Social Psych UNIT 2

Describe factors that affect persuasion taking into account: Message factors - Consider length, discrepancy, use of unusual words and use of "buzz words".

"Long messages are credible" WHEN A MESSAGE IS TOO DISCREPANT FROM A HELD ATTITUDE, THE RECIPIENT OF THE PERSUASIVE ATTEMPT MAY DISCOUNT IT AND IGNORE IT. BUZZWORDS CAPTURE PEOPLE'S ATTENTION AND MAY BE PERSUASIVE (E.G., USE OF MEDICAL TERMS TO PROMOTE FACE CREAM).

Consider how actions might affect attitudes taking into account: Foot-in-the-door phenomenon-

the tendency for people to comply with some large request after first agreeing to a small request.

Explain the different ways an individual might reduce dissonance.

1) Change behavior to make it consistent with attitude- quitting smoking because you believe it is dangerous 2) Change attitude to make it consistent with behavior- not willing to quit, convince yourself to believe smoking isn't that dangerous 3) Develop a new attitude to justify the inconsistency- smoking is dangerous, but would rather die young and happy than to quit smoking

Describe the availability heuristic and give examples.

A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances come readily in mind, we presume it to be commonplace. The vividness of a memory enhances accessibility. Ex) after 9/11, people thought plane crashes were highly likely, but in reality, car crashes were more likely, but 9/11 memory was so vivid people feared planes more. Ex) media attention can make violent crime be seen as high-occurrence when in reality, violent crime rates have been decreasing.

Why do actions affect attitudes? Explain cognitive dissonance theory. Discuss the human preference for consistency in attitudes & beliefs and attitudes & behaviors.

Actions affect attitudes because we change our attitudes in order to maintain consistency among our thoughts. Cognitive Dissonance Theory says that tension arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent thoughts. For example, dissonance may occur when we realize we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another. Because humans have preference for consistency in attitudes and behaviors, we will change one or the other in order for them to be aligned again. For example, if I think that supporting the LGBTQ community is inconsistent with my Christian faith, I will adjust my behavior towards the LGBTQ community in order to match my internal attitude that Christians must not support sin.

Describe factors that affect persuasion taking into account: Channel factors (active vs. passive; personal vs. media)

Active experience strengthens attitudes. When we act, we amplify the idea behind what we've done, especially when we feel responsible. Also, attitudes are more likely to endure and influence behavior when rooting in our own experience. On the other hand, passive experience forms attitudes that are less stable and more vulnerable to attacks. These attitudes are formed through written and visual appeals that use concepts such as repetition to try and convince people of something. However, the more familiar with an issue someone is, the harder it is to try and persuade them of something. Personal influence actually has more influence than media because of people's contact with others can often persuade them to do what the original person is doing. Ex) voting, reading/ watching a series.

How might one use inoculation to resist persuasive attempts?

Attitude inoculation is exposing people to weak attacks upon their values so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available. One way this can occur is by leading people to consider counterarguments (reasons why a persuasive message might be wrong). False claims were more likely to persist if people were simply told they were wrong but when learning detailed counterarguments, they were more likely to debunk false beliefs.

Explain the factors that determine attitudes (e.g., where do attitudes come from?) Be sure to discuss temperament, instinct, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning and the mass media.

Attitudes can come from innate determinants such as temperament and instinct. Temperament is emotional reactivity and differences in things such as startle responses. Instinct is survival based and can be helpful to survival such as being disgusted by rotten food. On the other hand, attitudes can come from direct experience and socialization. Classical conditioning is one way this happens, an example being taste aversion. Once a food makes you sick once, you are likely to feel nauseated when seeing/smelling this food in the future. Operant conditioning happens through rewards and punishment. For example, if I was given $5 for every A I got on my report card growing up, I most likely believe education to have value. Observational learning happens when we learn our preferences from the people around us, like our parents. For example, my mom has always been a Panthers fan, so now I am. Finally, mass media impacts our attitudes. For example, if we see celebrities that are widely admired for drinking a certain beverage, we are more likely to try that beverage and be encouraged to like it, too.

Describe the base-rate fallacy and give examples.

Base-rate fallacy is when people fail to consider statistical information in their reasoning about something. Instead, they focus on impactful anecdotes or useless information that stands out to them. Ex) when people have spent hours gambling with no wins they may think, "it's time for me to win." In reality, they have just as much of a chance winning this round than all the previous rounds. Ex) being scared you are going to be eaten by shark by swimming but not being scared of being in a car accident- which is much more likely.

Discuss belief perseverance and explain why people are often reluctant to relinquish existing beliefs. Describe research that illustrates this process. How might one counteract belief perseverance?

Belief perseverance is the persistence of one's initial conceptions, such as when the basis for one's beliefs is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives. The more we examine theories and explain how they might be true, the more closed off we become to information that challenges our beliefs. Ross and Anderson experimented with this by feeding a false belief to people and trying to discredit it. Their results indicated that after people conjure up the rationale for their belief, even when false, it is extremely hard to make them demolish this belief. This is because we often benefit from the preconceptions that guide us through life and help us interpret events, and feeling like we cannot understand what is happening around/to us or feeling like we have gotten that wrong is hard by human nature. To counteract this belief perseverance, people are asked to stop/slow down and try to think about a way in which their judgments might be wrong. Another way to counteract this phenomenon is to use prompt feedback- where someone is receiving clear and daily feedback.

Apply cognitive dissonance theory to child-rearing, explaining the best way to foster appropriate behaviors.

Cognitive Dissonance theory focuses not on the relative effectiveness of rewards and punishments administered after the act but rather on what induces the desired action. Therefore, in relation to childrearing, the goal is to get children to do the right thing because they want to do the right thing, not because they are being bribed to do so or punished for not doing so, as people are unlikely to internalize forced behavior. After all, attitudes follow behaviors for which we feel some responsibility. Therefore, dissonance theory insists that encouragement and inducement should be enough to elicit the desired action so that attitudes will follow behavior and parents should only use only just enough incentive to elicit behavior, in order to avoid the overjustification effect.

Describe the confirmation bias and explain how it may affect information searches.

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for information that confirms one's perceptions and not to consider information that counters it. This can affect information searches because we may only look up/frame searches in a way where we only get information that confirms what we hold to be true, while not framing searches in a way that branches away from that belief and offers new information.

Describe the differences between dispositional and situational attributions. When are we most likely to make each type of attribution?

Dispositional attribution- attributing behavior to an internal cause such as the person's disposition and traits, or mental state Situational attribution- attributing behavior to an external cause such as the situation/ physical and social circumstances Most likely to make dispositional attributions when assessing other people's behavior and most likely to use situational attribution when assessing our own. When our action feels intentional and admirable, we attribute it to our own good reasons (dispositional), not to the situation. When we behave badly, we tend to display our disposition and attribute our behavior to the situation.

Discuss ways to reduce the FAE.

Education- by becoming more aware of this tendency to make ourselves stop and think before judging others Perspective taking- put yourself in the actor's shoes, which helps people take into account situational factors Deliberate attempts to be accurate/careful

Discuss the use of emotional appeals in persuasive messages. Give detailed examples of the use of positive and negative emotion in persuasive attempts. When are fear appeals more or less effective?

Emotional appeals can use either positive or negative emotions. Use of humor may prompt a positive gut reaction and putting the audience in a good mood increases agreeableness and may raise persuasion. For example, using an ad of an overweight Abe Lincoln to encourage people to get up and move may make people laugh and have a positive reaction to the message and be more likely to engage in physical activity. However, negative emotional appeals may also work. Guilt and fear are both used as negative emotional appeals. For example, using an ad that shows a fetus smoking a cigarette may guilt/scare people into not smoking while they are pregnant. However, fear appeals work best when they are paired with solutions to the problem that is fear-provoking. They are also more likely to be effective if they focus on short-term vs. long term consequences (ex. Threats pertaining to rejection are more powerful than threat related to premature death).

Describe the factors that affect whether attitudes guide/predict behavior. Take into account environmental pressures and the strength and accessibility of attitudes.

Environmental pressures can nullify the influence of attitudes sometimes. For example, someone could believe that speeding is dangerous and wrong, but if their child is being rushed to the hospital in an ambulance, they will speed behind the ambulance in order to be right behind their child. Attitudes are likely to guide behavior when we have a very strong attitude about something. For example, losing a loved one to a drunk driving accident, we are less likely to get in the car with someone who has been drinking or drive under the influence ourselves because our attitude towards this action is very strong. Also, accessibility of attitudes matters because when an attitude comes to mind more easily, people are more likely to act on them. Ex) putting a mirror in stores where people are more likely to shoplift reduces the amount of shoplifting because people have to look at themselves and be more self-aware.

Consider how actions might affect attitudes taking into account: Evil and moral acts-

Evil sometimes results from gradually escalating commitments. A trifling evil act erodes one's moral sensitivity, making it easier to perform a worse act. Moral action, on the other hand, can also affect thinking. Acting morally, especially when chosen rather than coerced, affects moral thinking. Moreover, positive behavior fosters liking for the person. Doing a favor for someone, for example, increases the liking of the person helped.

Give examples of persuasive attempts targeting each route. Be sure to describe different types of peripheral cues.

Examples of persuasive attempts targeting the central route include computer ads and university president races. These types of persuasive attempts offer facts and include strong arguments. Examples of persuasive attempts targeting the peripheral route include a perfume ad featuring an attractive celebrity and the same thing with a coke ad. These types of persuasive attempts include emotional appeals (such as gut reactions, humor, positive associations, and fear) and superficial cues. Such peripheral cues include attractiveness/liking (using attractive celebs), source similarity ("I'm like you, you can trust me"), perceived expertise (how much the source knows about something), and perceived trustworthiness which can be conveyed through things like eye contact, speaking quickly, etc.

Define attitudes. Explain how they are comprised of affect, behavior and cognition and give examples.

Favorable or unfavorable evaluative reactions towards something or someone/ an evaluation of people, objects, ideas, etc. that influences our feelings about something/someone. They are comprised of affect (which is our likes, dislikes, and emotions towards something. Ex) I do not like when people are talkative), behavior (intentions to act in a specific way and past behavior Ex) in the past they have talked too much) and cognition (our beliefs and information Ex) I believe it is rude to talk too much).

According to Harold Kelly's theory of attributions, when are we most likely to attribute someone's behavior to internal (dispositional) versus external (situational) causes? Explain the importance of consensus, distinctiveness & consistency information.

Harold Kelly suggested that we can determine if a cause is internal or external by observing a person's behavior. Whether we tend to attribute our behavior to internal or external causes depends on a variety of situational and personal factors. Consensus: the extent to which other people behave in the same way in a similar situation. E.g., Alison smokes a cigarette when she goes out for a meal with SEVERAL FRIENDS. If ALL OF HER FRIENDS SMOKE, THE BEHAVIOR SHOWS HIGH CONSENSUS. If only Alison smokes, it is low CONSENSUS. THIS IS INFORMATIVE BECAUSE WHEN A BEHAVIOR IS LOW IN CONSENSUS, IT SUGGESTS AN INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION (E.G., TOWARD ALISON'S DISPOSITION) SINCE SHE IS THE ONLY ONE WHO ACTS THAT WAY IN THAT SITUATION). IF EVERYONE TENDS TO ACT THE SAME WAY, WE CAN MAKE AN EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION AND ASSUME THE SITUATION IS DRIVING THE BEHAVIOR Distinctiveness: the extent to which the person behaves in the same way in similar situations. If Alison only smokes when she is out with friends, her behavior is high in distinctiveness. If she smokes at any time or place, distinctiveness is low. LOW DISTINCTIVENESS SUGGESTS THE PERSON BEHAVES THE SAME WAY IN A VARIETY OF SITUATIONS. THIS PROVIDES EVIDENCE IN SUPPORT OF AN INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION SINCE CHANGING SITUATIONS DOES NOT CHANGE THE BEHAVIOR. IF CHANGING SITUATIONS DID CHANGE THE BEHAVIOR (HIGH DISTINCTIVENESS) THEN THIS SUGGESTS AN EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION BECAUSE THE SITUATION IS DRIVING THE BEHAVIOR. Consistency: the extent to which the person behaves like this every time the situation occurs. If Alison only smokes when she is out with friends, consistency is high. If she only smokes on one special occasion, consistency is low. IF THE CONSISTENCY IS HIGH, THIS AGAIN PROVIDES EVIDENCE FOR AN INTERNAL ATTRIBUTION BECAUSE THE PERSON DOES THE BEHAVIOR ALL THE TIME. IF CONSISTENCY IS LOW (E.G., YOUR EXAMPLE OF SMOKING ONLY ON SPECIAL OCCASIONS, THEN IT WOULD BE AN EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTION BECAUSE THE SITUATION (SPECIAL OCCASION OR NOT) IS WHAT DRIVES THE BEHAVIOR.

Describe the Patty Hearst historical case from 1974 and explain how it provides an example of situational and dispositional attributions. Which type of attribution did the jury make in this case?

Hearst was kidnapped and the kidnappers kept her in a closet, bound and blindfolded. Her kidnappers demanded her parents to donate millions of dollars worth of food to the poor. She was given the choice to be released or to join the FLA and to fight for the oppressed. She was caught and charged with robbery of a bank. The question was, should she have been held accountable, or was she brain-washed? Jurors had to consider situations and dispositional factors. Patty said she was brain washed and should not have to be held accountable- which is situational. This would mean her behavior was the result of all the horrific circumstances she had to endure. On the other hand, her actions could have been dispositional, which would mean her behavior was caused by the type of person she was/had become. In this case, the jury determined that her behavior was dispositional, which means she was held accountable for her part in the robbery.

Describe factors that affect persuasion taking into account: Sources factors (attractiveness; similarity; credibility)-

If the source is attractive (having qualities that appeal to an audience), the audience is more likely to be persuaded by them. If they are similar to the audience, this creates a feeling of trustworthiness and people like those who are like them. Credibility is also taken into account according to whether or not the speaker has (the perception of) expertise on the topic.

Define counterfactual thinking, describing when people are most likely to imagine alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened but didn't. How does this sort of thinking affect emotions?

Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened, but didn't. In other words, mentally simulating what might have been. Imagining worse alternatives makes us feel better about our situations. However, people often use counterfactual thinking when things go wrong because they try to imagine ways in which the crisis could have been averted. This kind of thinking affects emotions because it can make people feel more guilty or inadequate if the simulated situations are better. Ex) I was late for my flight, if only I wouldn't have stopped and got coffee, then I would've been on time. Or, they can make people feel better if the simulated situation is worse than what really happened. Ex) A bronze medalist will feel better about not placing or getting a medal at all, while a silver medalist will feel worse for not getting the gold.

Describe both implicit and explicit attitudes and give examples to illustrate the difference between these 2 types of attitudes.

In the case of explicit or conscious, the person is very clear about his or her feelings and attitudes, and related behaviors are conducted with intent. Implicit or unconscious bias operates outside of the person's awareness and can be in direct contradiction to a person's espoused beliefs and values. For example, I could consciously believe and verbally/outwardly proclaim that all people have worth regardless of age, gender, race, etc. and this would be my explicit attitude. However, I could unconsciously, and therefore unknowingly, be biased against the elderly population, which would be an implicit attitude.

Discuss variables to take into account when deciding whether to present a 1-sided vs. 2-sided message.

It is important to consider whether including the other side will confuse the audience or not. You also must consider if it is possible that the audience will remember the counter argument more than the original one. On the other hand, a message might appear fairer and be more disarming if it recognizes/acknowledges the opponent's argument. A defense case becomes more credible when the defense brings up damaging evidence before the prosecution does. Thus, a political candidate speaking to a politically informed group would indeed be wise to respond to the opposition. Therefore, if your audience will be exposed to opposing views, offer a two-sided appeal. This can also make the communicator seem more honest.

Describe and give examples of negative (depressive) explanatory style. How does this differ from a more optimistic explanatory style?

Negative (depressive) explanatory style is when people attribute bad things that happen to them through global, stable, and internal explanations. In contrast, the optimistic explanatory style uses local, unstable, and external explanations for negative events and therefore is not soley the person's fault and can be improved.

Explain how expectations may affect judgments, considering the importance of first impressions. Be sure to explain the importance of schemas and give examples.

Our expectations affect judgements because we expect our schemas to be correct, and therefore make people/situations fit these schemas even when they otherwise wouldn't. First impressions come into play when we try to understand how a person is/behaves before we really even know them. For example, if we hold a schema that girls in sororities are rude and snobby, and we see a girl wearing a sorority t-shirt, we may automatically act coldly towards them, since we expect them to be snobby to us. This can backfire when the girl is actually a generally nice person, but our cold interactions with them prompt them to be cold back, thus confirming our schema, but improperly making a judgement on someone.

Discuss the various causes of the FAE presented in class notes and the text. Be sure to consider the role of culture in exhibiting the FAE.

Part of the reason for FAE is because we have a desire for control, and we believe that if we can attribute a person's behavior to dispositional attributions, then we will be able to know the kind of person they are and predict their future behavior, and we find safety in this. Also, when we view other people, we tend to see just the person and not their situation because we have a lack of knowledge/appreciation for their situation, which is called perceptual salience. It is often easier to view people in this way (efficiency) because it takes more effort and controlled thinking to consider situational factors, so we often settle for the easier option of simply blaming the person.

Consider how actions might affect attitudes taking into account: Saying becomes believing

People often adapt what they say to please their listeners and then start to believe what they are saying. When there is no compelling external explanation for one's words, saying becomes believing.

Describe illusory correlations and generate examples.

Perceptions of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists. Ex) when a friend calls you after you think of them, you may think that's why they called. In reality, it was a coincidence and there have been many times where you have thought of them and they have not called. Ex) We may think that when the wind blows when we are visiting a grave, our loved one is talking to us when in reality the wind would have blown either way

What are the powers and limits of intuition?

Powers- help us recognize people and threats quickly; saves us mental capacity for other, conscious thinking; allows us to use developed expertise to know answers to problems (ex: chess) Limits- error-prone hindsight judgements; capacity for illusion (perceptual misinterpretations, fantasies, constructed beliefs); can lead to false beliefs

Use examples from presidential campaign ads to illustrate the use of various persuasive techniques.

Presidential ads that include a counterargument from the other side, and properly addresses it, and likely to be more successful than those ads that only address their side of an issues. Also, presidential candidates also tend to try to seem relatable/similar to their audience, often trying to appeal to groups such as the middle class: "I was just like you, I came from a suburban neighborhood..." Additionally, the debates that I saw last year, included some joking/poking fun at the other candidate, which appeals to the humor aspect of emotional appeals.

Discuss primacy vs. recency effects.

Primacy effect is when other things are equal, but information presented first usually has the most influence. On the other hand, recency effect states that information presented last sometimes has the most influence. However, this is less common than the primacy effect, which usually works best. When 2 persuasive messages are back-to-back and the audience responds at some later time, the first message has the advantage (primacy effect). When the two messages are separated in time and the audience responds soon after the second message, the second message has the advantage (recency effect).

Explain why self-reported attitudes may be inaccurate. Describe the Implicit Association Test and explain how this measure may reveal more accurate attitudes than self-report measures.

Self-reported attitudes may be inaccurate because people may not be honest about their real attitudes towards something because they would rather give a more socially acceptable answer rather than being truthful. Or, the individual is not dishonest on purpose and is just simply unaware of their implicit attitudes and are unable to report on themselves accurately. The IAT assesses implicit attitudes, identities, and beliefs that people are either unwilling or unable to report. It taps into people's hidden attitudes by assessing reaction times towards people's associations (ex. Young/old with pleasant/unpleasant words). This measure reveals more accurate attitudes than self-report measures because people report attitudes that they find to be more socially acceptable, whereas this test determines a person's real, implicit attitudes. For example, a person may say they are not prejudiced opinions on Black people, because they know this is not socially acceptable, but an IAT would show a person's actual internal (and sometimes negative) attitudes towards Black people.

Are social judgments more often intuitive or deliberate? Why?

Social judgements are more often intuitive. Our automatic processes such as our schemas and emotional reactions determine our social judgements because our cognitive capacity is limited and therefore, we use shortcuts to streamline our thinking.

Describe the following differences in types of attributions: stable versus unstable; global versus specific; and internal versus external. Be able to give and identify examples of each type.

Stable (permanent) vs. unstable (temporary). Ex) I am bad at math and always will be vs. I did bad on a single test Internal (dispositional/personal) vs external (situational). Ex) Was I late because I overslept vs was I late because the bus was late? Global (can affect all aspects of life) vs. Specific (limited in scope). Ex) I am a bad person vs. I was wrong in this specific situation

Describe the elaboration likelihood model, explaining the differences between the central and peripheral routes. Also explain when each route to persuasion is most likely.

States that there are two routes to persuasion; route taken depends on the target's ability and motivation to process the message. The two routes include central and peripheral. The central route occurs when interested people focus on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts. In this route, the target thinks carefully about the message and influence is based on strength of an argument. Thinking requires high effort and the target is motivated and capable of doing so On the other hand, the peripheral route occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness or emotional content that prompt a gut reaction. In this route, the target does not think carefully about the message, influence is based on superficial cues, and utilizes gut reactions.

When is the FAE most likely to occur?

THE FAE IS MORE LIKELY IN WESTERN CULTURES WHERE INDIVIDUALS ARE THOUGHT TO BE IN CONTROL OF THEIR OWN BEHAVIOR AND OUTCOMES, COMPARED TO EASTERN CULTURES WHERE GROUP PRESSURES ARE KNOWN TO HAVE MORE POWER. IF PEOPLE MUST BOW TO GROUP PRESSURES, THEY MAY ACT IN A WAY THAT DOES NOT REFLECT THEIR TRUE DISPOSITION. IN COLLECTIVIST CULTURES, THE POWER OF THE GROUP IS RECOGNIZED AND THEREFORE DISPOSITIONAL ATTRIBUTIONS ARE LESS COMMON. THE FAE MAY ALSO BE MORE LIKELY WHEN A NEGATIVE OUTCOME HAPPENS TO SOMEONE. WE MAY WANT TO BLAME THE VICTIM SO THAT WE CAN REASSURE OURSELVES THAT THE SAME MISFORTUNATE CANNOT HAPPEN TO US.

How might the self fulfilling prophecy have relevance in schools?

Teachers have higher expectations for some students as opposed to others. Therefore, they give these students more opportunity to talk in class, and therefore receive more feedback, and give them more attention and assistance than those they expect less from. Therefore, the student they hold higher expectations for do perform better, but because of the teacher's behavior, not necessarily their own behavior and ability. The students who the teacher has lower expectations for may be just as smart and capable as the other students, but because they receive less help and encouragement, they ended up not performing as well.

Describe the self-fulfilling prophecy and describe specific research that illustrates its effect. Discuss the link between schemas and self-fulfilling prophecy.

The belief that leads to its own fulfillment. Therefore, when we hold a certain belief or schema, we act in ways that align with these beliefs, thus generating their own reality. Our ideas and schemas lead us to act in certain ways that produce their apparent confirmation. Therefore, in order for our schemas to remain true, we act in ways or perceive things in ways that confirm them. Robert Rosenthal for example did an experiment where he asked individuals to judge the success of people in various photos. Experimenters who expected their participants to see to photographed people as successful obtained higher ratings.

Explain differences in the types of attitudes that are formed via each route.

The central route is more likely to form lasting attitudes and are more likely to influence behavior. Meanwhile, the peripheral route is more likely to form temporary attitudes that are unlikely to influence behavior.

What inspires attributions? What types of events prompt attributions?

The desire for people to be able to explain other people's behavior and other situations, especially if it is an event that impacts them in a negative/painful or unexpected/surprising way.

Describe how the illusion of control may influence gambling behavior

The illusion of control breeds overconfidence, and gamblers therefore feel as though if they roll dice a certain way, or are the one to spin the wheel, they have more control and therefore more chance of winning. These individuals will therefore continue to play with the confidence that they will win, although their chances of winning are actually not any higher than before.

Describe and explain the overjustification effect.

The result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing and stop liking it. For example, bribing children who are coloring to color will make them less likely to color given the chance in the future.

What is the fundamental attribution error (FAE)?

The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon other's behavior. We presume others are the way they act, even when we don't make the same presumption of ourselves.

Describe the representativeness heuristic and give examples.

The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member. Ex) thinking the blonde, pretty, well-liked girl is snobby because popular girls are. Ex) Thinking the large, muscly boy plays football when he might instead enjoy singing because he looks like a jock.

Explain why we often rely on mental shortcuts when making judgments.

There is so much information to process all of the time, and not enough time in the day to process it all with controlled thinking. Therefore, mental shortcuts (heuristics) to make routine decisions with minimal effort. The speed of this intuitive thinking promotes our survival.

Why are attributions important?

They color our explanations in basic and important ways. For example, people's attributions predict their attitudes towards the poor and the unemployed. Or, we use attributions to determine a person's reasoning for doing something, which could have legal repercussions: Was it self-defense or was it murder?

Describe the importance of attributions to emotional well-being, explaining why negative life events do not themselves CAUSE negative emotional responses.

We are more likely to make attributions when we face setbacks or adversaries. However, negative life events themselves do not cause negative emotional responses; it depends on how the person explains why this event happened. If someone feels like they were rejected from a graduate program because they were not smart or good enough, that would make them feel worse compared to them thinking they were smart and good enough, there were just limited spots in the program.

Explain why we tend to be more confident in our judgments than we are accurate (why do we overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs?)

We are unaware of what we are unaware of and ironically, Incompetence feeds overconfidence because it takes competence to recognize competence. We are often unaware when we lack something, because how would we know that we didn't know something? Also, people tend to prefer people with confidence, even when this confidence cannot be backed by facts or performance. Therefore, people try harder to embody this confidence. Lastly, people tend to not seek information that goes against what they believe, and only look up or take in information that confirms their beliefs, a concept called confirmation bias.

Explain why self persuasion following counter-attitudinal behavior is most likely when there is freedom of choice in the action.

When there is freedom of choice and the person still acted against their attitude towards the behavior, dissonance is created and there is a need to reduce it. Therefore, self-persuasion is used in an attempt to reduce dissonance by persuading oneself to change their attitude to one that aligns with the behavior they participated in. This is less so for people who were given less freedom of choice.

Describe the Actor-Observer bias.

When we are the participant in a behavior/action, we are the actor. When this is the case, the environment around us commands our attention, and we often attribute any of our own flaws or shortcomings to the environment. However, when we watch another person act, and we become the observer, that PERSON is the center of our attention and the environment becomes less considered- and even invisible. We see ourselves as more variable than other people because we are often unaware of how our environment/situation varies and impacts our actions, and we question ourselves and our actions less than we question other people. Therefore, when we are the actor, we explain our behavior with situational attributions, but when we are the observer, we consider personal/dispositional attributions more.

Define the overconfidence phenomenon and give an example.

When we are unaware of our errors because we so often interpret our experiences and construct memories automatically. Ex) Being confident that you know exactly how far away the airport is and how long it will take to get through all the lines and clearances and missing your flight because you were late.

Describe conditions when dissonance may occur taking into account: Dissonance after decisions (post-decisional regret)-

after making a difficult choice, people become painfully aware of the positives that would have come with the other choice that they turned down. People are more likely to downgrade their other choices and upgrade the one they made in an attempt to convince themselves they made the right decision. Our preferences influence our decisions, which then sharpen our preferences

Describe factors that affect persuasion taking into account: Audience factors (motivation; ability; distraction; mood; age)-

an audience motivation determines how they receive persuasive information. If they are motivated to focus and make the right decision, they are more likely to critically think about information given to them when considering their options. Ability to focus and comprehend also matters because the audience has to be able to understand the information being given to them in order for them to use it to make their decision. Distraction and lack of knowledge of a topic interfere with deep thinking. Good mood increases agreeableness and may raise persuasion. This can be attained through positive associations or humor. The teens and early 20s are formative years and attitudes are changeable then, whereas attitudes stabilize during middle adulthood.

Consider how actions might affect attitudes taking into account role playing- everyday examples and Zimbardo prison study-

behavior influences attitudes. Stanford prison experiment demonstrated how the people who roleplayed being a guard started to feel real power differences and viewed the prisoner actors as inferior in order to justify their negative and abusive behavior towards them. What is unreal (a phony role) can subtly morph into what is real.

Describe conditions when dissonance may occur taking into account: Counter-attitudinal behavior-

behavior that is counter to attitude (inconsistency). If there is perception of free choice, dissonance is created and there is a need to reduce this dissonance. Since behavior cannot be taken back, people will adjust their attitudes in order to match their behavior and reduce the dissonance.

Describe conditions when dissonance may occur taking into account: Insufficient Justification-

reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is insufficient. Ex) being paid $1 as opposed to $20 to tell a lie feels like you told a lie for an insufficient, so you will justify telling a lie for so cheap by being motivated to believe the lie they told.