social psych exam 4 study set

expectations/ satisfaction

Each person has an expectation or belief about what they deserve in a relationship, which is called our comparison level (CL). -CL is based on past experiences. -CL forms the standard for measuring our satisfaction.

why does happiness fade?

-Lack of effort or acknowledgement -Interdependence as a magnifying glass -Unwelcome surprises -Unrealistic expectations

attractiveness stereotype

"Beauty bias" (also called halo effect) leads us to believe that pretty people are: -Intelligent -Honest -Well-adjusted -Socially skilled -Kind -Interesting -Likeable -Happier

proximity

(physical distance) -Physical closeness increases the odds that you will meet and interact with someone. -Being close to someone increases both attraction (romantic relationships) and liking (friendships).

cooperation

-Behavior in which groups work together to attain shared goal. -Cooperation is essential to human functioning; however, individuals also must balance the desire to cooperate with the desire to not be taken advantage of. -"The world has enough for everyone's need, but not enough for everyone's greed." ― Gandhi

social dilemmas

-A perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. -Situations in which a self-interested choice by everyone creates the worst outcome for all parties involved.

matching

-Accidental matching: People pursue most attractive partner, but can only get a partner at their own level. -Matching hypothesis -How do people end up matched? -Deliberate Selection: actively seeking out others at our own level. -Fear of being rejected -Equity theory

complementary

-Although more limited, there is also evidence that "opposites" may occasionally attract is when different types of behavior compliment each other. -This is particularly the case for the characteristic of dominance. These people tend to "fit" better with submissive partners.

why do people help?

-Darley and Lantane (1968), bystander effect. -it can be evolutionarily adaptive. -The "Selfish" Gene/Kin Selection. -Reciprocal Altruism

What prediction does this make for long-distance relationships?

-Greater costs (ex. phone bills/travel time/expenses). -Less overall reward (Compare an actual hug or kiss good night to one on the phone).

why do we help?

-Helping is influenced by situational factors. Classic example- Death of Kitty Genovese in 1964.

mere exposure effect

-Many famous landmarks that are beloved and respected today initially elicited negative feedback/feelings. -Exposure leads to liking. In this study, exposure to Mozart's music led to a preference for Mozart, and likewise for Schoenberg.

fear of rejection

-Matching gives us a desirable partner and limited risk of rejection (partner is "in your league"). -Desirability = Attractiveness x Probability of acceptance

why does it appear that opposites attract?

-Matching is a broad process, where people may pair off with others of similar "mate value," but the specific assets they offer each other may be very different. -Social-exchange theory -similar net worth

whom do we help- gender

-Men are more helpful than women in a "knight-in-shining-armor" emergency situation. Women are more helpful in providing everyday social support help to friends and loved ones. -Outside of these situations there doesn't appear to be a gender difference.

attractive bodies- women

-Normal weight -Waist noticeably narrower than hips (.7 Waist-to-Hip ratio...means an hour-glass shape, With the waist being 30% smaller than the hips).

mere exposure

-Repeated exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking of that stimulus. -Research by Festinger on married student housing showed friendships emerged among those living most closely.

reasons for altruism

-Social rewards: A benefit, such as praise, positive attention, something tangible, or gratitude, that may be gained from helping others, thus a motive for altruistic behavior. -Personal distress: A motive for helping others in distress that may arise from a need to reduce one's own distress. -Empathic concern: Identifying with someone in need, including feeling and understanding what that person is experiencing, accompanied by the intention to help the person. -This study showed that when participants empathize with someone who is in need, they engage in more altruistic action, even when their sacrifice is anonymous.

Altruistic Personality

-Some people are more likely to help out regardless of the situation. -Interestingly, this appears to be at least somewhat genetic and stable across a lifetime. -Lower SES people help more than higher SES people, except when both groups are made to feel compassion.

tit for tat strategy

-Start by cooperating, and from that point on do whatever the other person did last. -If the other person cooperates, then the cycle of cooperation continues and both benefit. -If the other person defects, then you continue to defect until the other person begins cooperating. -This simple strategy is optimal because it encourages the benefits of cooperation but doesn't allow for exploitation.

attractive features

-Symmetrical -Proportional -Beautiful faces combine the best features of individual faces in a balanced, well-proportioned whole.

why don't people help?

-The presence of others can interfere with each of these steps. -Distraction -Time constraints -Self-focus -Social callousness -Maybe we didn't interpret the situation as an emergency: -Maybe we don't take responsibility. -Diffusion of responsibility -Maybe we don't know how to help. -Competence -Maybe we are afraid of taking action. -Fear of Social Blunders (Audience Inhibition) -We worry that we've made a mistake -We worry that our help is not welcome -We worry that we'll mess up -We worry that we'll look like fools

drawbacks to being highly attractive

-Viewed as vain -Viewed as promiscuous -More likely to be lied to

similarity

-We tend to like those who share our: -Age, race, religion, education, and social class -Attitudes, beliefs, interests, and values -Name-letter initials (remember Implicit Egotism) -Personalities -People similar to us reinforce our own opinions and beliefs and signals to us that we are "right" as well as minimize potential relationship conflict.

lack of intimacy is linked to...

-Weaker immune systems -Depression -Alcoholism -Eating disorders -Schizophrenia -Loneliness -Lower life satisfaction -Younger age of death!!!

the helping committee

-With regard to helping, a consistent theme appears repeatedly: a sense of connection. -This connection has taken various forms—genetic relatedness, empathic concern, sense of responsibility for someone, perceived similarity, or shared group membership.

why do we date those close by?

-convenience -Close by = Easily accessed rewards = Attraction -familiarity

Similarity & Online Dating

-eHarmony has built an empire on matching people with similarities. -They note that while opposites may seem exotic at first, over time the differences become too difficult to negotiate.

factors that influence how rewarding people are...

-proximity -similarity -physical attractiveness

According to evolutionary theories of attraction, what is the most attractive waist-to-hip ratio for women?

.7

2 types of love

1. a love that's full of passion that leads a couple to marry, and 2. a love that's full of friendship that underlies marriages that last.

partner selection

According to matching hypothesis, we expect to see relationships with partners who are roughly equal in physical attractiveness.

attractive facial features- female

Around the world, women are more attractive when they combine "baby-faced" features with signs of maturity. -Baby face features -Large eyes -Small chin + nose -Full lips Signs of maturity -Prominent cheekbones -Narrow cheeks -Broad smile

whom do we help- attractiveness

Attractive people receive more help both when the helper thinks there is a chance of establishing a relationship with the individual and when help is given anonymously.

What is a criterion listed by Baumeister and Leary (1995) to judge whether or not the need to belong is a true innate need?

Belonging to social groups must serve some sort of evolutionary purpose.

optimal cooperation

Computer simulations of the prisoner's dilemma game revealed an optimal strategy for cooperation. Tit for tat strategy

relationship maintenance mechanisms

Contented partners engage in behaviors that include: -Fostering positivity -Providing assurances -Encouraging openness -Being playful

drawbacks to being highly attractive around others

Contrast Effects - Unrealistic media portrayals of very attractive models make real people seem unfairly plain by comparison. Men rate their own partners less positively if recently exposed to especially attractive women!

compassionate love

Deep affectionate attachment felt for those with whom our lives are intertwined...

evolutionarily adaptive

Evolutionarily psychology argues that people should behave altruistically toward those who promote the survival and reproduction of ourselves and our genetic relatives.

pluralistic ignorance

Failure to act because if no one else seems alarmed (results from informational social influence.

mate preferences- females

Females look for signs that the male can provide for their offspring: -Ambition -Social status -Acquired wealth -Confidence -Power -Success Females should shows a preference for males who are: -Taller -Waist only slightly narrower than hips (.9), signaling more muscle than fat

evolutionary theory

From an evolutionary perspective, attractiveness should stem from attributes that would enhance your reproductive success (i.e., genetic fitness - conception, birth, survival of offspring).

Gaurav, Daniel, and Cory live in the same apartment building. Gaurav lives on the fourth floor, right above Daniel on the third floor, and right next to the stairwell. Cory lives next door to Gaurav and typically takes the elevator at the other end of the hallway. Gaurav and Daniel typically take the stairs. Which two of these three men are MOST likely to become friends?

Gaurav and Daniel, because they have a closer functional distance

Reciprocal Altruism

Helping non-relative others is evolutionarily adaptive because it increases the chances they will help you during your time of need.

Why are relationships important?

Humans have a fundamental need to form and maintain lasting, positive relationships (need to belong).

whom do we help- responsibility

If we believe others do not try to help themselves, then we are less likely to offer assistance.

competence

If you feel you have the skills to provide the necessary help, you are more likely to help.

physical attractiveness

Indeed, attractive people are actually more likely to: -Be hired for a job -Receive higher pay -Get promoted -Be evaluated more positively (particularly teachers) -Receive lower fines for misdemeanor conviction -Judgments of attractiveness are multifaceted:

passionate love

Intense, passionate arousal usually experienced at the beginning of a love relationship.

Research on proximity tell us:

Long distance relationships are less convenient and thus can be less rewarding

mate preferences- males

Males look for signs of fertility: -Healthy appearance -Long, shiny hair -Healthy skin and teeth -Good muscle tone -Lack of parasites -Hour-glass figure shows reproductive maturity

gender and asking for help

Men ask for help less frequently than women do and this holds true for several countries around the world!

attractive facial features- male

Men with strong jaws and broad foreheads seem appealing when women are fertile...but women prefer warmer, more youthful features during the rest of the month.

Research suggests that a couple will be more or less happy depending on how each partner explains the other partner's positive and negative actions. Which pattern BEST reflects the attributions of a member of a happy couple?

Negative behaviors are attributed to specific and unintended causes.

subjective attractiveness

Not all "desirable" qualities are universal. Culture, time, circumstance may influence our perceptions of beauty...

similarity over time

Over time, the members of a couple tend to look like each other, perhaps because of initial physical similarities, but also because of shared living conditions, diet, and emotional experiences.

Culture and cooperation

People who live in cultures requiring high amounts of interdependence for survival (for example, food sharing), allocated resources more fairly during an ultimatum game than people from other cultures.

predicting the future

Reasonable expectations coupled with the knowledge that we have an ongoing duty to be pleasant to our partners, should leave us with a pretty optimistic outlook for our own relationship future.

Empathy- Altruism hypothesis

Research shows we are more likely to help those we can empathize with (understand their perspective and feel sympathy, compassion, and concern).

divorce predictors

Specific vulnerabilities to divorce include: -Negative personality characteristics -Lower SES -Younger age at time of marriage -Dysfunctional communication patterns -Distress maintaining attributions The four most harmful behaviors (predicted divorce with 93% accuracy): -Criticism- being overly critical toward partner -Defensiveness- refusing to accept responsibility for conflicts -Stonewalling- withdrawal from partner, refusal to interact emotionally -Contempt- looking down on one's partner

interdependence theory

Suggests that we evaluate our outcomes based on: -Satisfaction -Alternative partners -Investment -Commitment level

equity (balance) theory

Suggests that we prefer consistency and symmetry in our relationships...so we like those who like us, and dislike those who dislike us. Ex- Rachel didn't like Ross until she knew he loved her.

kin selection

Tendency for natural selection to favor behaviors that benefit the survival of genetic relatives.

need to belong

The NTB is believed to have evolved because it was adaptive... it increased survival and reproductive success for our ancestors by providing access to resources.

The "Selfish" Gene/Kin Selection

The tendency to help genetic relatives is automatic.

investment

These are the things we lose when we leave a relationship, which can include: -Material possessions -Love -Time -Effort -Family -Friends

investment theory

Thus, people are committed when: -They're happy -There's no place else to go -It would cost too much to leave Thus, people leave their partners when: -They're unhappy -There is an attractive alternative -There are few investments to keep you from leaving

Topanga is filling out a survey in a room with four other people. Suddenly, smoke starts entering the room from underneath a door. According to research by Latané and Darley (1968), what is Topanga's likely response?

Topanga will look around the room at the other people and follow their cue.

age preferences

Typically, women prefer older men and men prefer younger women.

altruism

Unselfish behavior that benefits others without regard to consequences for oneself.

alternatives/ dependence

We also compare our relationships to what we think we can get elsewhere, called our comparison level for alternatives (CLalt). -CLalt is the best possible outcome if we leave our current partner (could be another partner or maybe just being alone). -CLalt forms the standard for measuring our dependence on the relationship.

who are we attracted to?

We are attracted to people who are rewarding.

whom do we help- similarity

We are more likely to help others who are similar to us (on all sorts of dimensions). Ex- ingroup favoritism, kin selection.

whom do we help- closeness

We are more likely to help those we are close with, like friends, family, and romantic partners.

Evidence of the need to belong

We experience pleasure from the formation of relationships, and suffer (both mentally and physically) when relationships end or are denied.

Wendy is an unattractive woman as judged by conventional beauty standards. Jim shares her fate in that he is an unattractive man. Who is MORE likely to have a harder time at work; that is, more likely to get turned down for raises and promotions, or to receive less respect?

Wendy

smoke-filled room

When left in a room that began to fill with smoke, 75 percent of participants left to alert an authority, but if other people were present, only 38 percent left to tell someone.

diffusion of responsibility

With others are present, the responsibility for providing assistance is divided across all the bystanders ... most likely to happen under conditions of anonymity.

According to evolutionary psychologists, women biologically invest more in any one offspring than men do. Thus, women will seek mates who are ____________ and men will seek mates who are ____________.

able to provide sufficient material resources; attractive, thus signaling fertility

Contented partners engage in behaviors that include:

being playful

Gottman and Levenson recorded 15-minute interactions between married couples. They were able to predict, with 93 percent accuracy, who would stay together and who would be divorced 14 years later. Their predictions were based on the presence or absence of what characteristic?

degree of contempt for one another

What was NOT discussed as motives for helping?

dehumanization

The interdependence model claims that our satisfaction in a relationship is based on our:

expectations

Specific vulnerabilities to divorce include each of the following EXCEPT:

higher SES

According to evolutionary theories of attraction, women tend to get _____ attractive with age and men get _____ with age.

less, more

According to the Commitment Model, each of the following are important to keeping a marriage committed EXCEPT:

low investment

Researchers Kraus, Piff, and Keltner (2011) suggest that ________ are more attuned to others, build stronger relationships, and thus give away more resources than ________, who are more independent and less empathetic to others.

lower-class people; upper-class people

Facial composites (images morphed together using several facial pictures) are generally more attractive, because they are:

more symmetrical and more proportionate

In American relationships, _______ love generally occurs first, leading people to marry and _______ love occurs later keeping a couple together and making a marriage last.

passionate, compassionate

In general, people like to have their beliefs validated by others. This suggests that...

people will exhibit more liking for those who hold similar beliefs.

what is our initial attraction to someone?

physical attractiveness

The day before your social psychology exam, your professor asks the class if there are any questions. You are confused about the concept of the bystander effect, but you look around the room and note that the rest of the class does not appear to have any questions. Since no one else is asking questions, you decide to keep your question to yourself. After the exam, you learn that everyone missed the question about the bystander effect. What is the BEST explanation for why no one spoke up when the professor asked if there were any questions?

pluralistic ignorance

According to Caryl Rusbult's investment model, what might cause a person to leave a satisfying relationship?

the availability of potentially more satisfying alternatives

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

According to the idea of reproductive fitness, our evolutionary ancestors were mostly concerned with...

survival of one's genes

long-distance relationships

takes more effort to make it work.

bystander effect

the tendency for a group of bystanders to be less likely than an individual to provide assistance to a person in trouble.

According to Axelrod's (1984) research, the strategy that yields the best average results in the prisoner's dilemma game is...

tit-for-tat

Imagine an experiment in which participants see these symbols projected one at a time on a screen: φ ι φ Δ ξ φ θ φ τ φ μ φ p φ σ φ φ ω φ ζ φ If participants are asked how much they like each character, which character are they probably going to report liking the most?

φ