex

The Feminine Mystique

The Feminine Mystique was one of the most influential books in convincing middle-class American women during the 1960's that their personal identity as housewives and mothers had not provided them with full and meaningful lives. Herself one of the women whose plight she described, Betty Friedan examined "the problem that has no name" in a series of insightful chapters that set forth the many ways in which women felt frustrated and repressed. Significance: Exposed discontent bubbling in American society among women in their homes and domestic life, removing the "shameful" connotation and making it a commonality which bonded them and arguably gave impetus to the movement; vast, sweeping impact on many women across the US; one of the earliest publications of feminism; reflected some weaknesses of early women's movement (excludes people of color, heterosexual presumption, didn't challenge allocation of household labor).

Free Speech Movement

The Free Speech Movement (FSM) was a college campus phenomenon inspired first by the struggle for civil rights and later fueled by opposition to the Vietnam War. The Free Speech Movement began in 1964, when students at the University of California, Berkeley protested a ban on on-campus political activities. The protest was led by several students, who also demanded their right to free speech and academic freedom. The FSM sparked an unprecedented wave of student activism and involvement.

Gay Liberation Front

The Gay Liberation Front (GLF) was the name of a number of gay liberation groups, the first of which was formed in New York City in 1969, immediately after the Stonewall riots, in which police clashed with gay demonstrators.The American Gay Liberation Front (GLF) advocated for sexual liberation for all people; they believed heterosexuality was a remnant of cultural inhibition and felt that change would not come about unless the current social institutions were dismantled and rebuilt without defined sexual roles. To do this, the GLF was intent on transforming the idea of the nuclear family and making it more akin to a loose affiliation of members without biological subtexts. Prominent members of the GLF also opposed and addressed other social inequalities between the years of 1969 to 1972 such as militarism, racism, and sexism, but because of internal rivalries the GLF officially ended its operations in 1972

The Immigration Act of 1924

The Immigration Act of 1924 limited the number of immigrants allowed entry into the United States through a national origins quota. The quota provided immigration visas to two percent of the total number of people of each nationality in the United States as of the 1890 national census. It completely excluded immigrants from Asia. In 1917, the U.S. Congress enacted the first widely restrictive immigration law. The uncertainty generated over national security during World War I made it possible for Congress to pass this legislation, and it included several important provisions that paved the way for the 1924 Act. The 1917 Act implemented a literacy test that required immigrants over 16 years old to demonstrate basic reading comprehension in any language. It also increased the tax paid by new immigrants upon arrival and allowed immigration officials to exercise more discretion in making decisions over whom to exclude. Finally, the Act excluded from entry anyone born in a geographically defined "Asiatic Barred Zone" except for Japanese and Filipinos. In 1907, the Japanese Government had voluntarily limited Japanese immigration to the United States in the Gentlemen's Agreement. The Philippines was a U.S. colony, so its citizens were U.S. nationals and could travel freely to the United States. China was not included in the Barred Zone, but the Chinese were already denied immigration visas under the Chinese Exclusion Act. The literacy test alone was not enough to prevent most potential immigrants from entering, so members of Congress sought a new way to restrict immigration in the 1920s. Immigration expert and Republican Senator from Vermont William P. Dillingham introduced a measure to create immigration quotas, which he set at three percent of the total population of the foreign-born of each nationality in the United States as recorded in the 1910 census. This put the total number of visas available each year to new immigrants at 350,000. It did not, however, establish quotas of any kind for residents of the Western Hemisphere. President Wilson opposed the restrictive act, preferring a more liberal immigration policy, so he used the pocket veto to prevent its passage. In early 1921, the newly inaugurated President Warren Harding called Congress back to a special session to pass the law. In 1922, the act was renewed for another two years.

United Auto Workers

The International Union, United Automobile, Aerospace and Agricultural Implement Workers of America, better known as the United Automobile Workers (UAW), is an American labor union that represents workers in the United States (including Puerto Rico) and Canada. Founded as part of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in the 1930s, the UAW grew rapidly from 1936 to the 1950s. Under the leadership of Walter Reuther (president 1946-70) it played a major role in the liberal wing of the Democratic party, including the civil rights and anti-Communist movements. The UAW was especially known for gaining high wages and pensions for the auto workers, but it was unable to unionize auto plants built by foreign-based car-makers in the South after the 1970s, and went into a steady decline in membership — increased automation, decreased use of labor, movements of manufacturing (including reaction to NAFTA), and increased Globalization all were factors. UAW members in the 21st century work in industries as diverse as autos and auto parts, health care, casino gambling and higher education. Headquartered in Detroit, Michigan, the union has more than 400,000 active members and more than 580,000 retired members in over 600 local unions. The UAW currently has 1,150 contracts with some 1,600 employers

The Knights of Labor

The Knights of Labor began as a secret society of tailors in Philadelphia in 1869. The organization grew slowly during the hard years of the 1870s, but worker militancy rose toward the end of the decade, especially after the great railroad strike of 1877, and the Knights' membership rose with it. Grand Master Workman Terence V. Powderly took office in 1879, and under his leadership the Knights flourished; by 1886 the group had 700,000 members. Powderly dispensed with the earlier rules of secrecy and committed the organization to seeking the eight-hour day, abolition of child labor, equal pay for equal work, and political reforms including the graduated income tax. Unlike most trade unions of the day, the Knights' unions were vertically organized-each included all workers in a given industry, regardless of trade. The Knights were also unusual in accepting workers of all skill levels and both sexes; blacks were included after 1883 (though in segregated locals). On the other hand, the Knights strongly supported the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract Labor Law of 1885; like many labor leaders at the time, Powderly believed these laws were needed to protect the American work force against competition from underpaid laborers imported by unscrupulous employers.

The Lavender Menace"

The Lavender Menace was an informal group of lesbian radical feminists formed to protest the exclusion of lesbians and lesbian issues from the feminist movement at the Second Congress to Unite Women in New York City on May 1, 1970. Members included Karla Jay, Martha Shelley, Rita Mae Brown, Lois Hart, Barbara Love, Ellen Shumsky, Artemis March, Cynthia Funk, and Michela Griffo, and were mostly members of the Gay Liberation Front (GLF) and the National Organization for Women (NOW).[1]

The Montgomery Bus Boycott

The Montgomery Bus Boycott, in which African Americans refused to ride city buses in Montgomery, Alabama, to protest segregated seating, took place from December 5, 1955, to December 20, 1956, and is regarded as the first large-scale demonstration against segregation in the U.S. On December 1, 1955, four days before the boycott began, Rosa Parks, an African-American woman, refused to yield her seat to a white man on a Montgomery bus. She was arrested and fined. The boycott of public buses by blacks in Montgomery began on the day of Parks' court hearing and lasted 381 days. The U.S. Supreme Court ultimately ordered Montgomery to integrate its bus system, and one of the leaders of the boycott, a young pastor named Martin Luther King Jr. (1929-68), emerged as a prominent national leader of the American civil rights movement in the wake of the action.

National Industrial recovery Act

The National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) was enacted by Congress in June 1933 and was one of the measures by which President Franklin D. Roosevelt sought to assist the nation's economic recovery during the Great Depression. The passage of NIRA ushered in a unique experiment in U.S. economic history�the NIRA sanctioned, supported, and in some cases, enforced an alliance of industries. Antitrust laws were suspended, and companies were required to write industry-wide "codes of fair competition" that effectively fixed prices and wages, established production quotas, and imposed restrictions on entry of other companies into the alliances. The act further called for industrial self-regulation and declared that codes of fair competition�for the protection of consumers, competitors, and employers�were to be drafted for the various industries of the country and were to be subject to public hearings. Employees were given the right to organize and bargain collectively and could not be required, as a condition of employment, to join or refrain from joining a labor organization. The National Recovery Administration (NRA), created by a separate executive order, was put into operation soon after the final approval of the act. President Roosevelt appointed Hugh S. Johnson as administrator for industrial recovery. The administration was empowered to make voluntary agreements dealing with hours of work, rates of pay, and the fixing of prices. Until March 1934, the NRA was engaged chiefly in drawing up these industrial codes for all industries to adopt. More than 500 codes of fair practice were adopted for the various industries. Patriotic appeals were made to the public, and firms were asked to display the Blue Eagle, an emblem signifying NRA participation.

The occupation of the alcatraz

The Occupation of Alcatraz was an occupation of Alcatraz Island by 89 American Indians who called themselves Indians of All Tribes (IOAT).[1] According to the IOAT, the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) between the U.S. and the Lakota, all retired, abandoned or out-of-use federal land was returned to the Native people from whom it was taken. Since Alcatraz penitentiary had been closed on March 21, 1963, and the island had been declared surplus federal property in 1964, a number of Red Power activists felt the island qualified for a reclamation. The Alcatraz Occupation lasted for nineteen months, from November 20, 1969, to June 11, 1971, and was forcibly ended by the U.S. government. The Occupation of Alcatraz had a direct effect on federal Indian policy and, with its visible results, established a precedent for Indian activism.

Port Huron Statement" (1962)

The Port Huron Statement is a 1962 political manifesto of the North American student activist movement Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). It was written primarily by Tom Hayden, a University of Michigan student and then the Field Secretary of SDS, with help from 58 other SDS members, and completed on June 15, 1962 Context: Students witnessed racism in the south; discontent with distance between what the nation supposedly represented and the realities on the ground (poverty, racism, absence of truly participatory democracy); response to and rejection of immediate past, especially McCarthy era; beginning of the student movement and the creation of SDS; SDS targets men, upper/middle class white people, relatively affluent, educated, come from comfortable homes Significance: Democratically created manifesto of the American student activist movement "SDS" that looks at organization and its constituency, identifies authors and value; challenged racial bigotry, atomic power, the fear of change; declared war on cold war culture. Radical in proposing a new ideology, the New Left, and split from the old left; example of traditional American reform document that called for true democracy; first commentary from a new generation of white students; shaped SDS and the larger student movement.

The Redstockings

The Red stockings were an important radical feminist organisation based in New York, they issued a manifesto in 1969.In the manifesto they identify the agents of women's oppression as men, they see racism, capitalism and imperialism as simply other forms of male supremacy. In the manifesto they argue that since all men receive economic, sexual and psychological benefits from male supremacy, all men have oppressed women. They identified with all women, they wanted to unite all women and allow women to realise they represent an oppressed class in society. As an organisation they wanted to develop a female class consciousness. They believed that as male supremacy was ingrained in academic thought they could not rely on any analysis of their situation that did not emanate from real women's experience. To create this analysis and to raise a female class consciousness the Redstockings held consciousness raising sessions (see next key term).The Redstockings also wanted internal democracy within their organisation. The Redstockings manifesto shows the different factions of the women's movement, the Redstockings for example are much more radical as an organisation than NOW (National Organisation for Women). NOW was much more of a conservative organisation that deliberately tried not to alienate the mainstream of American society by not engaging in any forms of "Man-hating". The Redstockings also differed from a lot of the mainstream women's liberation organisations by attempting to represent and understand the experience of all women including poor and coloured women, NOW as an organisation can be criticised for mainly focusing on improving the lives of white middle-class women. The Redstockings Manifesto clearly represents the disillusionment many women who had participated in the New Left ect. were feeling towards these social movements. The Redstockings commitment to a democratic organisation where every members voice is heard can be seen as an attack on organisations such as SD's that were being denounced at this time for being hierarchical and male dominated.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference

The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was created on January 10-11, 1957, when sixty black ministers and civil rights leaders met in Atlanta, Georgia in an effort to replicate the successful strategy and tactics of the recently concluded Montgomery, Alabama bus boycott. Rev. Martin Luther King Jr. was chosen as the first president of this new group dedicated to abolishing legalized segregation and ending the disfranchisement of black southerners in a non-violent manner. Later SCLC would address the issues of war and poverty. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference struggled during its beginning, with only one full time staff member, but soon expanded with the student sit-in movement of 1960 and the Freedom Rides of 1961. During this time, the SCLC also received a foundation grant to take over the Highlander Folk School's Citizenship Education Project and foundation money to finance voter registration work in the South.

Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

The Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), formed to give younger blacks more of a voice in the civil rights movement, became one of the movement's more radical branches. In the wake of the early sit-ins at lunch counters closed to blacks, which started in February 1960 in Greensboro, North Carolina, Ella Baker, then director of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), helped set up the first meeting of what became SNCC. She was concerned that SCLC, led by the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was out of touch with younger blacks who wanted the movement to make faster progress. Baker encouraged those who formed SNCC to look beyond integration to broader social change and to view King's principle of nonviolence more as a political tactic than as a way of life.The new group played a large part in the Freedom Rides aimed at desegregating buses and in the marches organized by King and SCLC. Under the leadership of James Forman, Bob Moses, and Marion Barry, the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee also directed much of the black voter registration drives in the South. Three of its members died at the hands of the Ku Klux Klan during the Mississippi Freedom Summer of 1964. Events such as these heightened divisions between King and SNCC. The latter objected to compromises at the 1964 Democratic National Convention, where the party refused to replace the all-white Mississippi delegation with the integrated Freedom Democrats.

The sunset strip Riots

The Sunset Strip curfew riots, also known as the "hippie riots", were a series of early counterculture-era clashes that took place between police and young people on the Sunset Strip in Hollywood, California, beginning in the summer of 1966 and continuing on and off through the early 1970s. In 1966, annoyed residents and business owners in the district had encouraged the passage of strict (10:00 p.m.) curfew and loitering laws to reduce the traffic congestion resulting from crowds of young club patrons.[1] This was perceived by young, local rock music fans as an infringement on their civil rights, and on Saturday, November 12, 1966, fliers were distributed along the Strip inviting people to demonstrate later that day. Hours before the protest one of L.A's rock 'n' roll radio stations announced there would be a rally at Pandora's Box, a club at the corner of Sunset Boulevard and Crescent Heights, and cautioned people to tread carefully.[2] The Los Angeles Times reported that as many as 1,000 youthful demonstrators, including such celebrities as Jack Nicholson and Peter Fonda (who was afterward handcuffed by police), erupted in protest against the perceived repressive enforcement of these recently invoked curfew laws.[1] The Sunset Strip curfew riots, also known as the "hippie riots", were a series of early counterculture-era clashes that took place between police and young people on the Sunset Strip in Hollywood, California, beginning in the summer of 1966 and continuing on and off through the early 1970s.

United Farm Workers

The United Farm Workers of America, or more commonly just United Farm Workers (UFW), is a labor union for farmworkers in the United States. It originated from the merger of two workers' rights organizations, the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee (AWOC) led by organizer Larry Itliong, and the National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) led by César Chávez and Dolores Huerta. They became allied and transformed from workers' rights organizations into a union as a result of a series of strikes in 1965, when the mostly Filipino farmworkers of the AWOC in Delano, California initiated a grape strike, and the NFWA went on strike in support. As a result of the commonality in goals and methods, the NFWA and the AWOC formed the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee on August 22, 1966.[2] This organization was accepted into the AFL-CIO in 1972 and changed its name to the United Farmworkers Union

Universal Negro Improvement

The Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL) is a black nationalist fraternal organization founded in 1914 by Marcus Mosiah Garvey. The organization enjoyed its greatest strength in the 1920s, prior to Garvey's deportation from the United States of America, after which its prestige and influence declined. According to the preamble of the 1929 constitution as amended, the UNIA is a "social, friendly, humanitarian, charitable, educational, institutional, constructive and expansive society, and is founded by persons desiring to do the utmost to work for the general uplift of the people of African ancestry of the world. And the members pledge themselves to do all in their power to conserve the rights of their noble race and to respect the rights of all mankind, believing always in the Brotherhood of Man and the Fatherhood of God. The motto of the organization is 'One God! One Aim! One Destiny!' Therefore, let justice be done to all mankind, realizing that if the strong oppresses the weak, confusion and discontent will ever mark the path of man but with love, faith and charity towards all the reign of peace and plenty will be heralded into the world and the generations of men shall be called Blessed."

The Voting Rights Act

The Voting Rights Act, signed into law by President Lyndon Johnson (1908-73) on August 6, 1965, aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote under the 15th Amendment (1870) to the Constitution of the United States. The act significantly widened the franchise and is considered among the most far-reaching pieces of civil rights legislation in U.S. history.

Radicalesbians

The Woman-Identified Woman" was a ten-paragraph manifesto, written by the Radicalesbians in 1970.[1] It was first distributed during the "Lavender Menace" protest at the Second Congress to Unite Women, on May 1, 1970 in New York City. It is now considered a turning point in the history of radical feminism, and one of the founding documents of lesbian feminism. It was written collectively by a group including Artemis March, Lois Hart, Rita Mae Brown, Ellen Shumsky, Cynthia Funk, and Barbara XX. It was edited by Artemis March. A group of lesbian radical feminists staged a "zap" for the opening session of the Congress, during which they cut the lights, took over the stage and the microphone, and explained how angry they were about the exclusion of lesbian speakers from the Congress. They passed out mimeographed copies of "The Woman-Identified Woman," in which they argued that lesbian women were at the forefront of the struggle for women's liberation, because their identification with other women defied traditional definitions of women's identity in terms of male sexual partners, and expressed "the primacy of women relating to women, of women creating a new consciousness of and with each other which is at the heart of women's liberation, and the basis for the cultural revolution." Thus, support for lesbians and an open commitment to lesbian liberation was argued to be "absolutely essential to the success and fulfillment of the women's liberation movement." A key point of manifesto is the concept that in order to elevate women from second class position, women should be willing to consider other women as sexual partners. "Until women see in each other the possibility of a primal commitment which includes sexual love, they will be denying themselves the love and value they readily accord to men, thus affirming their second-class status."

The Yippies

The Youth International Party, whose members were called Yippies, was a radically youth-oriented and counter cultural revolutionary offshoot of the free speech and anti-war movements (they are basically the most overtly politically active hippies. Associated with 1968 democratic convention, Abbie Hoffman, hippies, counter culture, anti war movement, civil rights movement, the conspiracy trial. Encountered within the context of, specifically the 1968 democratic convention, but more broadly the counterculture movement and the antiwar movement. significance to the course: Yippies signify the radicalization of the hippie counter culture movement. They demonstrate the extremes that activists were willing to go to to advocate for change.

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

Who or what? Government agency responsible for enforcing gender equality, addressing gender discrimination, Civil Rights Act of 1964 Provides annual reports regarding the status of women Apathetic towards women's issues, failed to work on behalf of women Ex-refused to tackle gender-specific want ads which usually explicitly targeted men for professional positions Women demanded the EEOC uphold Title VII, which they did not Known for making jokes about women, sexism and discrimination within the organization With what ideas, accomplishments or events is it associated? Led to the creation of NOW [National Organization for Women] "Equal Employment Opportunity Act--strengthened EEOC, as did the Amendments ti the 1963 Equal Pay Act [Anderson 405] What is its significance to this course? Showed government hypocrisies when the U.S. continued to assert rhetoric of American values of democracy and equality during height of cold war Even though a commission existed, its existence did not translate to change or better positions for women Highlights the extent of sexism within society, and how socially accepted ideals like chauvinism hindered Americans government's inability/unwillingness to make concrete changes fuelled NOW and women's activism because they recognized the government's inability and unwillingness to act on the behalf of women Women's movement revealed rampant gender discrimination, like civil rights movement revealed racial discrimination Can compare to male activists' in SDS, etc., who discriminated against women within their organizations

W.E.B. DuBois

William Edward Burghardt "W. E. B." Du Bois (1868-1963) was was a leading African-American sociologist, writer and activist. Educated at Harvard University and other top schools, Du Bois studied with some of the most important social thinkers of his time. He earned fame for the publication of such works as Souls of Black Folk (1903), and was a founding officer of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and editor of its magazine. Dubois also taught at Wilberforce University and Atlanta University, and chaired the Peace Information Center. Shortly before his death, Du Bois settled in Ghana to work on the Encyclopedia Africana. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois knew little of his father, who died shortly after his birth, but he was socialized into an extended family network that left a strong impression on his personality and was reflected in his subsequent work. Educated at Fisk University (1885-1888), Harvard University (1888-1896), and the University of Berlin (1892-1894), Du Bois studied with some of the most important social thinkers of his time and then embarked upon a seventy-year career that combined scholarship and teaching with lifelong activism in liberation struggles.

Betty Friedan

With her book The Feminine Mystique (1963), Betty Friedan (1921-2006) broke new ground by exploring the idea of women finding personal fulfillment outside of their traditional roles. She also helped advance the women's rights movement as one of the founders of the National Organization for Women (NOW). She advocated for an increased role for women in the political process and is remembered as a pioneer of feminism and the women's rights movements. A bright student, Betty Friedan excelled at Smith College, graduating in 1942 with a bachelor's degree. Although she received a fellowship to study at the University of California, she chose instead to go to New York to work as a reporter. Friedan got married in 1947 and had three children. She returned to work after her first child was born, but lost her job when she was pregnant with her second, according to The Christian Science Monitor. Friedan then stayed home to care for her family. But she was restless as a homemaker and began to wonder if other women felt the same way. To answer this question, Friedan surveyed other graduates of Smith College. The results of this research formed the basis of The Feminine Mystique. The book became a sensation—creating a social revolution by dispelling the myth that all women wanted to be happy homemakers. Friedan encouraged women to seek new opportunities for themselves.

Black Panther Party

lack Panther Party, original name Black Panther Party for Self-Defense, African American revolutionary party, founded in 1966 in Oakland, California, by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale. The party's original purpose was to patrol African American neighbourhoods to protect residents from acts of police brutality. The Panthers eventually developed into a Marxist revolutionary group that called for the arming of all African Americans, the exemption of African Americans from the draft and from all sanctions of so-called white America, the release of all African Americans from jail, and the payment of compensation to African Americans for centuries of exploitation by white Americans. At its peak in the late 1960s, Panther membership exceeded 2,000, and the organization operated chapters in several major American cities.