Social Psychology: Chapter 5
*__________:* a positive or negative evaluation of an object, which includes people, things, events and issues Tendency to evaluate is *__________.* Examples: -*__________*: Attitudes towards self -*__________:* Attitudes towards individuals -*__________:* Attitudes towards groups -*__________*
*Attitudes:* a positive or negative evaluation of an object, which includes people, things, events and issues Tendency to evaluate is *automatic.* Examples: -*Self-esteem*: Attitudes towards self -*Interpersonal attraction:* Attitudes towards individuals -*Prejudice:* Attitudes towards groups -*Friendship*
*___________*: A feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is inconsistent with one's attitudes. *__________* came up with cognitive dissonance. We wish to appear consistent in our *___________* and *___________.* Inconsistency is *___________* and aversive. To avoid or reduce the aversive feeling, we engage in the following: -*___________* behavior -Cognitive *___________* -*___________*
*Cognitive dissonance:* A feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is inconsistent with one's attitudes. *Leon Festinger* came up with cognitive dissonance. We wish to appear consistent in our *thoughts* and *behavior.* Inconsistency is *uncomfortable* and aversive. To avoid or reduce the aversive feeling, we engage in the following: -*Irrational* behavior -Cognitive *distortions* -*Rationalization*
*___________:* predicts when a person will carefully consider a message and when they will rely on less effortful thinking. It is *___________* people respond to persuasive messages. Two Processing Types: 1) *___________:* People carefully scrutinize message/content/ideals when motivated and able to attend carefully. Requires *___________* and uses up mental *___________.* Argument strength matters. 2) *___________:* People rely on heuristics or other "effortless" processes. Almost *___________* process. Argument strength is *___________,* and requires less effort and more automatic. Attitudes formed through peripheral route are *___________* and less resistant to counterarguments, and less predictive of behavior. Attitudes formed through central route processing are -*___________* -Less prone to *___________* -More *___________* of behavior
*Elaboration Likelihood Model:* predicts when a person will carefully consider a message and when they will rely on less effortful thinking. It is *how* people respond to persuasive messages. Two Processing Types: 1) *Central route to persuasion:* People carefully scrutinize message/content/ideals when motivated and able to attend carefully. Requires *effort* and uses up mental *resources.* Argument strength matters. 2) *Peripheral route:* People rely on heuristics or other "effortless" processes. Almost *automatic* process. Argument strength is *irrelevant,* and requires less effort and more automatic. Attitudes formed through peripheral route are *weaker* and less resistant to counterarguments, and less predictive of behavior. Attitudes formed through central route processing are -*Stronger* -Less prone to *counterarguments* -More *predictive* of behavior
*_________* motivate, enahnce and hinder persuasion: People in *__________* mood are more susceptible to persuasion. The feelings as information approach suggest that a *__________* mood signals that things are fine and no effortful cognition is needed. *__________* can increase attention to the message, but may *_________* with the comprehension.
*Emotions* motivate, enahnce and hinder persuasion: People in *good* mood are more susceptible to persuasion. The feelings as information approach suggest that a *positive* mood signals that things are fine and no effortful cognition is needed. *Humor* can increase attention to the message, but may *interfere* with the comprehension.
*___________* Behavior and Dissonance Sometimes people can engage in immoral behaviors while having very *___________* attitudes. *___________:* motivation to appear moral while avoiding costs of doing so After committing a moral transgression, people -*___________* the transgression -Become more tolerant of immoral *___________*
*Immoral* Behavior and Dissonance Sometimes people can engage in immoral behaviors while having very *moral* attitudes. *Moral hypocrisy:* motivation to appear moral while avoiding costs of doing so After committing a moral transgression, people -*Justify* the transgression -Become more tolerant of immoral *conduct*
*___________:* a test that pairs categories of items with positive and negative stimuli -E.g., press a *__________* if the stimulus is good or refers to women; -press a different key if the stimulus is *__________* or refers to men. -Then *__________* the pairings (good + men; bad + women) and repeat. One way to measure *___________* attitudes Assesses *___________* time to see if you are faster at pairing good things with one category or the other.
*Implicit Association Test:* a test that pairs categories of items with positive and negative stimuli -E.g., press a *key* if the stimulus is good or refers to women; -press a different key if the stimulus is *bad* or refers to men. -Then *reverse* the pairings (good + men; bad + women) and repeat. One way to measure *implicit* attitudes Assesses *reaction* time to see if you are faster at pairing good things with one category or the other.
*___________:* Unconscious, simple, gut-leve;, may not be aware, activated automatically from memory *___________:* Conscious, Controllable, Easy to report, Careful, Deliberate evaluation
*Implicit Attitude:* Unconscious, simple, gut-leve;, may not be aware, activated automatically from memory *Explicit Attitude:* Conscious, Controllable, Easy to report, Careful, Deliberate evaluation
*Insufficient Justification* The weaker the *__________* reason for acting inconsistently with one's beliefs, the greater the *__________* and the greater the pressure to change *__________.* Small-reward group liked a *__________* task more than big-reward group. -Contrary to behaviorist predictions Why? -The big-reward group had a clear *__________* to follow the instructions. no *__________* -The small-reward group had no *__________* reason to follow the instructions. *__________* --I can't change what I did, so to remove the dissonance. I have to change what I *__________.* This task wasn't so *_________*....
*Insufficient Justification* The weaker the *external* reason for acting inconsistently with one's beliefs, the greater the *dissonance* and the greater the pressure to change *attitudes.* Small-reward group liked a *boring* task more than big-reward group. -Contrary to behaviorist predictions Why? -The big-reward group had a clear *reason* to follow the instructions. no *dissonance* -The small-reward group had no *good* reason to follow the instructions. *dissonance* --I can't change what I did, so to remove the dissonance. I have to change what I *believe.* This task wasn't so *bad*....
*___________* of Efforts and Dissonance The greater *___________ or ___________* associated with a choice, the *___________* dissonance produced if the choice turns out wrong. The *___________ (more ___________, ___________, ___________, ___________)* it is to accomplish something, the more a person *___________* it. -Once they have completed the effort. If they don't value it, dissonance *___________.* --I am a smart person + I just subjected myself to humiliation to get into this group + this group *___________*... --*___________:* This group is great. It was worth it. Examples: *___________, ___________/___________ ___________*
*Justification* of Efforts and Dissonance The greater *effort or cost* associated with a choice, the *more* dissonance produced if the choice turns out wrong. The *harder (more unpleasant, dangerous, costly, degrading)* it is to accomplish something, the more a person *values* it. -Once they have completed the effort. If they don't value it, dissonance *occurs.* --I am a smart person + I just subjected myself to humiliation to get into this group + this group *stinks*... --*Dissonance reduction:* This group is great. It was worth it. Examples: *boot camp, fraternity/sorority hazing*
*__________* all three process (behavior processes, affective processes, and cognitive processes) are necessary for behavior.
*Not* all three process (behavior processes, affective processes, and cognitive processes) are necessary for behavior.
*____________:* rewards/punishment When a behavior is *____________,* it is more likely to occur in the future. E.g., receiving *____________* for holding an attitude is likely to strengthen the attitude. Attitudes can be shaped by *____________:* -by watching the way others are rewarded or punished as they interact with an attitude object...including facial expressions, head movement, body posture. -We compare our attitudes to others as a measure of correctness, usually *__________* our attitude to align with the people we like or respect.
*Operant Conditioning:* rewards/punishment When a behavior is *rewarded,* it is more likely to occur in the future. E.g., receiving *praise* for holding an attitude is likely to strengthen the attitude. Attitudes can be shaped by *observational learning:* -by watching the way others are rewarded or punished as they interact with an attitude object...including facial expressions, head movement, body posture. -We compare our attitudes to others as a measure of correctness, usually *adjust* our attitude to align with the people we like or respect.
*__________:* Efforts to change attitudes using various kinds of messages. Can occur both *__________* and *__________* thinking. *__________* sources are more persuasive; *__________* (people we share a commonality with) and those who argue against *_________* (meaning, they are not trying to convince you out of self-interest). *__________* sources are more credible. Physical attraction *_________* sometimes overcome poor presentation style. *__________* can increase attractiveness. *__________* in attitudes/values/background increases attractiveness. More *__________* message can be more persuasive.
*Persuasion:* Efforts to change attitudes using various kinds of messages. Can occur both *effortful* and *effortless* thinking. *Creditable* sources are more persuasive; *ingroups* (people we share a commonality with) and those who argue against *self-interests* (meaning, they are not trying to convince you out of self-interest). *Attractive* sources are more credible. Physical attraction *can* sometimes overcome poor presentation style. *Likeability* can increase attractiveness. *Similarity* in attitudes/values/background increases attractiveness. More *subtle* message can be more persuasive.
*__________*-Decision Dissonance After a choice is made, people will *__________* interpret information to assure themselves the choice is a good one. "*__________* remorse:" *_________* that an alternative was not chosen Like all dissonance, this is *__________.* -I am a *__________* person + I chose the *__________* thing. So we change our *__________* of the alternatives we have. -Emphasize good points of the thing we *__________* -Emphasize bad points of the thing we *__________* choose
*Post*-Decision Dissonance After a choice is made, people will *selectively* interpret information to assure themselves the choice is a good one. "*Buyer's* remorse:" *Regret* that an alternative was not chosen Like all dissonance, this is *aversive.* -I am a *smart* person + I chose the *wrong* thing. So we change our *perceptions* of the alternatives we have. -Emphasize good points of the thing we *chose* -Emphasize bad points of the thing we *didn't* choose
*_________:* Shape social and political attitudes. A group: -To which we *_________* ourselves -With which we emotionally *_________* -Whose standards we use to *_________* ourselves and others Newcomb's Bennington College study showed effects of reference groups are *_________.* Can last a *_________*
*Reference Groups:* Shape social and political attitudes. A group: -To which we *orient* ourselves -With which we emotionally *identify* -Whose standards we use to *judge* ourselves and others Newcomb's Bennington College study showed effects of reference groups are *profound.* Can last a *lifetime*
*____________:* Suggests that behavior causes attitudes, rather than the other way around. Proposes that we infer our *____________* from observing our own behavior. -The same way we infer *____________'* attitudes More likely when: -Behavior is *____________* chosen. -Attitude is *____________* defined. -We have little experience with *____________* object (p. 180). May be how implicit attitudes become *____________*
*Self-perception Theory:* Suggests that behavior causes attitudes, rather than the other way around. Proposes that we infer our *attitudes* from observing our own behavior. -The same way we infer *others'* attitudes More likely when: -Behavior is *freely* chosen. -Attitude is *vaguely* defined. -We have little experience with *attitude* object (p. 180). May be how implicit attitudes become *explicit*
*___________:* When we act in ways that are only slightly out of line with our attitudes, we may experience *___________* dissonance and simply change our attitudes by making inferences about what they should be from our *___________.*
*Self-perception Theory:* When we act in ways that are only slightly out of line with our attitudes, we may experience *no* dissonance and simply change our attitudes by making inferences about what they should be from our *behavior.*
*___________:* The delayed effectiveness of a persuasive message from a noncredible source. Diminishes over time as the message becomes *disassociated* from the source.
*The Sleeper Effect:* The delayed effectiveness of a persuasive message from a noncredible source. Diminishes over time as the message becomes *disassociated* from the source.
*__________:* A theory that explains carefully reasoned actions. *__________* are only one influence on behavior. -So attitude-behavior link may be *__________* Does not account for "*__________*" behavior *Look at slide*
*Theory of Planned Behavior:* A theory that explains carefully reasoned actions. *Attitudes* are only one influence on behavior. -So attitude-behavior link may be *weak* Does not account for "*mindless*" behavior *Look at slide*
1) *___________* is activated automatically from memory. -Outside *___________* awareness -Simple, *___________*-level evaluations 2) *___________:* -Consciously held -Careful and deliberate Dual attitudes [implicit and explicit] *(are/aren't)* possible and these attitudes may *________* each other.
1) *Implicit attitude* is activated automatically from memory. -Outside *conscious* awareness -Simple, *gut*-level evaluations 2) *Explicit attitude:* -Consciously held -Careful and deliberate Dual attitudes [implicit and explicit] *are* possible and these attitudes may *contradict* each other.
1) *____________:* Seeing an unfamiliar stimulus many times can lead to liking, as long as you do not have initial negative reactions to it Requires no *____________* of the object Possible explanation: Familiar objects are unlikely to be *____________.* Often *____________* *____________* affect can become associated with an object through repeated exposure
1) *Mere Exposure:* Seeing an unfamiliar stimulus many times can lead to liking, as long as you do not have initial negative reactions to it Requires no *knowledge* of the object Possible explanation: Familiar objects are unlikely to be *dangerous.* Often *implicit* *Positive* affect can become associated with an object through repeated exposure
3) *__________:* Subtle and Implicit Basic model: UCS -> UCR UCS + CS -> UCR CS -> CR Classical conditioning can lead to *__________* formation, for example toward social groups. -*__________ (__________)* paired with *__________* in the environment (*__________)* can produce *__________* for the group (*__________*). I.E. parents talk badly about other religions, races, sex orientation, nationality; then the child becomes *__________* to hate those other religions, races, sex orientation, nationality.
3) *Classical Conditioning:* Subtle and Implicit Basic model: UCS -> UCR UCS + CS -> UCR CS -> CR Classical conditioning can lead to *attitude* formation, for example toward social groups. -*Group labels (UCS)* paired with *negativity* in the environment (*CS)* can produce *dislike* for the group (*CR*). I.E. parents talk badly about other religions, races, sex orientation, nationality; then the child becomes *conditioned* to hate those other religions, races, sex orientation, nationality.
An *__________* refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. *__________* are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful influence over behavior. -Formed through learning from *__________* and *__________.* -Increased evidence that some attitudes also have a *__________* element. -Directly related to our *__________* and *__________.*
An *attitude* refers to a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event. *Attitudes* are often the result of experience or upbringing, and they can have a powerful influence over behavior. -Formed through learning from *influences* and *experiences.* -Increased evidence that some attitudes also have a *genetic* element. -Directly related to our *actions* and *behaviors.*
Attitudes and Nonverbal Behavior *__________* or *__________* can cause a change in mood. -*__________:* The tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding emotions. -Vascular theory of emotion *__________* and *__________* motion can change mood. People are *__________* of the causes of the mood.
Attitudes and Nonverbal Behavior *Smiling* or *frowning* can cause a change in mood. -*Facial feedback hypothesis:* The tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding emotions. -Vascular theory of emotion *Posture* and *body* motion can change mood. People are *unaware* of the causes of the mood.
ELM-when is each processing type used *__________:* Motivation and capacity to process information is high, Not distracted, Use systematic processing, Know a lot about the topic, Have time to think about topic or issue, Topic or issue important to us *__________:* Motivation and capacity to process, information is low, Have no time to think about the topic, Issue is not important to us, Relevance of issue is low, Use Heuristic processing, Focus on presenter attractiveness or the sheer, amount of information presented rather than quality of information
ELM-when is each processing type used *Central Route:* Motivation and capacity to process information is high, Not distracted, Use systematic processing, Know a lot about the topic, Have time to think about topic or issue, Topic or issue important to us *Peripheral Route:* Motivation and capacity to process, information is low, Have no time to think about the topic, Issue is not important to us, Relevance of issue is low, Use Heuristic processing, Focus on presenter attractiveness or the sheer, amount of information presented rather than quality of information
Freedom of *__________* and Dissonance *__________* to engage in counter-attitudinal behavior produces more dissonance than behavior that is *_________* freely chosen. It also results in greater attitude *__________*. A person *__________* into a behavior experiences no dissonance, even if she/he doesn't like the behavior. -I did it because I had *__________.* A person who freely chooses behavior she/he doesn't like *__________* dissonance. -I did it + I don't like people who do it. *__________* -Can't change what I did, so I'll *__________* my attitude. --I guess that behavior isn't so *__________* after all.
Freedom of *Choice* and Dissonance *Freely choosing* to engage in counter-attitudinal behavior produces more dissonance than behavior that is *not* freely chosen. It also results in greater attitude *change*. A person *forced* into a behavior experiences no dissonance, even if she/he doesn't like the behavior. -I did it because I had *to.* A person who freely chooses behavior she/he doesn't like *experiences* dissonance. -I did it + I don't like people who do it. *contradiction* -Can't change what I did, so I'll *change* my attitude. --I guess that behavior isn't so *bad* after all.
Source Factors Influencing *Persuasion:* Credibility: -Low credibility is a *_________* cue. -However, over time, source's lack of credibility may be *_________(aka the _________).* Attractiveness: -*_________* -*_________* to audience -*_________* appearance
Source Factors Influencing *Persuasion:* Credibility: -Low credibility is a *discounting* cue. -However, over time, source's lack of credibility may be *forgotten (aka the sleeper effect).* Attractiveness: -*Likeability* -*Similarity* to audience -*Physical* appearance
The sleep effect is *__________* likely to occur under the following conditions: 1) The message itself is *__________* enough to lead to persuasion. 2) People are able and *__________* to elaborate on the message before receiving discounting cue. 3) People are given information discounting credibility *_______* the message has been delivered. 4) The impact of the discounting cue *__________* from memory faster than the content of the persuasive message.
The sleep effect is *more* likely to occur under the following conditions: 1) The message itself is *convincing* enough to lead to persuasion. 2) People are able and *motivated* to elaborate on the message before receiving discounting cue. 3) People are given information discounting credibility *after* the message has been delivered. 4) The impact of the discounting cue *decays* from memory faster than the content of the persuasive message.
Variation in Cognitive *__________* Consistency is more integral to *__________* than collectivist societies. (Independent of others) -Behavior within collectivist societies is ideally more concerned with being appropriate to the *__________* than with being consistent. Within a given society, there are people with *________* tolerances for dissonance.
Variation in Cognitive *Consistency* Consistency is more integral to *individualist* than collectivist societies. (Independent of others) -Behavior within collectivist societies is ideally more concerned with being appropriate to the *situation* than with being consistent. Within a given society, there are people with *different* tolerances for dissonance.
What are the 6 ways to reduce cognitive dissonance (slide 16)?
What are the 6 ways to reduce cognitive dissonance (slide 16)? 1) Changing attitudes 2) Adding cognitions 3) Altering the importance of the discrepancy 4) Reducing perceived choice 5) Making self-affirmations 6) Change behavior
What are the nine ways attitudes formed? 1) Mere *__________* 2) Direct Personal *__________* 3) *__________* 4) *__________* 5) *__________* 6) Mass *__________* 7) *__________* Factor (indirectly) 8) *__________* Networks 9) *_________* and *__________* Influences
What are the nine ways attitudes formed? 1) Mere *Exposure* 2) Direct Personal *Experience* 3) *Classical Conditioning* 4) *Operant Conditioning* 5) *Observational Learning* 6) Mass *Media* 7) *Heritability* Factor (indirectly) 8) *Social* Networks 9) *Group* and *Network* Influences
