social psychology - evans 2021
what are the goals of psychotropic medications?
increase availability of desired nerotransmitters; decrease transmission of undesired (excessive) neurotransmitter
When people are repeatedly exposed to unfamiliar stimuli, their liking of the stimuli ______ (increases/decreases). This phenomenon is the ______ effect
increases; mere exposure
What are the conditions in an experimental or quasi-experimental design?
independent and dependent variables
Most research focuses on the ____ step of decision-making, which involves ____.
second; carefully considering a few top options
The "rape myth" is the mistaken idea that ____________. Most rapists ______ (accept/do not accept) this myth
some women invite or enjoy rape; accept
what is the "id"?
source of instinctual drives; operates on pleasure principle
agency
traits suggesting action and influence; independent, assertive, aggressive; fit a provider role
communion
traits suggesting nurturing and warmth; kind, gentle, compassionate; fit a caretaker role
what is brain dysfunction and neural plasticity?
trauma; stroke
Behavioral interviews
try to pinpoint information about the stimuli that triggers responses and their consequences
Social Categorization
Forming categories of people based on common attributes. Doing this by apparent physical features is habitual and automatic
According to the ______ principle, inability to achieve a goal leads to anger, which may generate aggression
frustration-aggression
What are some of the social sources of selves?
-own vs other -Interactions -clarity of self -multiple selves -self-complexity -valence of self -social comparison
Evidence Based Appeals
-are persuasive, but not all evidence is so make sure the message you send is the right one
4. Supervised Residences
Halfway house: A residence for people with schizophrenia or other severe problems often staffed by paraprofessionals, also known as a group home/crisis house
Charles is motivated to see himself accurately. What kind of social comparison is he most likely to make?
He will compare himself to people with a similar background to his own
What inspired the Milgram Studies?
Holocaust
Elaboration Likelihood Model
One is persuaded both by the central route and the peripheral route of persuasion
Physiological reactions to rejection
Similarities to threat An increase in blood pressure Increase in cortisol (stress hormone)
psychopharmacologist
a psychiatrist who primarily prescribes medications
How does this variable affect obedience to destructive authority?
agentic state and legitimacy of authority, and situational variables affecting obedience including proximity, location and uniform,
anal stage
ages 2-3; parental demands for socially appropriate behavior; fixation- OCD behaviors, or very messy
why is the self defined as a social being?
because "selves" exist to distinguish us from others
cortical midline structures (CMS)
composed of mPFC and PCC
prototypal approach
depiction of an idealized combination of characteristics, some of which the patient may not have
Today, most psychologists ______ (do/do not) consider human aggression to be instinctive
do not
Attentional blindness
if you're hyper focuses on one action/event, you often fail to notice other events >>The gorilla passing through
prospective research strategies
involve looking ahead in time (likelihood of developing dx)
Dorothea Dix
lobbied for better treatment. led to mental hygiene movement. more suitable hospitals were built
External + unstable + uncontrollable
luck
According to John Darley and Bibb Latane, people will help only if a three-stage decision-making process is completed: Bystanders must first ______ the incident, then ______ it as an emergency, and finally ______ for helping
notice; interpret; assume responsibility
what is bounded rationality?
rationality which says that it is optimal, in a complex world, to come up with solutions that are merely 'good enough'
what are the 5 primary neurotransmitters?
serotonin; dopamine; epinephrine and norepinephrine; GABA; glutamine
Research suggests that goals are MOST helpful in facilitating achievement when they are ____.
specific and somewhat difficult to achieve
gender role
specific behaviors and traits associated with masc/fem in a culture; shared expectations for men & women
To be useful, they must be ____ and have clear ___ and ____
standardized, reliability, validity
punishment
(positive) following behavior by administering negative (aversive/undesired) outcome
The mere exposure effect provides one possible explanation for why _____ increases attraction. A. proximity B. similarity C. physical attractiveness D. reciprocity
A
False Consensus
A Cognitive bias of overestimating how common our attitudes/beliefs are
Mood
Diffuse, nonspecific, persistent affective state- Positive or negative, in the background.
In an experiment, prior to receiving negative feedback from one of 20 interviewers, female participants were told 1) your interviewer gives everyone a negative evaluation 2) your particular interviewer is sexist, and is only negative toward females 3) all 20 interviewers are sexist. Condition ___ was most damaging to participants because ___ were (was) seen as evidence of ___.
A. 3; the 20 sexist interviewers; pervasive sexism
Recent research (Simon, 2004) has noted that linguistic cues can activate certain types of self concepts. When other people describe us, nouns tend to activate ___ while adjectives and verbs tend to activate ___.
A. Social identities; personal identities
Efforts by one or more individuals to change another's attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, or behaviors are known as ___.
A. Social influence
Studies investigating the cultural influences on the self have found that Americans tended to explain their failures as being __, while Chinese students tended to explain their failures as being ___.
A. Someone else's fault; caused by their own flaws
One of the factors associated with compliance is social validation. This is because ___.
A. We want to be correct, and one way to do so is to emulate the behaviors of others whom we see as similar to ourselves in some way
In the United States, gender differences in self-esteem are most pronounced among ___.
A. White lower class people
___, Bobby Ray argues, would change his life forever. It is likely that Bobby Ray would be ___ a year later than he would now predict.
A. Winning the lottery; not as happy
Aimee is moving to a new state and has looked at numerous houses. She is avoiding making a decision on which one to purchase because she knows once she chooses, she may find a better house she would have loved even more. What best explains Aimee's decision avoidance?
Anticipation of regret
MAO inhibitors
Antidepressant drugs that increase the level of monoamine neurotransmitters by inhibiting the action of monoamine oxidase -can be dangerous if tyramine containing foods are eaten
_____ theories of emotion assert that emotions result from people's construals and explanations for events, even without physiological arousal.
Appraisal
Seeking compliance through ingratiation is based on the underlying principle of ___.
C. Friendship/liking
Descriptive norms ___.
C. Indicate what most people do in a particular situation
The need to resist conformity is stronger in ___.
C. Individualistic societies
A practical implication of research by Bond and Smith on cultural differences in conformity is that there tends to be ___.
C. More conformity in countries with collectivistic cultures
Injunctive norms ___.
C. Specify what out to be done in a particular situation
Affect-As-Information Theory
-Affect provides quick, basic, information about our environment -Schwarz and Clore 1983 -Positive Affect means we're ok and sage -Negative affect means there's a problem/threat
Treatment of Unipolar Depression
-All cases: cognitive, cognitive-behavioral, interpersonal, and antidepressant drug therapy -select cases: couple therapy -mild cases: pure behavioral therapy -severe cases: ECT
Attitude Accessibility
-Attitudes predict behavior sometimes -Frequently thought about things which come to mind quickly are more influential on behavior -More accessible are more strongly held
Level of Specificity
-Attitudes predict behavior sometimes -General attitudes don't necessarily predict specific behaviors -General attitude toward ice cream doesn't predict specific behavior of eating specific ice cream
Time Factors
-Attitudes predict behavior sometimes -The further apart the attitude and the behavior, the less likely they'll match up
anxiety disorders
-Generalized anxiety -Phobias -Social Anxiety Disorder -Panic Disorder -Separation Anxiety Disorder
James and Wanda just bought a house, and moved into a new, upscale neighborhood. One of their friends, who lives down the street from them, has installed a hot tub in her rock garden, and has pointed out all the advantages of having one. James and Wanda are debating whether to install a rock garden with a hot tub in their new home. Their decision may be strongly influenced by ___.
D. The informational social influence of their friend
One technique for gaining compliance is to offer a very favorable deal to someone, then change the terms of the deal to make it less attractive after the target person has accepted the initial deal. this is known as ___.
D. The lowball procedure
What does "Operationalization" mean?
How to make an independent variable measurable
What are some real-life events that demonstrate the importance of social connection?
Lost Children of Romania, babies post WWII
Reflective
Low arousal feelings cause *** reactions
Actual self
Ourselves as we are right now.
what are high levels of epinephrine/norepinephrine associated with?
PTSD
Impression Involvement
Response to issue is socially important (How much i care what others think)
They psychologist who first studied the effects of group pressure on conformity is ______
Solomon Asch
Which of the following would be most likely to reach to touch a spot of red dye when seeing his or her reflection in a mirror?
an adult chimpanzee
beliefs and expectancies
assumptions (about what is) and standards (about what should be)
Humor Appeals
attracts attention and makes communicator appear more likable. however it can interfere with message processing when one is too busy laughing to pay attention to the message. helps if the humor is relevant to the situation
Rehearsing lines over and over becomes
automatic
Research shows that when making decisions, MOST people are more interested in ____ as opposed to ____.
avoiding losses; pursuing gains
External attribution
cause of behavior found in the situation >Luck, circumstances, other people >People what they do because of the situation
Conformity
copying the behavior and beliefs of others, whether explicitly told to do so or not
What are low levels of serotonin associated with?
depression
additive method
diathesis and stress sum together; one can be high and the other low (vice versa) for onset of dx
Internal + stable + controllable
effort
According to the authors of your text, using ________ rewards or punishments leads to longer lasting attitude change than using ________ rewards or punishments.
smaller; larger
Social perception
the process by which we come to know about other people's temporary states and enduring dispositions
The definition of the self
the self is a symbol-using, self-reflecting, social being
Ideal self
the self we want and aspire to be, hopes, goals, desires for the future.
Philippe Pinel
unchained patients, moved them to sunny rooms, and promoted kindness
extrapyramidal effects
unwanted movements such as severe shaking, bizarre looking grimaces, twisting of the body and extreme restlessness sometimes produced by antipsychotic drugs -Parkinsonian and related symptoms, neuroleptics malignant syndrome, tardive dyskinesia
actor/observer effect
we tend to overrate situational causes for our own behavior
what are we looking for when defining dysfunction?
whether the behavior(s) interfere with one's ability to conduct daily functions
what are we looking for when defining deviance?
whether the behavior(s) is a violation of societal standards and social norms
The culture in which we were raised (and in which we live) influences our
perception
One such rule involves the buffer zone that people maintain around their bodies, called ______
personal space
Which increased the obedience effects?
proximity of experimenter, nationality (North African vs French)
When people are making choices between two options that differ both qualitatively and quantitatively, they tend to focus on ____.
quantitative differences primarily
One rule of social behavior tells us to return help to those who have helped us; this is the ______ norm
reciprocity
"Live fast and die young, that's what I always say," Rosie pronounces, as she stuffs down three more Ding-Dong snack cakes and opens another pint of high-fat ice cream. Rosie knows that her diet is unhealthy and harmful, of course. To reduce her dissonance, Rosie is
adding a cognition that is consonant with her problem behavior
A tobacco grower says, "I'm not the only one growing it. If I stop, someone else will be there." Assuming that the man was experiencing dissonance from the fact that he was making his living from a crop that is bad for people's health, he appears to be reducing this dissonance by
adding new cognitions
Your best friend just got into medical school, and her success confirms your belief that she can do anything she sets her mind to. Based on appraisal theories of emotion, you are most likely to feel
admiration
In a study by Sinclair, Lowery, Hardin, and Colangelo (2005), participants were greeted by either a likable or an unlikable experimenter, who either wore a blank shirt or an anti-racism shirt. Then participants completed a measure of automatic prejudice. Results from this study suggest that when people make an acquaintance that they like, they
adopt the other person's attitude.
you pass a friend of yours in the hallway and comment that they look tired. in response, they spend two or three minutes yelling at you before they walk away and slam the door. your friend was most likely experiencing ____ because of ____. a. self-verification; low self-monitoring b. affective spillover; excessively high self-complexity c. low self-esteem; low self-schema d. affective spillover; low self-complexity e. self-verification; high self-monitoring
affective spillover; low self complexity
brain activity...
affects and is affected by social behavior
How does authoritarianism affect obedience to destructive authority?
agentic state and legitimacy of authority, and situational variables affecting obedience including proximity, location and uniform,
oral stage
ages 0-2; primary focus is on the mouth; fixation- smoking, sarcasm
phallic stage
ages 3-6; sexual desire for opposite-sex parent; fixation- attraction to people like one's opposite-sex parent
genital stage
ages after puberty; development of mature relationships; fixation- immature sexuality that is either self or other focused
Deinstitutionalization
aka: the community approach The discharge of large numbers of patients from long term institutional care so that they might be treated in community programs
One drug that unleashes aggressive responses to provocation is ______
alcohol
Brittany knows she will need all the mental resources she has to focus on a speech she must give. Which of the following would be least helpful in terms of increasing her self-regulatory resources?
also try to quit smoking that day
Researchers have found that the reactions of people in crowded situations are often ______ (lessened/amplified)
amplified; e.g. watching a movie alone you barely react, but when you watch in a movie theater you laugh a lot
Mead defined "I" as the part that is
an active perceiver and initiator of action >"I saw the bartender set down my beer so I reached for my wallet."
Tricyclics
an antidepressant drug such as imipramine that has three rings in its molecular structure. -prescirbed more bc no dietary restrictions and people showed higher rates of improvement -dry mouth constipation
define symbol
an arbitrary sign that represents an object or idea; makes it easier and faster to communicate and understand our world and our place in it
Prejudice
an attitude or affective response (positive or negative) towards a group and its individual members
Marriage was initially
an economic institution >Romantic love some considered a hindrance >Romantic love associated with marriage when people are free to choose their own partners >Declines in arranged marriage since the 18th century >Romantic love still considered an "impulse" as recently as the 1920's >Not characterized as madness anymore, but still seen as uncontrollable
what is the Dunning-Kruger effect?
an effect in which incompetent people fail to realise they are incompetent, because they lack the skill to distinguish between competence and incompetence
hypothesis
an effort to explain, predict, or explore something
Attitude
an evolution of an object in a positive or negative fashion that includes 3 components >Affect: how much someone likes or dislikes an object >Cognition: thoughts that typically reinforce a person's feelings >Behavior: connected to a behavioral tendency to either approach or avoid
Social norms
an expected standard of behavior and beliefs established and enforced by a group
what are low levels of GABA associated with?
anxiety
Aggression
any form of behavior that is intended to harm or injure some person, yourself, or an object >REQUIRES intent to harm >If hurting isn't the main point of the action, it's not aggression >>Intent is critical
Aggressive behavior is defined by psychologists as ______. Thus, psychologists ______ (do/do not) consider assertive salespeople to be aggressive
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy; do not
Lames defined "me" as
anything that symbolizes and affirms who we are, or what you click with >"My girlfriend wanted me to get an appletini instead of beetm but that drink isn't really me."
Theories holding that emotions result from people's interpretation and explanation of events-in the absence of any physiological arousal-are known as
appraisal theories of emotion.
According to research on the overjustification effect, why would high course grades be very unlikely to undermine intrinsic motivation to learn? Grades
are based on course performance.
According to the two-factor theory, emotions have two components: physical ______ and a ______ label
arousal; cognitive
The authors of your text describe Masako Owada's decision to give up her career and marry the crown prince of Japan. Many Americans viewed her decision as to the result of coercion and sexism. How do many Japanese view her decision?
as a natural consequence of being connected and obligated to others
When human animals rely on meaning to make their choices, they are able to look at meaning ____.
as multiple ways of understanding a situation
Compared with strangers, friends and couples are more likely to be similar in terms of ____________
attitudes, beliefs, interests, religion, race, education, intelligence, smoking behavior, economic status, age
Heider's theory of how we explain others' behavior is the ______ theory. According to this theory, we attribute behavior either to an internal cause, which is called a ______, or an external cause, which is called a ______
attribution; dispositional attribution; situational attribution
The status quo bias is one form of ____ in decision-making
avoidance
which of the following best describes the difference between George Herbert Mead's theory of the self and William James' theory of the self? a. Mead believed that the "I" was constantly changing, James believed the "I" was consistent throughout our whole life b. Mead believed the self was based on how others saw us, James believed the self was based on the things and people to which we developed an emotional attachment c. Mead believed the self was flexible, James believed the self was stable and fixed d. Mead believed that we possessed an "I" but no "me", James believed we possessed both an "I" and a "me" e. Mead believed the self did not develop until adulthood, James believed the self developed at birth
b. Mead believed the self was based on how others saw us, James believed the self was based on the things and people to which we developed an emotional attachment
which of the following statements best summarizes the differences between social role and evolutionary theories of gender differences?
b. evolutionary theory suggests that gender differences are biological and hardwired; social role theory suggests that gender differences are a product of culture and expectations
according to lecture, the "I" portion of the self is _____, and the "me" portion is _____ a. descriptive self; executive self b. executive self; descriptive self c. personal self; social self d. private self; public self e. public self; private self
b. executive self; descriptive self
symbolic reasoning is important in the construction of the self because: a. it allows us to create a specific image without necessarily revealing our true selves b. it allows us to manage large amounts of complex info about the self efficiently c. otherwise we would be limited to a single self aspect d. it is impossible for us to understand that we are individuals without the use of symbols e. we cannot engage in nonconscious mimicry without it
b. it allows us to manage large amounts of complex info about the self efficiently
which of the following best describes an authentic self-aspect? a. one that others believe defines you, whether you do or not b. one that you see as part of yourself, that is freely chosen, and is important to you c. one that is freely chosen, regardless of whether or not it is important d. one that objectively defines you, regardless of what you or others believe e. one that occupies a majority of your self-concept
b. one that you see as part of yourself, that is freely chosen, and is important to you
our evaluations of ourselves as good or bad constitute our a. self presentation b. self esteem c. self schema d. self image e. self consciousness
b. self esteem SE: overall + or - evaluation people have of themselves
gender identity refers to ____, gender role refers to ____. a. thoughts; emotions b. self-concept; social expectations c. perception of others; perception of the self d. behaviors; self-concept e. agency; communion
b. self-concept; social expectations
impression formation
based on a quick assessment of salient and observable qualities and behaviors in others; nonverbal cues
what are basic assumptions of the psychodynamic psychological perspective on psychopathology?
based on belief's that a person's behavior (whether normal or abnormal) is determined largely by underlying dynamic (interacting) psychological factors outside of conscious awareness
When experimental manipulations have induced people to reject their free will, they tend to ____.
be more willing to cheat on a test or steal money
why is defining abnormaility challenging?
because, just because you show signs of one of the four D's, does not mean you have a disorder. you usually have to show signs of multiple or all of the four D's to be considered abnormal. a behavior can be considered abnormal but does not mean you have a disorder
Gender
behavioral distinction >Behaviors and traits associated with a given sex >Fluctuates across cultures → culture specific >How you "act"
what are basic assumptions of the behavioral psychological perspective on psychopathology?
behavioral theorists believe that our actions are determined largely by our experiences in life; concentrates wholly on behaviors and environmental factors, NOT on mental processes
private self-awareness
being aware of hidden, private, emotions and internal state
public self-awareness
being aware of public self-aspects; how other perceive you and think about you
Like all attitudes, prejudice is a mixture of ______, ______, and predispositions to ______
beliefs; emotions; action
Many factors contribute to aggression, including ______ factors, such as an increase in testosterone; ______ factors, such as frustration; and ______ factors, such as deindividualation
biological; psychological; social-cultural
what is the name of the integrated model?
biopsychosocial theory
Discrimination increases prejudice through the tendency of people to ______ victims for their plight
blame
Kurt Lewin's Behavioral Field theory suggests that --blank--underlies much of human behavior
both personal qualities and situational factors
What is the social brain hypothesis?
brain/skull is getting larger over time
an evolutionary explanation for human behavior - where mental processes and behaviors exist to serve an adaptive purpose - is an example of what kind of theory? a. reformist b. materialist c. functionalist d. existential e. determinist
c. functionalist
hector plays golf every sunday. his wife Alicia notices that after winning a round, Hector tends to play with the kids. After losing a around, he tends to watch TV by himself. According to ____, over time, Alicia is likely to conclude that Hector's golf games can exert a causal effect on his behavior at home. a. emotional amplification theory b. self enhancement theory c. fundamental attribution theory d. the covariation principle e. the augmentation principle
c. fundamental attribution theory
according to Cooley's theory of the "looking-glass self", we learn about ourselves through a. deep reflection about our behaviors, preferences, and attitudes b. examining all the things we do not do or like c. imagining what other people think of us d. our parents telling us what we like and dislike, and what we are good at e. completing different kinds of personality tests
c. imagining what other people think of us - refers to idea that people's reactions to us (their approval / disapproval) serve as a mirror of sorts, so self-knowledge is derived from reflected self-appraisals (our beliefs about other's reactions to us)
impression formation is primarily a product of things that are... a. short term and based in feelings b. privately felt and publicly observable c. relevant and directly observable d. negative and immediately threatening e. positive and reflect well on the other person
c. relevant and directly observable IF: first step in people perception, based on quick assessment of salient and observable qualities and behaviors in others - salient (relevant to situation) and observable (direct - physicalities, etc)
which of the following best describes the major finding in Kruger and Dunning's studies? people who are good at a task ... a. drastically underestimate their ability, and people who are bad at a task slightly underestimate their ability b. are accurate in their estimations of ability, and people who are bad at a task are equally likely to overestimate or under their ability c. tend to slightly overestimate their ability, people who are bad drastically overestimate their ability d. slightly overestimate their ability, and bad at task are accurate in their estimations of ability e. good - report results accurately, bad - lie about results to make selves look better
c. tend to slightly overestimate their ability, people who are bad drastically overestimate their ability
being an "amateur psychologist" involves a. understanding basic principles of science b. making judgements uncritically and without paying attention to observations c. using daily experiences and observations to form theories about social behavior d. studying the world systematically e. the use of the scientific method
c. using daily experiences and observations to form theories bout social behavior
what are some weaknesses of the biological method?
can limit, rather than enhance, our understanding; treats symptoms, not causes; treatments produce significant undesirable effects; not applicable to many disorders
what is an example of a heuristic?
carrying an umbrella wherever you go
what are the 3 approaches to classification
categorical approach; dimensional approach; prototypal approach
Research suggests that prejudice may also derive from ______, the process by which we attempt to simplify our world by classifying people into groups. One by-product of this process is that people tend to ______ the similarity of those within a group. One manifestation of this is the ______, the tendency to recall faces of ones own race more accurately than those of other races.
categorization; overestimate; other-race effect
When people focus on an issue and respond favorable to an argument, ______ has occurred. Persuasion may also occur through the ______ (slower/faster) ______ as people respond to incidental cues such as a speaker's appearance
central route persuasion; faster; peripheral route
Your text describes several situations in which a person may decide to behave immorally, a behavior which is likely to arouse a fair amount of cognitive dissonance. How are people most likely to reduce this dissonance stemming from an immoral act such as lying or cheating?
change their attitude about the immoral behavior
According to studies discussed in the text, one consequence of analyzing or generating reasons for their attitudes is that people will
change their attitudes to bring them in line with the reasons.
attributional style
characteristic way in which the individual may tend to assign causes to bad or good events
Treatments of Schizophrenia
characterized by medications, mediation-linked health problems, compromised lifestyles, and a mixture of hope and frustration -mainly antipsychotic drugs
what are three basic types of learning?
classical conditioning; operant conditioning; observational
categorical approach
client is either healthy or not (one or the other, not both)
dimensional approach
client may fall along a range from superior functioning to absolutely impaired functioning
observing behavior through self-monitoring
client observes self during specific timeframe
self-monitoring
clients observe themselves. -useful in situations where a behavior is happening rarely or if it is constantly
Emotions are a product of
cognition and physical sensations >Step 1: interpret stimuli >Step 2: interpret physiological state
A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas is called ______. This perception can take place between individuals, ______, or ______
conflict; groups; nations
medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)
contains self relevant information to you
which of the following is not one of the organizing principles of social psychology discussed in class? a. social thinking can be automatic or deliberate b. evolution shapes patterns of behavior c. culture shapes social behavior d. public behavior is a duplication of private behavior e. the individual shapes (and is shaped by) the social environment
d. public behavior is a duplication of private behavior
Research studies also reveal that the terror of facing ______ tends to heighten patriotism and produce loathing and aggression toward people who threaten one's ______
death; world
According to cognitive dissonance theory, soldiers may reduce their guilt about killing innocent civilians during wartime by
dehumanizing their victims.
The feeling of anonymity and loss of self-restraint that an individual may develop when in a group is called ______
deindividuation
Violence on television tends to ______ people to cruelty and ______ them to respond aggressively when they are provoked
desensitize; prime
objective personality tests
designed to measure broad personality characteristics; many are standardized; focus on behaviors, beliefs, and feelings
Gordon Gallup (1977) briefly anesthetized chimpanzees and painted an odorless red dye on their heads. When they awoke and looked in the mirror, the chimps immediately reached to touch their brows and ears where the dye was. These findings suggest that chimps
develop a sense of self-recognition comparable to that of two-year-old humans.
Once established, aggressive behavior patterns are ______ (difficult/not difficult) to change. However, ______ programs have been successful in bringing down re-arrest rates of juvenile offenders and gang members
difficult; aggression-replacement
what do neurological methods assess?
directly assess brain function by assessing brain structure and activity
Research studies of the impact of violent video games ______ (confirm/disconfirm) the idea that we feel better if we "blow off steam" by venting our emotions. This idea is the ______. Expressing anger breeds ______ (more/less) anger
disconfirm; catharsis hypothesis; more
Self
discrepancy- Differences between who you want to be/feel you ought to be and actually are.
Dissonance theory predicts that people induced (without coercion) to behave contrary to their attitudes will be motivated to reduce the resulting ______ by changing their ______
dissonance; attitudes
As Tiffany looks at the picture of her deceased grandfather on the mantle, she recalls how the last thing she said to him was, "Can't you move a little faster? I'm in a rush." She feels uncomfortable thinking about her behavior. According to self-awareness theory, what is Tiffany most likely to do?
distract herself by dusting the mantle
what are the four "D's" for defining abnormality?
distress; dysfunction; deviance; danger
what are the strengths and limitations of the experimental method?
draws conclusions about causality, resolves questions of directionality; if dependent variable changes as independent variable changes, it is regarded as a cause of the outcome
antipsychotic drugs
drugs that help correct grossly confused or distorted thinking -1940s Henri Laborit -Separated into "generations" -Became popular after 1941 when the US approved it's first antipsychotic-chlorpromazine (Thorazine) -To this day still the best treatment for Schizophrenia
What do we mean when we say people are cognitive misers?
due to the tendency of people to think and solve problems in simpler and less effortful ways rather than in more sophisticated and more effortful ways, regardless of intelligence.
what's the important of Gordon Allport's book The Nature of Prejudice? a. it represented the first major attempt to prove that prejudice is a moral failing b. it provided scientific evidence for the idea that prejudice is the product of low intelligence c. it provided scientific evidence that people who are high in prejudice are prejudiced because of how they were treated as children d. it collected all of the scientific research on prejudice done to that point into one book e. it represented the first major attempt to study prejudice as a scientific phenomenon instead of as a moral failing
e. it represented the first major attempt to study prejudice as a scientific phenomenon instead of as a moral failing
a man who has been working in his yard and singing to himself suddenly becomes aware that his neighbors can hear him and have been listening to him sing. This situation is likely to induce ____ and to result in ____ a. public impression management; an increase in self-esteem b. public self enhancement; an increase in self-promotion c. private self-awareness; anger d. private self-consciousness; clarification of self-knowledge e. public self-awareness; evaluation apprehension
e. public self-awareness; evaluation apprehension - public: being aware of how others perceive you - effects of public is evaluation apprehension
your "fun" self is more likely to surface at a party than your "hard working" self. this can be used as support for which of the following ideas? a. low self-monitoring b. high unstable self esteem c. aschematic trait response d. private self-consciousness e. self complexity
e. self complexity SC: measure of your self-concept organization - number of self-aspects in one's self-concept - how many ways do you see yourself? - greater SC is better for mental health
which of the following statements best defines the term "social perception"? a. the process by which our perception of society is made more accurate b. the way we regard others whom we view as members of different racial or ethnic groups c. the way our behavior is influenced by the presence of actual, imagined, or implied others d. the process by which we seek to influence others' view of us through deliberate impression management e. the process by which we seek to understand other people
e. the process by which we seek to understand other people
why do we engage in attribution errors?
easier to predict future behavior from personal attributions than situational attributions and because we prefer info that is easy to observe
In general, people become aroused in the presence of others, and arousal enhances the correct response on a(n) ______ (easy/difficult) task. Later research revealed that arousal strengthens the response that is most ______ in a given situation
easy; likely
Consider the following self-description: "I have blue eyes and brown hair. I have two sisters. I hate vegetables, but I love ice cream." Such a self-description was most likely provided by the typical
eight year old child
evocative effect
elicit certain reactions from social/physical environment; Ex: happy, smiley, "easy" children elicit positive attention, special opportunities from thier environment
subgenual anterior cingulate cortex (sACC)
emotion regulation of negative feelings
how does the biological perspective account for psychopathology?
emotional and behavioral disorders are caused by malfunctioning in the central nervous system (primarily) or periphreal nervous system (secondarily); many conditions temporarily disrupt information-processing capabilities of the brain
Emotions are a combination of
emotional stimulus and physical sensations
Ying just purchased a rather expensive wristwatch. She had debated for weeks about the merits of two different styles before making her final decision. It's now likely that Ying will
emphasize all of the positive aspects of the chosen watch
Ursula believes that traits and abilities as fixed at birth and remain the same no matter what. By contrast, Yuri believes that people develop their traits and abilities across time, and that they can become better and better with practice. Social psychologists would say that Ursula is a(n) ____ while Yuri is a(n) ____.
entity theorist; incremental theorist
In social psychology, people who regard traits and abilities as fixed and stable are known as ____, while people who believe that it is possible to change and improve traits and abilities are known as ____.
entity theorists; incremental theorists
Research on entity and incremental theorists has shown that, compared to Japanese athletes, American athletes are more likely to be ____ theorists, and thus more likely to view their athletic skills as ____.
entity; inborn and fixed
Companionate love is promoted by ______ - mutual sharing and giving by both partners. Another key ingredient of loving relationships is the revealing of intimate aspects of ourselves through ______
equity; self-disclosure
dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)
error detection alarm system
According to ____ theory, when it comes to dating and mating members of the opposite sex, men will take advantage of every opportunity to pass along their genes
error management
Recent research has demonstrated that men and women perceive certain behaviors differently: Men are more likely than women to assume that an innocent smile is a sign of flirtation, while women are more likely than men to assume that blatant flirtation is merely a sign of friendliness. These research findings are most consistent with ____.
error management theory
Suppose that Sergej has just asked Georgia whether she would like to study with him for an upcoming English exam. Georgia is struggling in the class, and she knows that Sergej is an excellent English student, so she enthusiastically agrees. Meanwhile, Sergej interprets her enthusiasm as a sign that she might have a crush on him, and he therefore suggests that the two of them grab a bite to eat together before studying; "Georgia is very attractive," he thinks to himself, "so why not?" Georgia, meanwhile, who is completely clueless about what is
error management theory
the statement "men and women are just biologically and neurologically different, and nothing's going to change that" expresses which kind of theory?
essentialist
evolutionary theory of gender differences
essentialist explanation; differences arise from pressures to reproduce
William Tuke, Quakers
established York Retreat - a country house for MI
humanitarian reform
establishment of early asylums
availability heuristic
estimating likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
what is the availability heuristic?
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory
effects of public self-awareness
evaluation apprehension, greater adherence to social standards
dorsomedial prefrontal cortex
evaluator, strong emotional component
You have worked extremely hard to attain a goal, but soon realize that the goal is not as exciting as you expected. You will probably
exaggerate the positive qualities of the goal in order to justify your effort.
Consider the following self-description: "It's important to me to make others happy. I work hard to cooperate with others, and seldom get into arguments. My friends are more important to me than my professional success." A(n) _____ is most likely to have provided such a self-description.
executive living in Tokyo, Japan
What is the difference between experimental, non-experimental, and quasi-experimental studies?
experimental - you can assign variables quasi-experimental - you cannot assign variables non-experimental - observational
Subtyping
explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype be creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to differ from the group as a whole
In terms of appraisal theories of emotion, which types of appraisals are most important?
explaining the cause of the event, and understanding implications the event has for you
Research on entity and incremental theorists has shown that they tend to make different kinds of attributions for other people's behaviors. Specifically, compared to entity theorists, incremental theorists tend to make more ____, for example suggesting that others' behaviors are the result of ____.
external attributions; their circumstances
People are unlikely to change their attitudes after saying something they don't truly believe if there is ________ for the lie.
external justification
Effectiveness of ECT
extremely effective in treating depression. 60-80% of ECT patients improve.
According to the authors of your text, the overjustification effect is the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by something
extrinsic, thus undermining their intrinsic motivation
Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC)
eye movements, spatial orientation, and memory. -densely connected with hippocampus. encodes and retrieves autobiographical memory
clinical interview
face-to-face encounter. -First contact between the client and clinician. Used to collect detailed info about the persons problems and feelings, lifestyle, and relationships, and personal history.
(Close-Up) Today's biopsychosocial approach has stimulated neuroscience studies that have detected implicit prejudice in people's ______-muscle responses and in the activation of their brain's ______
facial; amygdala
There are some striking gender differences in men's and women's views of the interdependent self. The authors note that such gender differences are
far fewer than are similarities between men and women.
Discrimination
favorable or unfavorable treatment of individuals based on their membership in a particular group (strictly) >Action driven by prejudicial feelings or activation of a stereotype
what are some strengths of the psychodynamic psychological perspective?
first to recognize importance of psychological theories and treatment; saw abnormal functioning as rooted in the same processes as normal functioning; first to apply theory and techniques systematically to treatment- monumental impact on the field
People who are high in "relational interdependence"
focus more on their feelings about close relationships.
positive reinforcement
follow behavior by administering positive (pleasureable/desired) outcome
negative reinforcement
follow behavior by removing negative (aversive/undesired) condition
longitudinal studies
follow people over time, attempts to ID factors that predate onset of dx
unstrucutred interviews
format will vary across clients; open-ended questions; greater freedom but decreases reliability (less consistent)
our tendency to make internal attributions for the behavior of others is known as the a. negativity effect b. conjunction fallacy c. self serving bias d. fundamental attribution error e. covariation model
fundamental attribution error
Social Role
gender differences are a product of culture >Men and women differ in ways that the culture expects them to be different >Rewarded for typical behavior, punished for atypical behavior >Differences are a product of cultural expectations >Social constructionist explanation: changeable
Evolutionary role
gender differences are a product of evolution >Differences are hard wired into neural structure >Men and women are fundamentally different- physically and psychologically >It's our nature and it can't be changed
Bottom up processing
"Data driven" mental processing, in which an individual forms conclusions based on the stimuli encountered in the environment (obtaining info) (look at specific)
Top down processing
"Theory driven" mental processing, in which an individual filters and interprets new information in light of preexisting knowledge and expectations. >(taking what you know and comparing it to new information) >(look at the whole story)
second generation antipsychotics
"atypical" their biological operation differs from that of the conven- tional antipsychotic medications: the atypicals are received at fewer dopamine D-2 receptors and more D-1, D-4, and serotonin receptors than the others -more effective, clopazine -the new drugs reduce not only the positive symptoms of schizophrenia, but also the negative ones -fewer extrapyramidal symptoms and seem less likely to produce tardive dyskinesia
the part of the self that undertakes action is referred to as the ____, and the part of the self that describes us as individuals is referred to as the ____. a. private self; public self b. "me"; "i" c. public self; private self d. "i"; "me" e. descriptive self; executive self
"i"; "me" i = executive self, takes in info, acts on the info me = descriptive self, made of many qualities that describe us as individuals to selves and others
Tardive dyskinesia (TD)
"late appearing movement disorder" it doesn't appear until 1 year into medication or sometimes until it is completed. -involuntary tic like movements of the tongue, mouth, face or whole body. chewing, smacking. -sometimes memory difficulties -most are mild cases only having tongue flicking -more than 10% of people who take it for a long time develop it. -the longer the greater risk, people above 50 great risk .
Carla has just written out a check for $13,999 to pay for her new car. Although the salesperson had initially accepted her check, she is now told that there was a mistake and that the final total should really be $14, 250. Carla writes another check for $251 to cover the difference so that she can drive out with her new car. Carla has just fallen prey to a questionable sales practice called
"lowballing."
Johann Weyer
"mind is susceptible to sickness as is the body"
Recall that Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell someone else that a tedious, boring task was really interesting. Participants paid ________ modified their original attitudes because they had ________ for lying.
$1; little external justification
George herbert Mead theory of the self
'I' = part of self that is an active perceiver and initiator of action; 'Me' = the self as seen from the imagined perspective of others
extinction
(negative) following behavior by removing positive (pleasurable/desired) outcome
necessary cause
(x) or independent variable; must exist for disorder to occur; Ex: parents having a domiant trait, giving it to child. (a dominant trait, means you will have that trait)
sufficient cause
(y) or dependent variable; guarantees occurance of dx; Ex: if you have xxx, you will have xxx
What is a script vs a habit?
*Script- structures of knowledge that defines situations and guide behaviors *Habit- actions that are acquired that if followed regularly will become almost automatic
What are evolutionary factors that contributed to neocortex development in humans?
- Brain size increase, maturation of and development of pre-frontal cortex - Complex social lives - Brain size came from learning from culture on how to deal with nature - Cooperation -Climate - ecological dominance theory - weather adaptations made changes to brain through the need to be more social to survive -Migration - parasite stress theory - our ancestors developed a resistance to parasitic infection (stronger ability to resist) Cooperation - collaboration for migration - superconducter. Communication (basis of the brain is Social Theory)
Example: impact bias
- In retrospect I think that our family trip to Great Wolf Lodge was so much more fun than it actually was (e.g., was crowded and expensive, my toddler hated getting wet, my older son whined the whole time). We are already planning our next trip. -When people imagine how devastated they would be to lose their job, their beliefs are often not matched by reality when they do lose their job and, as a result, often find new opportunities
what is the system 1 thought process? what is the system 2 thought process?
- system 1 produces automatic, intuitive actions - system 2 involves deliberative reasoning
Neuroleptics malignant syndrome
-1% of patients, mostly elderly -severe potentially fatal reaction consisting of muscle rigidity, fever, altered consciousness, improper functions of the autonomic nervous system.
Origin of ECT
-1930's researchers searched for ways to induce seizures as a treatments for psychosis. discovered people with epilepsy were rarely psychotic -Ugo Cerletti did it safely first -he abandoned it because it wasn't safe
the treatment of ECT
-65 to 140 volts are passed through for half a second causing a brain seizure for 25 seconds up to a few minutes -6 to 12 treatments spaced over 2 to 4 weeks it works
Attitude Strength
-Attitudes predict behavior sometimes -Strong attitudes are harder to change -Strong attitudes are more influential on behavior -The more info you have on an object the stronger the attitude is
Privately self aware people
-Attitudes predict behavior sometimes -These are more likely to behave consistently with true attitudes
Effortless Cognition
-Automatic unconscious and unintentional -Uses very few cognitive resources -Uses associative networks or Slow learning of repeated associations of pieces of info in memory -Influences non verbal behavior-gut feeling -also called implicit
The hundreds of clinical assessment techniques and tools fall into three categories: __, __, __
-Clinical Interviews -tests -observations
Effortful Cognition
-Deliberate conscious and intentional. -Uses a lot of cognitive resources -Likes Rules and logic -Fast learning to make judgements -Influences deliberate behavior-decisions and conclusions -Also called explicit
What is a replication? (direct vs. conceptual vs. with extensions)
-Direct Replication: A replication study in which researchers repeat the original study as closely as possible to see whether the original effect shows up in the newly collected data. Also called exact replication. -Conceptual Replication: A replication study in which researchers examine the same research question (the same conceptual variables) but use different procedures for operationalizing the variables. -Replication with Extensions: A replication study in which researchers replicate their original study but add variables or conditions that test additional questions.
Categorization
-Grouping of objects, ideas, or wants that share common properties -AKA the process of organizing information. -It is a basic human need. -It's efficient use of huge amounts of info. -Generalize from known to unknown
The 10 scales on the MMPI measure:
-Hypochondriasis (abnormal concern w/ bodily functions) -Depression (extreme pessimism and hopelessness) -Hysteria (may use physical or mental symptoms as a way of avoiding conflicts and responsibilities) -Psychopathic Deviate (repeated and gross disregard for social customs and an emotional shallowness) -Masculinity-femininity (separate male and female respondents) -Paranoia -Psychathenia (obsessions, compulsions, abnormal fears, and guilt) -Schizophrenia -Hypomania (emotional excitement, overactivity) -Social Introversion (shyness, little interest in people)
What is the difference between independent and dependent variables? (vs. Predictor and outcome variables?)
-Independent variable: is being manipulated (sometimes called the predictor variable) -Dependent variable also called the outcome variable
antidepressant drugs groups
-Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) inhibitors -tricyclics -second- generation antidepressants -herbal remedies
Schema
-Organized knowledge structures about something in the social environment -(Top down-effortless -Built up from experience, contains causal info
Know how relevance and certainty affect the likelihood to engage in social reflection (e.g., BIRGing) vs. social comparison (and thus choosing to devalue relationships or devalue goal importance).
-Relevance refers to the association you have with another individual or group. Certainty effect assigns more cognitive weight to a circumstance because the outcomes are known. -BIRGing (basking in reflected glory) references the dualistic relationship between one and the achiever in triumphs. -Social comparison is the mechanism we use to continually orient our behaviors with that of societal norms (subjective defined to the individual level). -The devaluing of a relationship or goal importance refers to the idea that when simultaneously in pursuit of a specified goal and one party achieves it, you will experience a dissonance (discomfort) and in an attempt to rectify that discomforting feeling, you choose to reduce the importance of the goal, or devalue the relationship.
self-enhancing over self-verifying
-Self-enhancing is a type of motivation that works to make people feel good about themselves and to maintain self-esteem. -Self-verifying is a social psychological theory that asserts people want to be known and understood by others according to their firmly held beliefs and feelings about themselves
Limitations of Clinical Interviews
-They can lack validity (people may present themselves mislead or misrepresent themselves) (Interviewers usually rely too heavily on first impressions or have interviewer bias) -Particularly unstructured ones may lack reliability (people respond differently to different interviews, providing for ex. less info to a cold interviewer) (a clinicians race, gender, age, and appearance may influence a clients response)
Central Route
-Think carefully about the message -Persuaded by strength of argument -uses effortful cognition
Schwarz and Clore
-Weather Study -Participants contacted by telephone and rated happiness -Weather affects mood, rainy day participants reported lower happiness than sunny day participants -NON CONSCIOUS EFFECT!!!
What is the disrupt-and-reframe technique? how does it differ from the pique technique?
-a persuasion technique for enhancing compliance in which one uses an odd request to surprise or confuse another person before following up with a new framing of the same request.
psychodynamic therapy
-belief that depression results from unconscious grief over losses compounded by excessive dependence on others. -A system of therapy whose goals are to help clients uncover past traumatic events and the inner-conflicts that have resulted from them, settle those conflicts, and resume personal development -free association and dream interpretation
What are the different self-deception strategies we use to maintain our positive self-image?
-complementing ourselves -telling ourselves we are amazing -boasting ourselves up or dressing nice for no reason.
Advantages of the MMPI and other personality inventories over projective tests:
-computerized or paper pencil test so they don't take as long -they are objectively score -most of them are standardized -greater test-retest reliability -greater validity
Treatments for Bipolar Disorders
-drug therapy with psychotherapy lithium was the first to be approved to treat. now other mood stabilizing and anti bipolar drugs are used.
Non-Ambiguous Information
-is more subject to differences in attention and mood-congruent recall than mood-congruent perception.
depressive disorders
-major depressive disorder: episode of extreme sadness and related symptoms -Persistent Depressive Disorder: chronic sadness -Premenstrual Depressive Disorder
6 kinds of clinical test used most often
-projective tests -personality inventories -response inventories -psychophysiological tests -neurological and neuropsychological tests -intelligence test
Parkinsonian and related symptoms
-result of reductions of dopamine activity in the parts of the brain that coordinate movement and posture -most common -mostly it can be reversed -shake, move slow, shuffle feet, little facial movement, restless and discomfort of limbs,
What is self-construal? How can it be relational or independent?
-self construal refers to the grounds of self-definition. -independent: a self-concept that emphasizes what makes the self different and sets it apart from others -Interdependent (relational):a self-concept that emphasizes what connects the self to other people and groups
If a dolphin's brain is 1603 cc on average and the dolphin's neocortex is approximately 1279 cc, what is the dolphins neocortex ratio?
1603 - 1279 = 324. 1279/324 = 3.95
institutionalization in hospitals
1793 when Philippe Pinel "unchained the insane" at the LA Bicetre asylum and began the practice of "moral treatment". -they were treated as human beings -led to large mental hospitals rather than asylums
how common is comorbidity?
50% of individuals with a serious mental illness meet criteria for 2+ disorders; only 7% of individuals with a mild mental illness meet criteria for 2+ disorders
Developed friendship
>Based on social exchange and mutual concern for each others well-being >Developed through increasing self-disclosure >>Disengage from friendship by sharing less >Not all friendships are gradual >>>Some people just "click" >>>Quick judgements about the other lead to immediately high levels of self-disclosure
Internal attribution (aka personal or dispositional)
>Cause of behavior found in a person >>Personality traits, moods, attitudes, etc >>People do what they do because of who they are
Robber's cave study, Muzafer Sherif, 1954
>Divided into two groups and kept apart at first >3 days for hierarchies to emerge (leaders/followers)(rules) >Began engaging in competitions >Rivalries developed (name-calling, pranks, fighting) >>The phase was cut short because it got so bad
The factors that help love endure
>Equity theory >Positive illusions >Partner-enhancing bias >Empathy with partner >Being able to "read" your partner
Effects of deindividuation
>Loss of individual identity >>Reduces overall self-awareness >>Easier to ignore standards for behavior >>Arousal + anonymity + diffused responsibility >Makes easier to engage in antisocial behavior >>Lowers perceived accountability >cost/reward calculations for otherwise unacceptable behaviors change
Why do fundamental attribution error and actor/observer effect happen?
>Predictability: easier to predict future behavior based on personal attributions >Perception salience: we prefer things that are easily picked up/detected. Easier to observe personal factors (voice, posture,behavior) than situational factors (what's happening to/in them)
Shooter Bias, Cornel, Judd, Park, Wittenbrick 2002
>Presented white and black targets and given scenarios to shoot or not to shoot >Significantly shot blacks armed or not when the time was short >Significantly would not shoot white targets armed or not when time is short.
Dutton and Aron's study
>Scary bridge and pretty lady >>Capilano Bridge >>>Scary bridge, normal bridge >Assistant asking men if they'll take a survey at the end of the bridge >>Asking them to write a story on the picture >>Asked if they wanted contact information to follow up >Differences on sexual content of stories and response to assistant >>Misattribution of fear arousal as attraction
Effects of physical attractiveness on evaluation
>Specifics of the "what is beautiful is good" effect >Perceived to be smarter, more sociable, more successful, happier, and more mentally healthy than less attractive people >>Given the benefit of the doubt >More likely to be hired, promoted, and even paid more-- men and women alike
Mood congruent perception
>Tendency to interpret information in a way that matches our current mood >Most apparent in the interpretation of ambiguous information
Hedonic contingency theory
>Thinking hard to maintain a positive mood >>Doing a hard crossword for fun >Roll of approach/avoid motivation >>Level of arousal cues action over contemplation >>Happiness, anger etc.
Actual ideal discrepancy
>We aren't living up to who we want to be. >Low arousal emotions- disappointment, sadness. >>It takes a long time to fix.
Message persuasion
>the content itself of the persuasive message >>evidence based >>fear appeals >>humor appeals ALTHOUGH >Interferes with message processing (too busy laughing to pay attention) >Helps if humor is related to the situation/product
A _____ is a generalization about a group's characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another. A. stereotype B. hypothesis C. proposition D. classification
A
A person on campus walks up to you and asks if you would be willing to wear a ribbon to show support for her cause. Though the ribbon is a bit unattractive, it is small so you agree to wear it. After agreeing to this request, the solicitor then asks you if you would be willing to make a donation of $15. This example best demonstrates the A. foot-in-the-door technique. B. door-in-the-face technique. C. norm of reciprocity. D. central route to persuasion.
A
According to _____, people who have first agreed to a small request tend to comply later with a larger request. A. the foot-in-the-door technique B. the door-in-the-face-technique C. the bystander effect D. the social facilitation effect
A
According to attribution theory, attributions vary along which of the following dimensions? A. internal/external causes B. known/unknown causes C. regular/irregular causes D. consistent/inconsistent causes
A
According to social exchange theory, the most important predictor of relationship success is A. equity. B. physical attractiveness. C. the availability of attractive alternative partners. D. passionate love.
A
According to the cognitive dissonance theory, when attitudes and behavior conflict, individuals tend to reduce cognitive dissonance by A. changing their attitudes to fit the behavior. B. moving on to a different task. C. ignoring the conflict. D. consulting others.
A
Although Jeff frequently exceeds the speed limit by at least 10 mph, he justifies his behavior by erroneously thinking that most other drivers do the same. This belief best illustrates A. the false consensus effect. B. the self-serving bias. C. deindividuation. D. social loafing.
A
Rob and Deandra are members of a football team. Their self-esteem is greatly affected by their team's performance. They tend to compare their team with that of the opponents in order to improve their self-image. Which of the following theories best explains this scenario? A. the social identity theory B. the realistic conflict theory C. the social exchange theory D. the self-perception theory
A
Robert, a nine-year-old boy, loves watching wrestling on TV. Last night, he used several of the aggressive wrestling moves on his little brother. Which of the following theories best explains William's behavior? A. observational learning B. frustration-aggression theory C. identity crisis D. cognitive dissonance
A
Self-fulfilling prophecy A. effects show the potential power of stereotypes and other sources of expectations on human behavior. B. shows that aspects of the environment prime us to behave aggressively. C. examines the characteristics of cultures that are associated with the emergence of altruism and with the belief that everyone deserves fair treatment. D. is the solidification and further strengthening of an individual's position as a consequence of a group discussion or interaction.
A
Social loafing refers to the A. tendency for people to exert less effort when working in groups than when working alone. B. tendency for people to exert more effort when working in groups than when working alone. C. tendency to spend more time being productive when in the company of one's peers. D. social norm that obligates the general public to help those who may not be completely able to help themselves (e.g., children and the elderly).
A
The Stanford prison experiment provides a dramatic example of how social situations and the roles we take on in life can influence A. deindividuation. B. the self-serving bias. C. the false consensus effect. D. social loafing.
A
The bystander effect is most likely to occur A. when someone is witnessing an emergency and there are several other people present. B. when someone is witnessing an emergency and no one else is present. C. in emergencies where people's actions are being videotaped. D. in memory studies in which bystanders did not remember as much about an emergency as the individual who was the victim.
A
Tom has left home and is attending college in a city far away from home where he doesn't know anybody. According to the principle of proximity, Tom will be most likely to make friends with A. Bill, his roommate. B. John, who lives across campus. C. Michael, who lives in the same dorm but two floors below Tom. D. Stuart, who lives in the adjacent room.
A
Which of the following is a similarity between the cognitive dissonance theory and self-perception theory? A. Both theories suggest that behavior can change attitudes. B. Both theories suggest that when attitude changes, behavior changes too. C. Both theories suggest that attitude remains constant while behavior changes. D. Both theories suggest that individuals should change their behavior to fit their attitude.
A
How does a confederate differ from an experimenter?
A confederate will pretend to be a participant whereas experimenters are directly linked to the study.
Having been given "acting lessons" to either 1) "try to feel as if you are 14 years old at dinner with family," or 2) "put on a performance so you will seem to others as if you're 14 years old at dinner with family," participants in acting condition ___ were more likely to see themselves as having ___.
A. 2; more consistent traits
In Asch's classic experiment, a standard-setting line was first presented to small groups of people, followed by the presentation of three comparison lines of different lengths. In one condition, three accomplices, posing as students, chose an incorrect answer before the subject could respond. ________ of the research participants never yielded to group pressure to accept an incorrect response.
A. Almost 25%
Thomas has concluded that, on average, he is academically superior to the peers around him. As a result of this comparison, over the next six months, his self-esteem will ___.
A. Be reliably higher
Nisbett and Wilson (1997) showed that, after an action, we examine our ___ and generate ___ reasons for why we acted a certain way.
A. Behavior; often inaccurate
Prior to Taylor and Brown's (1988) important article, it had always been assumed that ___ is a cornerstone of good mental health.
A. Being realistic
According to recent research, white males performed less well on an "athletic performance task" when they expected to be compared to ___ males. When the same task was called a ___, white males performed better when they expected to be compared to ___.
A. Black; "sports intelligence task;" Black males
When factors such as ___ and ___ are considered, gender differences in susceptibility to to conformity disappear.
A. Confidence in one's own judgments (as determined by familiarity with the situation); social status
Sylvia, a foreign-exchange student from China, rarely takes credit for her achievements in school, preferring to say that her accomplishments are due to her very good teachers. She usually explains her failures as being caused by her own faults, however. This reflects the importance of ___.
A. Cultural differences in the self-serving bias
Betty and Vera are best friends who are both being treated for depression. Betty has come to believe that Vera's case of depression is much worse than her own case. Consequently, Betty is making a(n) ___ comparison that will likely ___ her self-esteem, and cause her to feel ___.
A. Downward; increase; closer to Vera
In negotiating a new roommate's perception of his (David's) personal qualities, David may agree with his new roommate's self-assessment as a(n) ___ because it aids David in himself as a(n) ___. Additionally, David may downplay his own ___.
A. Gifted athlete; excellent student; athletic accomplishments
In an interaction between two "Pats," Pat, when reminded of ___ gender, is likely to show ___ responses toward a person in need than the other Pat will when reminded of ___ gender.
A. His; less care-oriented; her
Young has argued that an ___ may come as the result of an inconsistency between a core value, one held by an organization one is a member of. For example, honesty as it relates to someone in the U.S. military and the requirement to keep one's homosexuality (a core value) a secret.
A. Identity conflict
Recent research has shown that, in young adults 1) consistent early nurturing by parents ___ implicit self-esteem 2) overprotective early parental behaviors ___ implicit self-esteem.
A. Increases; reduces
Cialdini's compliance principle of social validation suggests that compliance with a request is more likely when the requested action is seen as being consistent with information we have about what persons similar to us are doing. this principle is closely related to the ___ aspect of conformity.
A. Informational social influence
___ involves praising others who are considered important as a way to encourage them to like and approve of us.
A. Ingratiation
In several variations on Asch's classic experiment, a standard-setting line was first presented to small groups of people, followed by the presentation of three comparison lines of different lengths. In one condition, two of three accomplices, posing as students, chose an incorrect answer before the subject could respond. The third accomplice sometimes chose a correct response and sometimes chose a more incorrect response. Under these conditions, respondents were more likely to choose the correct response. These results suggest ________.
A. It becomes easier to resist conformity pressure once unanimity of the group is broken
Tina and Rachael are the only two members of a jury who are trying to convince the rest of the jury that the defendant is not guilty. Tina and Rachael offer very different explanations for why the jury should vote not guilty. Because of their differing explanations, they will be ___ to convince the majority to acquit the defendant than if both had a common explanation.
A. Less likely
Henry feels helpless at his job, feels that he cannot control his workday, and feels that he is useless, worthless, and inept. These characteristics would probably mean that Henry has ________.
A. Low self-esteem
Whether we wish it or not, Shakespeare admonishes that we are ___ on a stage, and that we're in the position of ___.
A. Merely players; presenting ourselves to an observing and potentially changing audience
High self-efficacy seems to lead people to employ (select) ________, which ultimately results in their obtaining better deals than people low in self-efficacy.
A. More effective negotiation tactics
Juan is one of three Brazilian students currently attending a college in Indiana. His roommate, Eric, is one of several thousand Hoosiers attending the same college. As a result, Juan is ___ to be aware of his racial status than Eric is of his at any given time.
A. More likely
In Asch's classic experiment, a standard-setting line was first presented to small groups of people, followed by the presentation of three comparison lines of different lengths. In one condition, three accomplices, posing as students, chose an incorrect answer before the subject could respond. ________ of the research participants agreed with a clearly incorrect answer at least once.
A. More than 75%
The door-in-the-face technique is based on the ___ principle of compliance.
A. Reciprocity
Differences between shy and non-shy people appeared to be ___ online compared to offline because of the ___ of ___.
A. Reduced; absence; visual and auditory feedback
Kayla has decided to get a body piercing. Her expectation is that she might well receive ___ by (from) her mom's mainstream friends. This will likely cause her to ___ identify with ___.
A. Rejection; more closely; others who have a body piercing
The playing-hard-to-get technique is based on the ___ principle of compliance.
A. Scarcity
In meeting a new roommate, David stresses his studious qualities, an aspect of himself he wishes others to agree with, while being willing to underplay other potentially important aspects of himself. David is practicing a ___ approach in presenting himself to others.
A. Self-verification
We tend to make ___ attributions for our own behaviors, but ___ attributions for others' behaviors.
A. Situational; dispositional
A reason for any gender differences in conformity involves a difference in ___ between men and women.
A. Status
Zoë, an attractive blond, is concerned that she might say something foolish in her college algebra class, thereby confirming the stereotype of the 'dumb blond'. As a result, Zoë rarely volunteers to solve problems on the board during class. This behavior can best be explained by ___.
A. Stereotype Threat
A readiness to see negative outcomes as due to discrimination is called ___.
A. Stigma consciousness
The author, while speculating about why she got called a "troll" in a chat room, thought it was because she didn't "know the ropes," but she also displayed some ___.
A. Stigma consciousness
The rejection of in-group members who threaten the positive image of the group is known as ___.
A. The black sheep effect
One technique that is sometimes used to gain compliance is to tell the target person that they have only a limited amount of time in which to obtain a desired item or take advantage of an offer. This is known as ___.
A. The fast-approaching-deadline technique
Jack has agreed to purchase a new car for $18000. However, just before he gets ready to sign the contract, the salesman tells Jack that the sales manager will not approve the amount allowed for his trade-in, and that the contract witll have to be higher, probably around $19000. Jack has been the victim of ___.
A. The lowball procedure
According to social comparison theory, we are most likely to compare our abilities to those of another person when ___.
A. There is no objective measure to judge ourselves by
In joining (or spending time with and getting to know) a new group of people, it is initially most important to ___.
A. Understand the nuances of speech and "tone" of the group members' interactions
Suppose that we might expect to receive prejudice or disapproval for some aspect of ourselves. We may "play down" or subvert that aspect to the extent that ___.
A. We can hide it, and we are willing to hide it
What were selection factors & what where constraints?
Ability to communicate, serve in groups, migrate, socialize, cooperate.
High Warmth, High Competence
Admiration
Cognitive Processes
Affective States influence-
Affect
Aspect of attitude- how we feel about object. Emotional level
In a sentence, list several of the characteristics that physically attractive people are judged to possess:
Attractive people are perceived as happier, more sensitive, more successful, and more socially skilled
Implicit
Automatic unconscious attitudes which are based in a network of associations and are hard to change, accumulation of info over time
Implicit attitude
Automatic, unconscious attitude >Based in a network of associations >Relies on accumulated information, slow to change
In attribution theory, the person who offers a causal explanation of the actor's behavior is called the A. attributor. B. observer. C. influencer. D. mediator.
B
The tendency for observers to underestimate the impact of the external situation and overestimate the impact of inner traits when they seek explanations of another person's behavior is called A. the self-serving bias. B. the fundamental attribution error. C. the false consensus bias. D. cognitive dissonance.
B
Whenever Claudia gets an A on her psychology exam, she believes it was due to the fact that she is an intelligent, hard-working student. However, when she receives a C on an exam, she blames the instructor's ineffective teaching style and poor choice of test questions. Claudia's behavior is an example of A. learned helplessness. B. the self-serving bias. C. the false uniqueness effect. D. the false consensus effect.
B
Which of the following statements is true of social comparison? A. When engaging in social comparison, people try to act like others and lose their true identity. B. Social comparison helps identify distinctive characteristics of a person and helps in building an identity. C. Social comparison eliminates the ill effects of stereotype threat. D. Social comparison is an individual's fast-acting, self-fulfilling fear of being judged based on a negative stereotype about his or her group.
B
Which of the following statements is true of stereotype threat? A. A person facing stereotype threat usually performs well in any test to prove he or she is better than what is indicated by the stereotype. B. A person who experiences stereotype threat is well aware of stereotypical expectations for him or her as a member of a group. C. Stereotype threat affects performance on math tests by men compared to women. D. In stereotype-relevant situations, a person has the tendency to overperform.
B
____ is reflected in a person's conscious and openly shared attitude, which might be measured using a questionnaire, whereas _____ refers to attitudes that exist on a deeper, hidden level, thus they must be measured with a method that does not require awareness. A. Implicit racism/explicit racism B. Explicit racism/implicit racism C. Sexual harassment/ethnocentrism D. Ethnocentrism/sexual harassment
B
_____ is an unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual's membership in a group. A. Ethnocentrism B. Prejudice C. Discrimination D. Stereotype threat
B
_____ is based on a person's desire to be liked by a group. A. Informational social influence B. Normative social influence C. Social loafing D. Social facilitation
B
_____ is the psychological discomfort caused by two inconsistent thoughts. A. Consensual validation B. Cognitive dissonance C. Risky shift D. Deindividuation
B
_____ refers to the processes by which we use social stimuli to form impressions of others. A. Form perception B. Person perception C. Visual perception D. Amodal perception
B
Minority members who are attempting to change the majority's opinion must be consistent in their opposition to the majority opinion. This is because ___.
B. Apparent wavering within the minority group tend to weaken the impact of the minority opinion
Badges and insignia are helpful in gaining obedience because they ___.
B. Are constant reminders of who has authority
Informational social influence is ___.
B. Based on our desire to be correct and have accurate perceptions
One form of social influence that involves direct requests from one person to another person is known as ___.
B. Compliance
Allen, a white high-school student, is competing with Kim Jong, an Asian-American student for a spot on the school's mathematics team. Allen is aware of recent research demonstrating that Asian students typically perform better on math problems than do American students. This knowledge could affect Allen's performance because ___.
B. Stereotype threat can occur among dominant group members if a comparison is based on an aspect of performance on which the dominant group is expected to do worse
James, a 17-year-old high school student, has just moved to a new city and enrolled in a new school. At his old school, there were strong social norms against teenagers smoking cigarettes. At his new school, however, several of his new friends regularly smoke and say to him, "C'mon, don't be a jerk, have one of mine." As a result, James is likely to begin smoking, because of ___.
B. The normative social influence
The personal-social identity continuum recognizes that ___.
B. We can see ourselves differently, depending on circumstances
Our self-concept varies periodically because ___.
B. We do not experience all aspect of our self-concept simultaneously
Ralph just started taking guitar lessons last week. Jimmie has been playing guitar for almost 20 years. According to the concept of social facilitation, performing in front of an audience of strangers and friends tonight is likely to _____ Ralph's performance and _____ Jimmie's performance. A. decrease/decrease B. increase/enhance C. decrease/enhance D. increase/decrease
C
Sherif's Robbers Cave study showed that perceptions of the out-group are affected by A. a person's level of intelligence. B. observational learning. C. competitive and cooperative activities. D. cognitive dissonance.
C
The effects of others on our behavior can take the form of _____, imitative behavior involving the spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas. A. egoism B. altruism C. social contagion D. social loafing
C
The process by which individuals evaluate their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to others is known as A. peer review. B. peripheral attribution. C. social comparison. D. peer recognition.
C
The tendency for a group decision to be riskier than the average decision made by the individual group members is known as A. risk hedging. B. social loafing. C. risky shift. D. group polarization.
C
The volunteer participants in Solomon Asch's experiment on conformity conformed to group pressure to select the incorrect answer approximately _____ percent of the time. A. 60 B. 10 C. 35 D. 90
C
Jessie, Adam, Charles, and Paul were in the parking lot and saw a man as he fled from a convenience store after a robbery. When the police question the four friends, Paul answered first, saying that it was a black man who drove away in an older Pontiac car. Adam agreed with Paul fairly quickly. Jessie, who is not absolutely sure of the race of the suspect, is likely to ___ with Paul and Adam because of the effect of ___.
C. Agree; informational social influence
The type of social influence that involves direct requests from one individual to another is known as ___.
C. Compliance
The personal identity ___.
C. Conceptualizes the self as a unique individual
Katherine and Amy are members of the same sorority at college and are members of the school's swim team. They have been trying to master a difficult dive from the high board at the college's swimming pool. Amy is showing faster improvement in the dive than Katherine is. If they compare their performance as individuals, the self-evaluation maintenance model suggests that ___.
C. Katherine should dislike Amy more
Katherine and Amy are members of the same sorority at college and are members of the school's swim team. They have been trying to master a difficult dive from the high board at the college's swimming pool. Amy is showing faster improvement in the dive than Katherine is. If they compare their performance as team mates and sorority sisters, social identity theory suggests that ___.
C. Katherine should like Amy more
An individual's view of the self may ___ to the extent that a reported high self-esteem level implies superiority to others.
C. Need to be frequently defended
People who see others picking up litter in a parking lot are less likely to litter themselves. This observation can best be explained by ___.
C. Normative focus theory
In any particular situation, our conformity is influenced by at least four factors, including our desire to be liked by others, our need to be accurate, our need to be different from others, and ___.
C. Our desire to be in control of our own behavior
Erin has been living with her boyfriend for a year. During that time, Erin has heard her boyfriend and his family make many negative comments about Asians. When her boyfriend's family is around, Erin also occasionally makes negative comments about Asians, even though she doesn't believe these comments are based in facts. This situation best represents the distinction between ________ and ________.
C. Public conformity; private acceptance
Recent research has demonstrated that women will frequently perform worse on a math test when men are present than when the same test is administered to a female-only group. This finding illustrates ___.
C. Stereotype threat
Recent research on prejudice suggests that attributing a negative personal outcome to prejudice may be protective of one's self-esteem if ___, while it may be harmful to one's overall sense of psychological well-being if ___.
C. The prejudice is seen as being limited; the prejudice is seen as pervasive
Imagine that both Vera and Carol are against affirmative action. Vera is offered $50 to write an essay about the benefits of affirmative action, whereas Carol is offered only $1 to write a similar essay. After writing the essays and receiving their payments, both women are asked to report their attitudes toward affirmative action. Assuming that their attitudes were similarly negative at the outset, which of the following results would you expect?
Carol would be more favorable than Vera toward affirmative action
According to research on aggressive behavior, which of the following personality factors is mostly associated with aggression? A. low levels of hostility B. low levels of irritability C. low levels of neuroticism D. low levels of conscientiousness
D
According to the self-perception theory of attitudes, what do individuals do to make inferences about their attitudes? A. They compare themselves to others. B. They assess their emotions. C. They ask a friend. D. They perceive their behavior.
D
According to the self-perception theory, A. social comparisons aid in identity building. B. inconsistent thoughts cause psychological discomfort. C. attitudes influence behavior. D. behaviors can cause attitudes.
D
Andrew openly criticizes the Asian Americans in his neighborhood. He says that the presence of these "outsiders" has led to an increase in the crime rate in the United States. Others in his neighborhood do not agree with him. His openly shared racist attitude is an example of A. institutional racism. B. covert racism. C. implicit racism. D. explicit racism.
D
Cindy recently played in a softball game in which she misplayed a ground ball for an error. Later, in the same game, she made a great catch on a very difficult play. According to the self-serving bias, she would attribute her error to _____ and her good catch to her _____. A. bad fielding skills/luck B. bad fielding skills/good fielding skills C. a bad bounce/luck D. a bad bounce/good fielding skills
D
Cognitive dissonance theory states that in order to reduce dissonance, individuals A. change attitudes in order to be more popular. B. change behavior in order to be more popular. C. do not perceive a discrepancy between attitudes and behavior. D. try to align their attitudes and behavior.
D
Dave is a handsome and famous celebrity. He has been dating Gabriela, a beautiful and popular actress, for the past two months, but he doesn't feel strongly committed to their relationship. Recently, Dave has been working on a new movie and several women have expressed their interest in getting to know him better. Dave is now contemplating whether he should stay with Gabriela or explore the more tempting alternatives. According to the investment model, what will Dave probably do next? A. He will probably ask Gabriela to marry him. B. He will probably ask Gabriela to move in with him. C. He will probably stay with Gabriela for at least another year so that he can give their relationship a second chance. D. He will probably break up with Gabriela and give in to the temptation of dating other women.
D
Deficits in the functioning of the _____ are associated with aggression. A. hippocampus B. hypothalamus C. parietal lobes D. frontal lobes
D
Equity is a strong predictor of relationship satisfaction A. among men, but not among women. B. among women, but not among men. C. during both the early and later stages of a relationship. D. during the early but not later stages of a relationship.
D
Which of the following is true of majority and minority influence in a group? A. The majority influences group decision making only through informational influence. B. The majority influences group decision making only through normative influence. C. The minority in a group cannot win through informational pressure. D. The minority in a group cannot win through normative pressure.
D
You are studying in a quiet but crowded library when you suddenly start coughing. You soon notice others doing the same thing. This is an example of A. social loafing. B. group polarization. C. social facilitation. D. social contagion.
D
_____ is the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people. A. Social Darwinism B. Social analytics C. Socialism D. Social psychology
D
_____ refers to the impaired decision making that occurs in a team when making the right decision is less important than maintaining harmony. A. Group polarization B. Minority influence C. Risky shift D. Groupthink
D
In Milgram's experiment in which research participants were ordered to deliver dangerous electrical shocks to individuals who made mistakes in learning word pairs, ___ of the participants showed total obedience by delivering 450-volt shocks to the learners.
D. 65%
Kim is an American but spent much of her childhood in Japan. She is fluent in both English and Japanese. We might reasonably expect her response to the question "Who am I?" to differ depending on the language (Japanese or English) of the question because ___.
D. A particular language might activate different self-concepts for bilingual people
A possible reason why authority figures can be so successful in getting obedience for horrific tasks is that they ___.
D. Allow the obedient person to escalate their tasks very gradually
Suppose you are taking a friend to a party. The invitation specified that the party would begin at 6 pm. When you arrive at your friend's apartment at 5:45, she says she won't be ready until 6:30 and that no one arrives at parties on time anyway. Your friend is following ___.
D. An implicit social norm
Imagine that you are at the park with a friend one day when you and your friend see someone casually toss a sandwich wrapper on the ground. Your friend comments, "How crude! People shouldn't litter." and picks the trash up to drop it in a nearby trash can. Your friend's words represent ___.
D. An injunctive norm
Jenna saw in the paper that a department store was having a "one-day closeout of winter dresses" sale. If she goes to that sale and buys something, she will be a victim of the ___.
D. Deadline technique
How did a well-known social psychologist, Robert Cialdini, learn about the underlying principles of compliance?
D. He went undercover and temporarily took jobs in settings where gaining compliance is critical.
Recent research (Dijksterhuis, 2004) has shown that subliminal presentations of "I" or "me" with positive trait terms such as "nice" or "smart" will __ implicit self-esteem and prevent ___ when negative false feedback is given later.
D. Increase; reductions to self-esteem
Martha tells her friend, June, "Didn't you hear that eating lots of garlic is good for you?" If just then changes her eating habits to include a lot of garlic, it would be due to ___.
D. Informational social influence
Three college friends went swimming in a local creek, ignoring both a "no trespassing" and "no swimming" sign. These friends were violating ___.
D. Injunctive norms
George was listening as a friend described him to someone else on the telephone. His friend's description included "friendly, taller, active" and similar terms. As a result, George is now probably thinking of himself in terms of ___.
D. Intragroup comparisons
Social identity theory suggests that we will ___ others who outperform us on an important task, when our group identity is salient.
D. Move closer to in-group
2. One reason that people are willing to obey persons in authority who order them to engage in destructive behaviors is that ___.
D. Persons in authority often possess visible signs of their status which remind us of the social norm for obedience to authorities
One way in which symbolic social influence may work is by activating our mental representations of people with whom we have relationships. These mental representations are known as ___.
D. Relational schemas
Research suggests that insecurity regarding their presentation skills may deferentially lead some people to chronic dependency on online social interactions. This would suggest that online social interaction ___.
D. Requires people to exercise a common sense balance with face-to-face interactions
A person's overall attitude towards him- or herself is known as ___.
D. Self-esteem
William plays softball on the weekends with a group of friends from work. He believes he is a better pitcher than George because batters have fewer hits when he pitches than when George pitches. This type of comparison can best be explained by ___.
D. Social comparison theory
The social influence that results from our mental representation of other individuals or of our relationships with others is known as ___.
D. Symbolic social influence
One reason that people are willing to obey persons in authority who order them to engage in destructive behaviors is that ___.
D. The authority figure relieves those who obey of responsibility for their actions
When an auto dealer offers you an extra option as a "closer" for a deal, the dealer is using ___.
D. The that's-not-all technique
The above average effect is ___.
D. Thinking that we are above average on most social traits
When we compare ourselves to others who are more capable, we are engaged in an ___.
D. Upward social comparison
One of the factors associated with compliance is scarcity. This is because ___.
D. We are more willing to comply with requests that call attention to scarcity than to those that do not
Pressures toward conformity have a stronger effect on our behavior when ___.
D. We like and admire a particular group of persons
A minority group that wants to influence the majority must be consistent in their opposition to majority opinion, avoid appearing rigid and dogmatic, and ___.
D. consider the general social context when formulating its arguments for change
what classification approach does the DSM-5 follow?
DSM is categorical, but operates more as prototypal
DSM
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders -written by the APA -most used in North America
Bodenhausen, Kramer, Susser
Did a study that showed happy mood people rely more on stereotypes since positive mood uses effortless cognition while negative mood uses effortful (sees through stereotypes.
The self-evaluation maintenance model suggests that we will ___ others who outperform us in an important area.
E. Distance ourselves from
Social identity theory suggests that we will ___ others who perform more poorly than we do on an important task, when our group identity is salient.
E. Distance ourselves from ingroup
Michele's friends are very conservative in terms of their dress and appearance. Much to their amusement, Michele dyes her hair pink and green the following day. Michele's action can be explained by her need for ___.
E. Individuation
Zosha and three of her friends have just watched a new movie. As they walk out of the movie, Zosha's friends are talking about how much they enjoyed the movie and how good the actor's portrayal was. If one of her friends then asks Zosha how she liked the movie, she ___.
E. Is likely to say that she also enjoyed the movie
The self-evaluation maintenance model suggests that we will ___ others who perform more poorly than we do in an important area.
E. Move closer to
The type of social influence that occurs when one person orders another to perform some action and the other person then complies is known as ___.
E. Obedience
Compliance professionals are ___.
E. People whose success depends on their ability to obtain agreement from others
Individuals with a high need for personal control typically ___.
E. Resist social pressure to conform in at least some instances
The fast-approaching-deadline technique is based on the ___ principle of compliance.
E. Scarcity
Karen admires and respects her psychology professor. She is considering becoming a psychologist herself. Should her professor become a role model for her, Karen may become a psychologist herself if ___.
E. She sees this as a desirable and achievable potential self
People typically lower their voice in the library or in a hospital room and talk louder in a sports arena because of ___.
E. Situational norms
When we think of ourselves as members of specific social groups, we are thinking of our ___.
E. Social identity
___ are rules that indicate how people are expected to behave in particular situations.
E. Social norms
2. Injunctive norms ___.
E. Specify what behavior will be approved of in a particular situation
___ occurs when an individual thinks that she or he may be judged in light of a negative stereotype about his or her social identity.
E. Stereotype threat
Stereotype threat causes decrements in performance, possibly because ___.
E. Stereotype threat increases anxiety
Introspection is an effective means of understanding ourselves when ___.
E. The focus is on a conscious decision-making process
In Asch's classic experiment, a standard-setting line was first presented to small groups of people, followed by the presentation of three comparison lines of different lengths. In one condition, three accomplices, posing as students, chose an incorrect answer before the subject could respond. Frequently, the subject would then also select an incorrect response. This result illustrates ________.
E. The influence of group pressure to conform
People tend to describe themselves in different ways under different circumstances. According to Mendoza-Denton's (2001) research, people who are given open-ended prompts tend to describe themselves using ___ terms.
E. Trait-like and global
One of the factors associated with compliance is friendship. This is because ___.
E. We are more willing to comply with requests from friends or from those we like than with requests from strangers or people we dislike
James, Wendy, Evan, Ethan, and Janet are all college seniors who are planning their senior thesis - a requirement for graduation at their school. Given the following situations, who is most likely to complete the thesis first?
E. Wendy, whose older brother finished college last year and serves as a role model for her.
Cannon-Bard Theory
Emotional stimulus processed simultaneously by brain and autonomic nervous system- Emotions are a product of cognition(like or don't like) AND physical sensation (arousal)
James-Lange Theory
Emotional stimulus produces physical reaction, brain interprets physical reactions as emotions. Emotions are products of physical sensations!
Hard to Persuade
High issue involvement plus low impression involvement=
Romantic love
Ideas of romantic love is a social construct >Hasn't always been hearts and flowers >>Once considered a mental illness >Separate from marriage
What did Schacter and singer do? What does their study tell us about when we look to our environment for cues?
In a 1962 experiment, Schachter and Singer put their theory to the test. A group of 184 male participants was injected with epinephrine, a hormone that produces arousal including increased heartbeat, trembling, and rapid breathing. All of the participants were told that they were being injected with a new drug to test their eyesight. However, one group of participants was informed of the possible side-effects that the injection might cause while the other group of participants was not. Participants were then placed in a room with another participant who was actually a confederate in the experiment. The confederate either acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either happier or angrier than those who had been informed. Those who were in a room with the euphoric confederate were more likely to interpret the side effects of the drug as happiness, while those exposed to the angry confederate were more likely to interpret their feelings as anger.
Effortless
In a positive mood, everything's fine! One is more likely to use *** cognition bc attention and accuracy are less important when there's no threat. Increases likelihood of relying on heuristics and stereotypes.
Do goals and plans actually facilitate achievement?
In general, goal-setting and plan-making both facilitate achievement.
76. Does having goals actually help people to achieve things? Does it matter if the goals are broad (e.g., "getting a good education") rather than narrow (e.g., "getting a good grade on a specific assignment")?
In general, people who have goals perform better than people who don't—especially if the goals are narrow
Heavily Practiced Operations
In general, you can be fast or accurate, not both. There are exceptions for-
multicultural treatments
In the treatment of unipolar depression, culture-sensitive approaches increas- ingly are being combined with traditional forms of psychotherapy to help minority clients overcome their disorders
Which of the following is most likely to increase intrinsic motivation?
Internal Attributions
In the 1950s, clinicians developed two institutional approaches that finally brought some hope to patients who had lived in institutions for years:
Milieu therapy Token economy program
negativity bias
People attend more to negative information/events (notice it, recall it, etc.) than positive information. Traditionally thought to be due to evolutionary drives to pay attention to potential threats.
illusory correlation
Perceiving there is a relationship (often causal) between two events that co-occur even when no such relationship exists.
Filter
Schemas give us sets of guidelines for processing info. Serving as a *** through which information passes.
Recall
Schemas influence how we remember things, *** in a way consistent with our schema
Attention
Schemas influence what gets our ***, we interpret info to be consistent with our schemas.
Effortful
Schemas work as a default, but if enough info is inconsistent with schema, we will use *** cognition
Attitude Inoculation
Small attacks on people's beliefs that engage their preexisting attitudes, prior commitments, and background knowledge, enabling them to counteract a subsequent larger attack and thus resist persuasion
Culture shapes
Social behavior (What we grow up around, what we are taught)
According to the authors of your text, which of the following is considered crucial to the development of the self-concept?
Social contact
Identifiable Victim Effect
The tendency to be more moved by the vivid plight of a single individual than by a more abstract number of people.
Compassionate love
The affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply connected >Less intense, but more stable/enduring >View partner less idealistically than in passionate love--based more mutual understanding
Response Latency
The amount of time it takes to respond to a stimulus, such as an attitude question.
Expertise
The amount of knowledge the source possesses
When participants in Bazerman et al.'s (1992) study compared two options for resolving a dispute with a neighbor, what did they generally prefer
The option that gave them $600 and the neighbor $800
Persuasion
The process of consciously attempting to change attitudes through the transmission of a message
false consensus effect (aka: Projection bias)
The tendency for people to overestimate the extent to which others share their opinions and undesirable attributes or behaviors.
What is temporal discounting?
The tendency for people to place greater weight on the present over the future in decision-making
hot hand fallacy
The tendency to believe that because one is "on a roll" (e.g., with a gamble, in a sport) that the luck will simply continue
In addition to the pull of charismatic leaders, the social support of fellow cult members, and the isolation of cult members from dissenting viewpoints, why else to cult members behave as they do?
There is a high degree of cognitive dissonance in members' minds.
hindsight bias
Think of this as the "knew it all along" effect - it is when people believe that an outcome is more predictable and obvious than it really is AFTER they hear about the event
Actual ought discrepancy
We aren't meeting our responsibilities and obligations. >High arousal, action based emotions-anxiety shame >>"OH SHIT" emotions because we forgot to do something.
According to the authors of your text, what is one major danger of engaging in self-justification strategies?
We can fail to learn from our mistakes.
What was the "take home" message that one of the former participants learned from being in the Milgram Study?
We don't know for sure what we would or would not do in certain situations
Dual-Process Model
We engage in both implicit and explicit cognition. It happens simultaneously and each has a different effect on attitudes and behavior.
Schema-consistent
We remember *** information that didn't happen. Jack and Barbara example.
Ingroup bias
We tend to evaluate members of our ingroups more favorably >Give them greater rewards than outgroup members >>Even when groups are arbitrary
Motivation, opportunity, capacity
We use heuristics when we don't have *** to think effortfully. No time, under cognitive load, not important info, mood.
Example: Negativity Bias
We will remember the one time a trusted friend let us down better than the four times they helped us out.
Social equity and comparison
What's important is not total rewards and costs, but proportionate rewards and costs >As long as you get out as much as you put in, everything's okay >>People who overbenefit feel guilty >>People who under benefit feel angry/depressed
Which of the following ways of a parents' giving praise is most likely to enhance a child's intrinsic motivation?
When Jim tells his twelve-year-old son, "You worked really hard on designing that web. site, and you're becoming quite the expert web. designer!"
Polarization of opinion (aka: Attitude polarization)
When group discussion of an attitude triggers reflection on that attitude, and, as a result the attitude becomes more extreme than it was initially. This differs from the backfire effect because no attempt to change the view point needs to have been attempted. It could just come about from a discussion among like-minded individuals.
Example: Focusing Effect
When judging who is happier in their job, we will think that the woman who just got a raise is happiest compared to the man who didn't, disregarding the fact that her salary was low to begin with, that the raise didn't include a promotion, and ignoring evidence showing that income isn't that strong of a predictor of happiness.
base rate fallacy
When judgments of the likelihood of an outcome are based on conspicuous information (e.g., novel or distinctive information, easily accessible information - based on heuristics) as opposed to being based on the actual probability that it will occur.
Example: Neglect of probability
When people elect to engage in high risk medical procedures because, in their mind, "some chance is better than no chance" but neglect to also take into account the chance of survival without the risky procedure.
Example: Illusion of control
When rolling dice in craps, people tend to throw harder for high numbers and softer for low numbers
Example: Loss aversion
When the housing bubble burst a lot of people stayed in the houses they were "under water" on (i.e., owed more than the house was worth) because they were unwilling to take more for the house than they paid for it.
Dutton and Aron
Who did capilano bridge study
Suppose that you are out on a date. Although your date is somewhat entertaining, you keep having intrusive thoughts about the paper that you need to finish writing when you get home. These thoughts are evidence of the ____.
Zeigarnik effect
token economy program
a behavioral program in which a person's desirable behaviors are reinforced systematically throughout the day by the awarding of tokens that can be exchanged for goods or privileges -similar to operant conditioning -do help reduce psychotic and related behaviors. most common with schizophrenia -limitations: studies are uncontrolled, Restricting certain rewards isn't ethical Not necessarily applicable after treatment
Schema
a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a stimulus >Categorizes >Built from experience >Guides how we process new information
schema
a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a stimulus; categorizes info; selectively guides processing of new info
classification system
a list of disorders, along with descriptions of symptoms and guidelines for making appropriate diagnoses
self complexity
a measure of self-concept organization; number of self-aspects in an individual's self-concept (how many diff. ways do you see yourself)
Lithium
a metallic element that occurs in nature as a mineral salt and is an effective treatment for bipolar disorders
rapprochement movement
a movement to identify a set of common factors, or common strategies, that run through all successful therapies
self-awareness
a psychological state in which you consider yourself as an object of attention
what is a heuristic?
a simple way of making a decision that leads to a good choice in most situations
how is the concept of the self defined?
a symbol-using, self-reflective, social being
Ringelmann and Triplett's contradictory findings on how hard people work when alone or in groups suggest that... a. ... human behavior is the product of multiple, complex interactions and can't always be determined through simple observation b. ... human behavior is solely the product of how people respond to being observed c. ... early social psychological research was not conducted with sufficient accuracy or precision d. ... people will attempt to do the opposite of what they're expected to do when they're bing studied e. human behavior is defined by the person observing it
a. ... human behavior is the product of multiple, complex interactions and can't always be determined through simple observation
____ refers to a person's habitual way of explaining many different types of events a. explanatory style b. causative thinking c. the correspondence bias d. dispositional attribution e. the discounting principle
a. explanatory style
which of the following is the best explanation for why the fundamental attribution error occurs? a. info related to the person is generally easier to obtain than information related to the situation b. info related to the person is always accurate, where info related to the situation is not c. people are more willing to share info about their situations than about themselves personally when we ask d. info related to the situation is generally easier to obtain than info related to the person e. info related to the situation is always accurate, where info related to the person is not
a. info related to the person is generally easier to obtain than information related to the situation FAE: overrating personal causes for others' behavior (someone cut you off because they're rude, selfish, and lazy)
the communication of feelings and intentions without the use of words is called a. nonverbal behavior b. intuition c. attribution d. self presentation e. implicit expression
a. nonverbal behavior
when a team blames their defeats on poor calls by the referee and explains their victories as the result of superior teamwork and play, they are engaging in the... a. self serving bias b. self verification bias c. public self awareness d. private self awareness e. the self monitoring bias
a. self serving bias SSB: attributing failure/bad things to external factors, and attributing success and other good ones to yourself
what is the primary distinction between sex and gender? a. sex is biological, gender is behavioral b. sex relates to self, gender relates to situation c. sex is behavioral, gender is biological d. sex is role-based, gender is evolutionary e. sex is how we perceive ourselves, gender is how we perceive others
a. sex is biological, gender is behavioral
the "better-than-average" effect refers to the finding that people a. tend to think that they are above average b. tend to assume others are better than themselves at difficult tasks c. assume that they have to be better than average to be successful d. who are better than average are happier e. who are better than average are actually more modest about their abilities
a. tend to think that they are above average
effects of private self-awareness
intensified affect, greater adherence to personal standards
Define Field Theory of Behavior
interaction between the person and situation occur; kurt lewin
Because Eastern cultures tend to value _____, there is more effort devoted to _____.
interdependence; avoiding public embarrassment
what are the three types of attribution?
internal, external, stability and controllability
ICD
international classification of diseases -system that most other countries use
According to self-determination theory, people who act based on _____ are more free than others.
intrinsic motivations
People who had already placed their two-dollar bets were more confident than people who were waiting in line to place their bets (Knox & Inkster, 1968). These findings suggest that decisions that are _______ generate more cognitive dissonance than decisions that are not.
irrevocable
When unscrupulous salespeople use lowballing as a means of selling cars, they take advantage of buyers' illusions that their decision to buy a particular car was
irrevocable
High levels of testosterone correlate with ______, low tolerance for ______, ______, and ______. Among teenage boys and adult men, high testosterone also correlates with ______, hard ______, and aggressive-bullying responses to ______
irritability; frustration; assertiveness; impulsiveness; delinquency; drug use; frustration
self-expression consumption
is a motivation to engage in word‐of‐mouth communication that is distinct from other word‐of‐mouth motivations that have been discussed in the literature.
What is change blindness?
is a phenomenon of visual perception that occurs when a stimulus undergoes a change without this being noticed by its observer.
What does parasite stress theory argue?
is a theory of human evolution proposing that parasites and diseases encountered by a species shape the development of species' values and qualities. The differences in how parasites and diseases stress people's development is what leads to differences in their biological mate value and mate preferences, as well as differences across culture. Parasites causing diseases pose potential ecological hazards and, subsequently, selection pressures can alter psychological and social behaviors of humans, as well as have an influence on their immune systems.
Rachel has taken French for years and is very good at it. Nonetheless, she just enrolled in Intermediate French (which will be easy for her) rather than Advanced French (which will be slightly challenging but not impossible). It is probably safe to assume that Rachel ____.
is an entity theorist
Anita spent two months trying to decide whether to buy a PC or a Macintosh. She finally decided on a Mac. Now, Anita most likely
is certain she made the right decision
A person's attractiveness ______ (is/is not) strongly related to his or her self-esteem or happiness
is not
In most situations, establishing contact between two conflicting groups ______ (is/is not) sufficient to resolve conflict
is not
how does the steepness of the value function change for losses and gains?
it is about twice as steep for losses at it is for gains
What does neuroscience tell us about the self? Is it an illusion? Where is the self in the brain?
it is not a specific section of the brain, but it is also not an illusion
what happens when information is costly to gather and cognitive processing ability is limited?
it is not rational to make fully informed choices of the sort portrayed in simple models
what are the strengths and limitations of clinical case studies?
it is subject to bias of the author of the case study; conclusions have low generalizability
what are the positive outcomes of the deinstitutionalization movement?
it was considered more humane and cost-effective
endowment effect
judgement that items gain in value to a person who owns them
The belief that people get what they deserve - that the good are rewarded and bad punished - is expressed in the ______ phenomenon. This phenomenon is based in part on ______, the tendency to believe that one would have foreseen how something turned out
just-world; hindsight bias
"There's no way I'd give up drinking! I'd just be stressed out all the time" says Lilly, as she sips her third martini of the evening. Lilly's comments about her drinking habit are an example of using ________ to reduce cognitive dissonance.
justification
The status quo bias is different from the omission bias in that the former is about making decisions that ____, while the latter is about making decisions that ____.
keep things the same; require little effort
A mother is trying to get her child to behave in the store and to stop running around, yelling, and grabbing things off the shelves. According to cognitive dissonance theory, if she wants to stop the child's behavior immediately for the time being, she should use a ________, but if she wants to more permanently change the behavior she should use a ________.
large punishment; small punishment
People also seem to prefer physical features that are neither unusually ______ nor ______. Average faces, which tend to be ______, are judged to be more sexually attractive
large; small; symmetrical
People tend to fall subject to the impact bias (and not understand that they will usually successfully reduce cognitive dissonance) because reducing cognitive dissonance is
largely unconscious
Jonah is in his psychology class and has just gotten his third exam score back. It's an "F" again! He hasn't passed one single exam this semester. He decides to quit studying for that class at all since it hasn't seemed to help much. Jonah is exhibiting ____.
learned helplessness
observational learning
learning through observing others (modeling and imitation)
In a recent study by Masicampo & Baumeister (2008), participants who drank __________ tended to exert better self-control than those who drank ___________.
lemonade with sugar; sugar-free lemonade
Americans today express ______ (less/the same/more) racial and gender prejudice than they did 50 years ago
less
When people who overheard a seizure victim calling for help thought others were hearing the same plea, they were ______ (more/less) likely to go to his aid than when they thought no one else was aware of the emergency
less
Ingham found that people worked ______ (harder/less hard) in a team tug-of-war than they had in an individual contest. This phenomenon has been called ______
less hard; social loafing
In a series of staged accidents, Latane and Darley found that a bystander was ______ (more/less) likely to help if other bystanders were present. This phenomenon has been called that ______
less; bystander effect
Biological Clinicians
look for signs of biochemical or brain dysfunction
Dwayne is a workaholic who thinks of himself in terms of his job and very little else. when he suffers a setback at work, he gets very depressed and sick. Dwayne likely suffers so much because he is...
low in self-complexity
Petar and Nikolas love the house that they just toured. It is a short sale for $180,000, which is a great price. They are very excited and want to put in an offer. After they begin the paperwork, their realtor tells them that the price does not include the fixtures or the appliances. Those will likely cost an extra $20,000. What tactic is the realtor using?
lowballing
Which of the following is the best example of the self-control function of the self?
making a plan about how to study and succeed academically
According to the idea of "telling more than we can know" by Nisbett, Ross, and Wilson, one reason that introspection is sometimes not an accurate way to learn about oneself is
many of our mental processes occur outside our awareness.
face validity
may appear to be valid because it makes sense and seems reasonable -Ex) depression tests asking how often people cry
what are strengths and limitations of self-report data?
may be inaccurate, because people may lie; some people try to look more ill
neuropsychological tests
measure cognitive, perceptual, and motor performances on certain tasks; clinicians interpret certain abnormal performances as an indicator of underlying brain problems. -brain damage is likely to affect visual perception, memory, and visual-motor coordination so the test focus on these areas.
affective inventories
measure the severity of such emotions as anxiety, depression, and anger
Implicit Associations
measurement of implicit attitudes- Connections between object and different attributes in memory. Measured by IAT
When conflicts arise, a third-party ______ may facilitate communication and promote understanding
mediator
internal validity
methodologically sound; studies are free of confounds and lead to valid conclusions
According to surveys conducted in the United States, people who are ____, ____, ___ ___, and ___ ___ are the most likely to have been in therapy at some point in their lives.
middle aged, female, western states, highly educated
Jennifer's dad wants to convince her to do her homework as soon as she gets home from school. To ensure that Jennifer actually does her homework immediately-whether or not he is there to keep an eye on her-Jennifer's dad should provide
mild threats of punishment if she doesn't begin her homework right away.
how do psychotropic medications increase availability of desired neurotransmitters?
mimic neurotransmitter synthetically (promotre production); block "re-uptake" of neurotransmitter at synaptic cleft; block enzymes that metabolize neurotransmitter
The power of one or two individuals to sway the opinion of the majority is called ______ (e.g. Rosa Parks)
minority influence
The distorted images people in conflict form of each other are called ______ perceptions. These perceptions may become ______ that confirm themselves by influencing others to react in ways that seem to justify them
mirror-image; self-fulfilling prophecies
While riding a harrowing roller coaster, Jim notices that the person sitting next to him is extremely attractive and he resolves to get her phone number when the ride is over. Jim is probably doing this because he is
misattributing his arousal from the roller coaster ride to sexual attraction.
Emile just ditched a friend at a party to spend time with a pretty woman. Emile feels uncomfortable but he tells himself it's because the woman is so hot and not because he treated his friend badly. The way he's feeling is dissonance, but he tells himself it's sexual attraction. This describes which of the following?
misattribution of arousal
Misattribution of arousal can best be defined as the process by which people make
mistaken inferences about what is causing them to feel as they do
lateral orbitomedial prefrontal cortex
monitors information, relevant to us lights it up; processes current stimulus, draws on past experience; decides what to do with new information; what it will cost you, how you benefit
people low in self-monitoring
more consistent in their behaviors across situations; pay less attention to situational cues
Someone high in self complexity
more diff self-aspects and less personal quality overlap between them; better at coping; reduces impact of stress
Thought is shaped by
motivation
In humans and animals, aggression is facilitated by ______ systems, which are in turn influenced by ______, alcohol, and other substances in the blood
neural; hormones
what are some weaknesses of the behavioral psychological perspective?
not all disorders are acquired through learning; behavior therapy is limited; excludes subjective experience, complex phenomena; fails to attend to self-direction
naturalistic observation
observe clients in everyday environments. -usually made by participant observers
distal casual factors
occur early in life OR don't show effect for years
proximal risk factors
occur shortly before onset; close in time
Because dissonance reduction processes are mostly unconscious, people
often will overestimate how badly negative feedback may affect them
test-retest reliability
one of a kind reliability. -a test has a high test-retest reliability if it yields similar results every time it is given to the same people. -participants are tested on two occasions and the two scores are correlated.
Ted Singelis (1994) administered his independence and interdependence questionnaire to students at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. He found that Asian-American students agreed more with such statements as "It is important to me to respect decisions made by the group" and "My happiness depends on the happiness of those around me" than did Caucasian-American students. These findings suggest that
one's culture influences one's self-concept.
Mrs. Hill has decided to provide her first-grade students with gold stars to reward them for reading. She has decided to use performance-contingent rewards. To do this, she will give gold stars
only to those children who can read a passage without mistakes.
According to the lecture, which of the following is one of the factors that leads to the development of a sense of self in human beings.
our awareness of our own existance
Change blindness
our tendency to not notice sudden changes in the environment, especially when it's not expected >>The guys changing out when a painting passes through in the middle of asking for directions
what does fungibility imply?
our total wealth determines what we buy
what is the "superego"?
outgrowth of internalizing taboos and moral values of society; conscious
what are the srengths and limitations of observational approaches?
outward behavior can be observed directly; biological variables can be observed via technologically advanced methods
intelligence quotient (IQ)
overall score derived from the intelligence tests. defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100
cognitive distortions
overgeneralization, magnification, selective abstraction (generalizing from unrepresentation events)
Another factor that fosters the formation of group stereotypes and prejudice is the tendency to ______ from vivid or memorable cases
overgeneralize
Elaine Hatfield has distinguished two types of love: ______ love and ______ love
passionate; companionate
The community mental health act
patients with psychological disorders were to receive a range of mental health services—outpatient therapy, inpatient treatment, emergency care, preventive care, and aftercare—in their communities rather than being transported to institu- tions far from home. -patients diagnosed with schizophrenia and other severe disorders, especially those who had been institutionalized for years, were affected most.
Koro
pattern of anxiety in Southeast Asia. A man suddenly fears that his penis will withdraw into his abdomen and he will die. -imbalance of yin and yang -treatment: having man keep firm hold on penis until fear passes or clamping it in a wooden box
Social tuning is the process by which
people adopt another person's attitudes.
Advocates of the two-factor theory of emotion and of appraisal theories of emotion would be most likely to agree that
people sometimes learn about their feelings by observing their own behavior and the situation in which it occurs
which of the following do Kruger and dunning offer as an explanation for the results in their studies from 1999?
people who are bad at a task are unaware of what it takes to bee good at the task, and so cannot accurately estimate their performance
Walt's older brother Seymour decided to give him some incentive to continue doing well in school. Seymour told Walt that for every "A" he received on his report card, he would reward him with a comic book. Seymour is offering Walt a(n) ______ reward.
performance-contingent
projection
person attributes own acceptable impulses, motives, or desires to other individuals
repression
person avoids anxiety by simply not allowing painful or dangerous thoughts to become conscious
rationalization
person creates a socially acceptable reason for an action that actually reflects unacceptable motives
displacement
person displays hostility away from a dangerous object and onto a safer substitute
intellectualization
person represses emotional reactions in favor of overly logical response to a problem
regression
person retreats from an upsetting conflict to an early developmental stage at which no one is expected to behave maturely or responsibly
what are genetic vulnerabilities?
personality and psychological disorders are not due to chromosomal abnormalities but rather influenced by abnormalities in genes on the chromosomes, or by commonly occurring variations of genes
Other aversive stimuli can provoke hostility, including ____________
physical pain; personal insults; foul odors; hot temperatures; cigarette smoke
Sex
physical/biological distiction >Differentiated by primary sex characteristics >What you "are" physically >Consistent across cultures
The two factors necessary to experience an emotion according to Schacter's two-factor theory of emotion are
physiological arousal and appropriate explanation.
Schachter's (1964) two-factor theory of emotion suggests that we first experience ________ and then subsequently seek to ________.
physiological arousal; label the emotion appropriately
A recent MRI study revealed that when participants successfully reduced and resolved their cognitive dissonance, they experienced
pleasurable emotions.
What is the need for a positive self-reguard?
positive self image -Positive self regard refers to the need for love, affection, and respect from other people. Rogers concluded that most people seem to satisfy this need in a reasonable manner.
Chloe debated for a long time about whether to take a psychology or a sociology course, both of which looked interesting. She finally chose the psychology course. Now, because she is experiencing ________, she raves about the psychology course to her friends.
postdecision dissonance
what are some weaknesses of the cognitive-behavioral psychological perspective?
precise role of cognition in abnormality has yet to be determined; like other "mentalist" theories, based on some extent on inferences regarding non-observable phenomena
what are some strengths of the behavioral psychological perspective?
precision and objectivity; can be tested in the laboratory; significant research support for behavioral therapies
Shared ______ breed solidarity, as demonstrated by a surge in the use of the word ______ in the weeks after 9/11
predicaments; "we"
amy is on her way to meet with her professor because she is anxious about the low grade she received on an exam. As she is walking down the hall to his office, she sees her own reflection in a large window. Amy will most likely become _____ and _____
privately self-aware; more upset
what is the naturalistic theory's view of abnormal behavior?
proposed that mental disorders had natural causes
what is a nudge?
proposes positive reinforcement and indirect suggestions as ways to influence the behavior and decision making of groups or individuals
From the perspective of self-awareness theory, alcohol abuse, binge eating, and suicide are alike in that they
provide temporary or permanent relief from unpleasant self-awareness.
A prerequisite for, and perhaps the most powerful predictor of, attraction is ______
proximity
Which reduced the obedience effects?
proximity of victim, location of experiment, availability of allies.
what are high levels of dopamine associated with?
psychotic symptoms
antimanic/mood-stabilizing drugs
psychotropic drugs that help stabilize the moods of people suffering from bipolar mood disorder. anti bipolar drugs.
Compliance
publicly acting in line with a direct request >You may agree or disagree with the request, or even have no opinion at all- often completely out of habit (pass the salt)
Someone who enjoys spending lots of time at large gatherings and tends to go along with the crowd is likely to be
publicly self-conscious
active effect
pursues/builds own environment; Ex: extraverted child seeks out opportunities to be social, thus enhances sociability
According to information presented in this chapter, researchers exposed people who were strongly in favor of segregation and strongly opposed to segregation to both plausible and silly arguments in favor of both sides of the issue. They found that people tended to best recall
rational arguments of their side and silly arguments of the opposite side the best
An old advertisement for Dove ice cream bars touted the bars as "sinfully" delicious—so delicious that they should be banned or forbidden. The advertisement, which sought to make the bars seem as attractive to people as possible, was apparently playing on ____.
reactance
Suppose that you went out on two dates with someone from one of your classes. You were not crazy about the person, but you did not dislike the person either. You thought that you would just wait and see how things turned out. Surprisingly, however, the person sent you an e-mail after your second date and wrote: "I just don't think we have good chemistry, but it was nice meeting you! Sayonara!" All of a sudden, the person becomes much more attractive to you. You wonder what you did wrong, and you
reactance
Movies with "R" ratings tend to be more appealing to children and teens than similar movies with "G" or "PG" ratings. This finding is good evidence of ____.
reactance theory
Some research suggests that when parents are extremely strict, their children become especially tempted to engage in deviant behaviors. For example, when parents forbid their teen children from going to parties, the teens report being even more attracted to parties and even more interested in attending. These findings are most consistent with ____.
reactance theory
Research indicates that when people are setting goals, they tend to think in a(n) ____ way, and when they are pursuing or striving for goals, they to think in a(n) ____ way
realistic; optimistic
According to research by Tim Wilson and his colleagues (1989, 1992, 1995), analyzing the reasons for why we feel what we do is not always the best strategy for making sense of our feelings. This is because
reasons that are easy to verbalize are not always the "correct" reasons.
Jenny is trying to decide how she feels about Garth, so she sits down and lists the reasons why she feels the way she does. By doing this, Jenny runs the risk of incurring a
reasons-generated attitude change.
What is the pique technique?
refers to making an unusual request in a solicitation.
reliable
refers to the consistency of an assessment measure; a good tool will alwyas yield the same results in the same situation
What does ecological dominance theory argue?
refers to the exertion of a major controlling influence of one or more species upon all other species by virtue of their number, size, productivity or related activities.
categorical information
refers to the name of the category (disorder) indicated by the client's symptoms.
Women tend to have more ________ interdependence, and men tend to have more _________ interdependence.
relational; collective
Social penetration theory
relationships become closer through increasing levels of self-disclosure >Move from superficial topics to more intimate topics >From narrow/shallow to broad/deep >Approach reciprocal self-disclosure is important
family therapy treating schizophrenia
relatives develop more realistic expectations and become more tolerant, less guilt-ridden, and more willing to try new patterns of communication. Family therapy also helps the person with schizophrenia cope with the pressures of family life, make better use of family members, and avoid troublesome interactions.
Tim Wilson, Pat Laser, and Julie Stone (1982) asked participants to keep journals of their daily moods and of other variables, such as the weather and how much sleep they got the night before. When asked, many participants reported the amount of sleep the night before was correlated with their moods. When information recorded in the journals was subjected to more systematic statistical analysis, it was found that amount of sleep was not related to participants' self-reported moods. This is most likely because participants
relied on causal theories about the relation between mood and sleep.
so-called Zeigarnik The effect helps us to ____.
remember unfinished tasks, and thus to return to complete them
generalization
repsonse is conditioned to one stimulus and can be evoked by other stimuli
projective personality tests
require that clients interpret vague, ambiguous, unrestrcited stimuli
The authors of your text describe the history behind a clever experiment conducted by Richard Nisbett and Tim Wilson (1977). Lacking inspiration when trying to design the experiment, the researchers decided that noise outside their office door was distracting them. In a flash of insight, they decided to use noise as a distraction in their experiment, and predicted that distracting noises would influence participants' judgments, even though they didn't know they were distracted by the noise. Results of the actual experiment showed that although participants' ratings of a film were not affected by distracting noises, participants erroneously thought they were. This anecdote provided by your authors demonstrates that
researchers and participants sometimes share incorrect causal theories.
stress
response of individual to taxing demands
What is a meta-analysis?
review of literature that combines the statistical results form all studies conducted on a topic
Based on the idea of overjustification, if you have a group of children who already enjoy math, which of the following would be most likely to decrease their intrinsic motivation?
rewarding them for each book they read
Aggressive behavior can be learned through ______, as shown by the fact that people use aggression where they're found it pays, and through ______ of others
rewards; observation (or imitation)
Crime rates are higher in countries in which there is a large disparity between those who are ______ and those who are ______. High violence rates also are typical of cultures and families in which there is minimal ______
rich; poor; father care
The tendency to give more weight to possible losses than to possible gains when making decisions that require trade-offs is known as ____.
risk aversion
When you follow the social prescriptions for how you should act as, say, a college student, you are adopting a ______
role
what are some projective personality tests
rorschach inkblot test; thematic apperception test (TAT); sentence completion test
herbal remedies
saint johns wort; a popular health store product made from the so-named plant which has been supported in studies to be helpful in cases of mild or moderate depression
a student who believes he will not do well on a test finds himself starting an argument with his girlfriend immediately before walking into the exam score. such a strategy may be an attempt at
self handicapping
what is the difference between being a high self-monitor and being high in public self-consciousness?
self monitoring involves actively creating a specific impression whereas public self consciousness has more to do with being aware of, but not necessarily influencing, others' views
regardless of the ultimate effect on self-esteem, researchers agree that over the longterm, most individuals tend to seek a. self awareness b. self aspiration c. self enhancement d. self verification e. self handicapping
self verification SV: people strive for stable, subjectively accurate beliefs about themselves because such self-views give them a sense of coherence and predictability
Barbara replies to her therapist: "How do I see myself? Well, I'm socially anxious, insecure, relatively intelligent, and terribly shy." Barbara's response reflects her
self-concept
the collection of information collected in our self-schema makes up the content of our... a. possible selves b. self concept c. material selves d. global self-descriptions e. social identities
self-concept - collection of info defining self as object of attention, snapshot of who we are - ever changing! - thoughts, actions, important things, people, roles, relationships, interests
The idea that at least some of our activities must be motivated by their inner drives and choices, rather than by external factors, reflects ____.
self-determination theory
Complete the analogy about functions of the self. Self-presentation: putting your best foot forward:: __________: formulating and organizing what we know about ourselves.
self-efficacy
The authors of your text explain four functions of the self. Which of the following is not one of these four functions?
self-esteem
How does the self help us "organize" our experiences and information?
self-reference effect, is powerful evidence that the self-concept helps us organize and remember information.
the collection of info most commonly associated with our self-concept is referred to as the... a. mental image b. public concept c. private concept d. self-schema e. private consciousness
self-schema - organization of self-concept in memory (everything in there has to be accessible) - 5 words that describe you example - wouldn't know who we are without this!
Experiments have shown that, among other factors, depictions by the media of ______ most directly affect men's acceptance and performance of aggression against women. Such depictions may create ______ to which people respond when they are in new situations or are uncertain how to act
sexual violence; social scripts
evolution...
shapes patterns of behavior
culture...
shapes social behavior
Intimacy
sharing our most personal thoughts and feelings with others >Removal of psychological boundaries >>Aspects of the other are incorporated into the self >>Use some thought processes and responses for the other as you would do for yourself >Incorporation in the self-schema >>Parts of others' schema becomes part of yours >>Recall shared qualities faster than unique qualities >Intimacy is facilitated through the process of self-disclosure
Suppose that Sergej has just asked Georgia whether she would like to study with him for an upcoming English exam. Georgia is struggling in the class, and she knows that Sergej is an excellent English student, so she enthusiastically agrees and says that she is excited to study with him. According to error management theory, it is likely that Sergej will view Georgia's enthusiasm as a sign that ____.
she has a crush on him
More recent studies have found that women's compliance rates in similar situations were ______ (higher than/lower than/similar to) men's
similar to
external attribution
situational; cause of behavior found in situation
Brain activity affects (and is affected by)
social behavior
social role theory of gender differences
social constructionist explanation; roles are created for men and women by culture
In considering the power of social influence, we cannot overlook the interaction of ______ (the power of the situation) and ______ (the power of the individual)
social control; personal control
The idea that social behavior aims to maximize rewards and minimize costs is proposed by ______ theory
social exchange
The tendency to perform a task better when other people are present is called ______
social facilitation
Through our ______, we associate ourselves with certain groups
social identities
Situations is which conflicting parties become caught in mutually destructive behavior by pursuing their own self-interests are called ______
social traps
Another rule tells us to help those who need our help; this is the ______ norm
social-responsibility
The Asch and Milgram studies demonstrate that strong ______ influences can make ______ people ______ to falsehoods and ______ orders to commit cruel acts
social; ordinary; conform; obey
Gender role
specific behaviors and traits associated with masculinity/femininity in a culture >Expectations >How a society at large understands gender
What is action-identification theory?
specifies the principles by which people adopt a single act identity for their behavior and outlines the conditions under which people maintain this act identity or adopt a new one. The interplay of these principles has implications for central issues in social psychology, including self-regulation, vulnerability to social influence, and self-concept.
what happened during the Middle Ages?
spiritual persective; thought abnormal behavior was due to possession of good or evil spirits; exorcisms
what are additional factors effecting attribution?
stability and controllability
What is a self-concept? How can it vary in clarity?
story of ourselves, about ourselves; less understood in childhood
Compared to incremental theorists, entity theorists show a ____.
stronger preference for doing things at which they are good
What is a schema?
structures of knowledge that represent substantial information about a concept it's attributes and relationships
Reading programs that are intended to encourage children to read more by paying them to read books is an example of using
task-contingent rewards.
what are the strengths and limitations of the correlational method?
tells us whether there is a relationship or not, it does not say anything about causation
Even though she is not in desperate need of boots, Ellen says that she would rather buy a pair of boots today (for $200) rather than wait two weeks, when they will be on sale for half the price. Ellen's decision most likely involves ____.
temporal discounting
Many people do not invest in 401K plans or other retirement plans—even though they are not broke, and could afford to put money aside. One explanation for this is the fact that people tend to engage in ____ when making decisions about how to manage their money.
temporal discounting
People tend to say that they would prefer to have $1000 today rather than $1200 two weeks from now—even though, logically, they would be better off with the $1200 in two weeks. The phenomena underlying this tendency is known as ____.
temporal discounting
The tendency for people to place greater weight on the present over the future in decision-making is known as ____.
temporal discounting
According to error management theory, when it comes to making decisions about dating members of the opposite sex, men will be relatively more prone to ____, while women will be relatively more prone to ____.
temporal discounting; risk aversion
effects of public self consciousness
tend to be what other people/situation demands; more concerned with physical appearance
Research suggests that when athletes who are preparing for a big game visualize themselves training really hard for the game, they ____; when they visualize themselves actually winning the game, they ____.
tend to train harder than usual and thus perform better; also tend to perform a little better.
simulation heuristic
tendency to be influenced by how easy it is to imagine alternative outcomes that could have happened
self-monitoring
tendency to use cues from other people and the situation to control how we present ourselves
comorbidity
term to describe presence of 2 or more disorders in the same person
The aggressive behavior of animals can be manipulated by altering the levels of the hormone ______. When this level is ______ (increased/decreased), aggressive tendencies are reduced
testosterone; decreased
response inventories
tests designed to measure a person's responses in one specific area of functioning, such as affect, social skills, or cognitive processes
what is the spiritualistic theory's view of abnormal behavior?
that abnormal behavior was due to possession by good or evil spirits
what is the psychological theory's view of abnormal behavior?
that psychological problems led to abnomral behavior; unconscious psychological processes are the root of psychopathology and dysfunction
what are basic assumptions of the cognitive-behavioral psychological perspective?
the "center" of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions; can result from faulty assumptions and attitudes, and illogical thinking processes
In Japan, you can rent fake guests for a wedding, a fake audience for a public lecture, and fake mourners for a funeral. These "convenience agencies" ("benriya") exist because
the Japanese are very concerned with avoiding the public embarrassment of not having "enough" attendees at social events.
The Pattersons bought their TV from a store with a thirty-day return policy, and the Stevensons bought the same TV from a different store with a policy that "All Sales Are Final!" Based on what the text reports about cognitive dissonance, which family is more likely to be satisfied with their TV?
the Stevensons
to what does the term neuroplasticity refer?
the ability of our brain's structure to change in response to frequently repeated behaviors
Dehumanization
the attribution of nonhuman characteristics and denial of human qualities to groups other than one's own
Research findings suggesting that people become less prosocial when induced to reject their belief in free will most likely indicate that ____.
the belief in free will affects people's willingness to behave prosocially
15. As discussed in the text, when purchasing a car, people end up paying a bit more attention than intended to choices such as color and engine size, and a bit less attention than intended on information such as the chances of fatalities should there be an accident with the car. This pattern can be taken as evidence for
the certainty effect
unstructured interview
the clinician asks mostly open ended questions, the lack of structure allows the interviewer to follow leads and explore relevant topics that could not be anticipated before the interview. -Favored by: psychodynamic and humanistic clinicians
structured interview
the clinicians ask mostly specific and prepared questions. most included a mental status exam. -structure ensures clinicians will cover the same kinds of issues in all of their interviews and enables them to compare the responses. -Favored by: behavior and cognitive clinicians
which of the following historical events served for an increase in social psychological research?
the holocaust
looking-glass self
the idea that people learn about themselves by imagining how they appear to others
Gender Identity
the individual's experience of themselves as masculine/feminine >How gender is incorporated into self-concept >Less binary and more on a continuum >May or may not align with either sex or gender role
What were some of the controversies surrounding the methods employed by Milgram?
the level of misinformed consent, after effects (nervousness)
Example: Choice-supportive bias
the moment students choose which college they are going to attend they rate it more favorably than they had previously and can list more reasons why their school is superior to the alternatives they declined. This tendency increases over time as they gather more information.
MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes. -500 self statements to be labeled true, false, or cannot say. -make up 10 clinical scales on which each can score from 0-120 -score above 70:deviant
prevalence
the number of active cases in a population during any given period of time
self-complexity consists of
the number of different self aspects a person has and the uniqueness of the traits associated with each self-aspect
incidence
the number of new cases over a given period of time
Even though Mildred knows that her relationship with her boyfriend is in trouble, she decides not to do anything about it (i.e., she will simply neglect the relationship and let it slowly fall to pieces). Social psychologists would say that her decision to do nothing most reflects ____.
the omission bias
Define social being
the presence of others affects the individual and vice versa; our selves develop bc we are one of many; story of christopher knight
Define psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Much of the time, people are interested in keeping their options open rather than making restrictive, final decisions. Two biases that help them avoid making decisions are ____.
the status quo bias and the omission bias
what does it mean for a finding to be "generalizable?"
the study group should mirror underlying population in all important ways
which statement best describes social psychology's primary focus?
the study of the individual as a social being
Above average effect
the tendency of a person to hold overly favorable views of one's own intellectual and social abilities relative to others.
what does treatment for the cognitive-behavioral psychological perspective look like?
the way they interpret events and experiences determines our emotional reactions to them; clinicians use a variety of techniques designed to alter a client's negative cognitive biases; challenge their dysfunctional thougths, try out new interpretations, and apply a new way of thinking in their daily lives
Participants in a study by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Thomas Figurski (1982) wore beepers for a week. When the beeper sounded at random intervals, participants wrote down what they were thinking about. Participants were less likely to be thinking about _____ than about _____.
themselves; nothing at all
Assume that when exposed to a mirror, chimpanzees will use the mirror to aid in grooming (e.g., to pick food from their teeth) and to entertain themselves by making faces. The chimps' behavior before the mirror would suggest that
these great apes have a sense of "self."
what does treatment for the behavioral psychological perspective look like?
they aim to identify the behaviors that are causing problems and replace them with more appropriate ones; have step-by-step procedures, and manualized treatment protocols
It is not uncommon for cultures to dehumanize their enemies. What explains why, for example, a Vietnam veteran might dehumanize the Vietnamese or a Nazi might dehumanize the Jews?
to alleviate guilt for harming innocent people during the war
what is the purpose of assessment?
to determine how and why a person is behaving abnormally; a diagnosis; how that person may be helped; to evaluate treatment progress
The so-called Zeigarnik effect refers to the tendency for people ____.
to experience automatic, intrusive thoughts about a goal when pursuit of that goal has been interrupted
The so-called panic button effect refers to the tendency for people ____.
to feel relatively less stress or suffering when they think that they have the option of escaping from a situation (compared to when they think they do not have the option of escaping)
Normative conformity
to gain reward or avoid punishment from another person or group >Nonconformity sometimes results in ostracism
What is the neocortex ratio? How do you compute it?
total brain volume - neocortex volume. neocortex volume divided by previous answer
Shellie has a growth mindset. She has just found out that she did poorly on an exam. Which of the following is she most likely to do?
try even harder to succeed
Cognitive Interview
try to discover assumptions and interpretations that influence the person
Psychodynamic interviews
try to learn about the perons needs and memories of past events and relationships
At the amusement park, Keon's heart begins beating rapidly and his palms begin to sweat. He reasons that since he is next in line for a ride on a roller coaster, he must be feeling exhilarated. This sequence of events in which Keon first perceives his arousal and subsequently labels it is consistent with the
two-factor theory of emotion.
Complete the analogy about mindsets: fixed mindset: _______:: growth mindset: _______.
unchangeable; malleable
Most people tend to ______ (overestimate/underestimate) the extent to which people's actions are influenced by social situations because their ______ is focused on the person. This tendency is called the ______
underestimate; attention; fundamental attribution error
schema
underlying representation of knowledge that guides current processing of information
Prejudice is an ______ (and usually ______) attitude toward a group that involves overgeneralized beliefs known as ______
unjustifiable; negative; stereotypes
Instrumental aggression
use of harmful behavior to achieve some other goal (ex. threatening) >Aggression for the purpose of gaining some benefit >Calm, rational use of violence (or threat of violence)
Hostile aggression
use of harmful behavior to cause injury or death to the victim >Aggression for the purpose of hurting someone else
structured interviews
use the same format for all clients; specific questions asked in a specific order; restricts freedom but increases reliablity
Clinical assessment
used to determine whether, how, and why person is behaving abnormally and how that person may be helped -enables clinicians to evaluate people's progress during a treatment
what is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?
using a starting point to estimate how frequent or likely an event is, and then making adjustments up and down from this starting point
Fear appeals
using threatening info to get attention. These are persuasive when the danger is perceived to be serious and probable, recommendations perceived to be effective and the target feels they can take action. DOES NOT WORK WHEN INFO IS SO SCARY IT INTERFERES WITH MESSAGE PROCESSING
In humans, aggressiveness ______ (varies/does not vary) greatly from culture to culture, era to era, and person to person
varies
private self consciousness
very aware of private self; related to introversion
public self consciousness
very aware of public self; related to extraversion
what are some strengths of the cognitive-behavioral psychological perspective?
very broad appeal; clinically useful and effect; focuses on a uniquely human process; theories lend themselves to research; therapies effective in treating several disorders
self-schema
views on who we are, our potential, values, roles
The so-called "status quo bias" in decision-making refers to the tendency for people to ____.
want to keep things the way they are instead of changing
self reflective
we are aware of ourselves as social beings; sets us apart from many species
According to the authors of your text, feelings like love or sadness are often difficult to explain because
we are unaware of many of our basic mental processes.
According to the authors of your text, one major problem with preparing excuses in advance of possible failure is that
we may come to believe those excuses and exert less effort to succeed.
Multiplex self (aka: multiple selves)
we play multiple roles simultaneously based on certain situations
fundamental attribution error
we tend to overrate personal causes of other peoples' behavior bc we don't have access to their internal info (motives)
When explaining our own behavior, or that of someone we know well, this tendency is ______ (stronger/weaker). When observers view the world from others' perspectives, attributions are ______ (the same/reversed)
weaker; reversed
In this study, when the opinion of other group members was contradicted by objective evidence, research participants ______ (were/were not) willing to conform to the group opinion
were
When college men were placed in an aroused state, their feelings toward an attractive woman ______ (were/were not) more positive than those of men who had not been aroused
were
Target variables in persuasion
what group you are aiming to persuade >>know your audience >involvement >> the more invested in the issue, the harder it is to persuade
syndrome
when certain symptoms occur together regularly, a cluster of symptoms is a syndrome.
what is the halo effect?
when deciding between two goods, adding another good (irrelevant alternative) which is worse will help to highlight one of the goods and put a halo around it
anchoring heuristic
when judging under uncertainty, people use a reference point or an "anchor" and then adjust from it to reach a judgement
what is the conjunction fallacy?
when people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event
Why do we have this need according to the sociometer hypothesis?
when people try to improve their self-esteem they are really just trying to be more appealing to others
Research on positive illusions and goal-setting indicates that ____.
when setting goals, most people set aside positive illusions, and are (at least temporarily) realistic
What are mirror neurons?
when someone else is crying (genuinely) we will also cry
what are we looking for when defining danger?
whether the behavior(s) are harming either themself or others - does not have to be phsyical harm
what are we looking for when defining distress?
whether there are signs of unpleasant/upsetting behaviors towards either themself or others
what does the anchoring and adjustment bias help to explain?
why many new businesses often fail
Derek just found out that his sister is getting married, and had previously not experienced any arousal. According to the two-factor theory of emotion, Derek ________ feel emotions, and according to the appraisal theories of emotions, he __________ feel emotions.
will not; will
What is the difference between a within-subjects design vs. between-subjects design?
within-subjects - everyone gets the same condition between-subjects - people are randomly assigned conditions
can we get better at accurately judging our skills?
yes; get better at task, get better at judging your performance
Misattribution of arousal is most likely to happen when
you are aware of arousal and there are multiple plausible causes for it.
The Ben Franklin effect would predict that you would most like someone ________, whereas behaviorist theories would predict that you would most like someone ________.
you did a favor for; who did a favor for you
Suppose that an annoying co-worker is always making passes at you and trying to ask you out on dates. Research on the panic button effect suggests that you would be less troubled by this person if ____.
you felt that you could simply tell the person to stop if you wanted to
Procedural knowledge
you know the things you have to do and how to do them
effects of private self consciousness
you know yourself well; physically healthier, better relationships; higher depression and neuroticism
Based on the Ben Franklin effect, you are most likely to increase your liking for Tony when
you lend Tony $10.
What are ingroups vs. outgroups?
you see yourself as part of ingroups, you do not associate with/see yourself a part of outgroups
What are the consequences of breaking scripts? Why are there consequences?
your brain starts looking for suggestions. when routines are broken it leads to confusion and you are susceptible to suggestion
external validity
generalizability; studies typically use samples representative of the population
what are the 4 categories relevant to abnormal behavior?
genetic vulnerability; brain dysfunction and neural plasticity; neurotransmitter & hormonal abnormalities in brain and CNS; temperment
Martina is studying for her calculus exam. She needs to write a paper for another class, too, but while she is studying for her calculus class, her mind shuts off the paper so that she can focus on her math. Martina is experiencing ____.
goal shielding
Personal projects, or personal strivings, are also known as ____.
goals
The enhancement of each group's prevailing tendency over time is called ______. Electronic discussions on the ______ provide a medium for this tendency
group polarization; Internet
When the desire for group harmony overrides realistic thinking in individuals, the phenomenon known as ______ has occurred
groupthink; e.g. failure to anticipate Pearl Harbor, Watergate coverup
According to research by Dweck, a _______ is more likely to promote success both athletically and academically.
growth mindset
self consciousness
habitual self-awareness
Whereas Americans have a proverb, "The squeaky wheel gets the grease," Japanese have a proverb. that states "The nail that stands out gets pounded down." These two different proverbs mirror social-psychological research that has demonstrated that people in Asian cultures
have a more interdependent concept of self than do Americans.
standardized
have common steps to be following whenever it is adminsitered; allow for comparison
Research on proximal goals, distal goals, and goal hierarchies suggests that MOST people ____.
have goal hierarchies (including proximal goals and distal goals)
(text and Close-Up) Blatant forms of prejudice ______ (have/have not) diminished. However, even people who deny holding prejudiced attitudes may carry negative ______ about race
have; associations
Suppose that Peter hates his job as a medical assistant. Research on the panic button effect would suggest that Peter would hate his job less if ____.
he felt that could quit at any time and get a different job
Burke has a tendency to say and do rude, obnoxious things and alienates people who almost as soon as they meet him. Burke most likely behaves the way he does because...
he is very low in self-monitoring
Family- Social Treatments
help clients change how they deal with the close relationships in their lives. -interpersonal psychotherapy and couple therapy
Sociologists have found that suicides sometimes increase following a ______ suicide
highly publicized
medial parietal cortex
hippocampus- It has a major role in learning and memory. It is a plastic and vulnerable structure that gets damaged by a variety of stimuli.
Kids who play a lot of violent video games see the world as more ______, get into more ______ and ______, and get worse ______
hostile; arguments; fights; grades
observing behavior through therapeutic or medical setting
how are they presenting themselves physically
Medium persuasion
how you are putting the message out >rapid speech >powerful speech
people high in self-monitoring
hyper aware of appropriate behavior for the situation; do what it takes to be liked; tend to have less intimate relationships; judge people based on superficial qualities
self-determination theory
idea that people need to feel at least some degree of autonomy and internal motivation
authentic self-aspects
identify them as part of who you are; aren't forced into them; personally meaningful
interrater (inter judge) reliability
if different judges independently agree on how to score and interpret it. -multiple choice exams yield consistent scores no matter who judges them but other tests require the judge to make the grades.
Imagine that you are a participant in the experiment conducted by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer (1962). You were injected with a vitamin compound called Suproxin and told that you might experience an increased heart rate, hand tremors, and sweaty palms. Further imagine that while completing a questionnaire, the person in the room with you begins to act angry, tears up the questionnaire, and storms from the room. You are likely to ______ because ______.
ignore this situational cue; you know the source of your arousal
(Close-Up) Studies of prejudice indicate that it is often unconscious, or ______. Several studies have shown that the more a person's features are perceived as typical of their ______, the more likely they are to elicit ______ responding
implicit; racial category; race-based
what are the two processed to social perception?
impression formation and attribution
Emil Kraepelin
in 1883 developed the first modern classification system for abnormal behavior that formed the foundation for the DSM
In order to preserve intrinsic motivation and be effective, which is the best strategy for a parent to use when praising a child? Praise the child's
increase in competence through hard work.
contributory cause
increases probability of dx; not sufficient nor necessary; Ex: if you have a lot of stressors, you will probably have depression
negative correlation
indicates that two measures vary inversely (in opposite directions)
One landmark of human culture is the preservation of ______, which is derived from our mastery of ______, so that we can pass it on to future generations. Culture also enables an efficient division of ______
innovation; language; labor
Internal compliance with private agreement
Acting according to beliefs and principles
Self serving bias
Attributing good things to us and bad things to the situation, other people, etc
George feels that going along with a group implies behaving in ways one might not ordinarily choose. Given this information, it is likely that George views conformity as ___.
E. A threat to his desire for control
Emotion
Targetted, brief, affective states-typically have specifc source
symbolic self-awareness
goal setting for the future
analog observation
observation in an artificial setting, such as a clinical office or a laboratory
That prejudice derives from attempts to blame others for one's frustration is proposed by the ______ theory
scapegoat; e.g. negative stereotypes to Arab-Americans after 9/11
Intrinsic
Motivated by the inherent nature of an activity >Doing for the sake of doing it regardless of reward
The speed at which culture changes is much ______ (faster/slower) than the pace of evolutionary changes in the human ______
faster; gene pool
retrospective research strategies
involve looking back in time (before the client developed dx)
what is the shape of the value function in gains and losses?
- concave in gains - convex in losses
what are the two important features of K&T's value function?
- people treat gains and losses asymmetrically, giving the latter much heavier weight in their decisions than the former - people evaluate events first and then add the separate values together
Publically self aware people
-Attitudes predict behavior sometimes -These are less likely to behave consistently with attitudes
Peripheral Route
-Do not think carefully about message -Persuaded by aspects irrelevant to argument or argument quality -effortless cognition
Capilano Bridge Study
-Examined how subjects cognitively interpret different levels of physiological arousal. -Participants on scary bridge or normal brige -scary bridge participants more likely to write sexual story and call cute female assistant -MISTOOK FEAR AROUSAL FOR ATTRACTION
What are some of the other destructive behaviors we might engage in to maintain positive self-views?
-cost of narcissism -destructive self-presentation -self-handicapping -avoiding challenges -avoiding self growth
Cannon's Criticisms of James-Lange
1)Similar physiological reactions for many emotions 2)Visceral organs respond slowly to stress-gut rambles after feeling of nervousness occurs 3)Artificial stimulation of visceral organs doesn't produce emotion 4)People with severed spinal cords have emotions.
transorbital lobotomy: second
1947 Walter Freeman -surgeon inserted a needle into the brain from the eye socket and rotted it in order to destroy the brain tissue. -Performed a lobotomy on Rosemary Kennedy which left her permanently disabled -from the 1940s to 50s lobotomy was viewed as a miracle and became a mainstream part of psychology. 50,000 in the US got one
Psychologists believe that the social facilitation effect occurs because A. the presence of other individuals arouses us. B. we are more relaxed in group situations than when we are alone. C. we feel more deindividuated when we are alone than when we are in a group. D. of a genetic predisposition toward heightened performance for new tasks in group settings.
A
Norman is in a group where he strongly believes that his judgment is correct, but he odes not want to appear different. A possible way he may deal with this situation is to ___.
A. Alter his perception of the information provided so that he can feel comfortable with conforming to the group influence
___, more than ___, forms of computer-based communications may lead to misunderstandings regarding ___.
A. Asynchronous; synchronous; humor and/or sarcasm
George has spent his entire life on the Hopi reservation where he was born. He has won a full scholarship to a large Eastern university. If George goes to the university, he will need to either emphasize his identity as a Native American or distance himself from that identity. If he chooses to emphasize his identity, his self-esteem will probably ________.
A. Be better during the transition to college life
Consider a situation where you had "evil" thoughts about someone, and subsequently, the object of your wish had a bad accident. Research shows you would ___.
A. Be likely to believe at some level that you were somehow responsible
When people described themselves as they were five years ago, or as they are today, they saw their past self as more ___, and their present self as more ___.
A. Dispositionally guided; situationally variable
A study of chronic dieters found that making an initial tempting food item available caused them to ___ a second appealing dish.
A. Eat more of
One frequently used impression management technique is ingratiation. This involves ___.
A. First inducing the target person to like you, then attempting to change the person's behavior in a desired direction
Ada had missed the notes for several classes and asked ob for the notes for one day. Rob gave the notes to Ada, who copied them and then asked rob for a week's worth of notes. Because of the ___, Rob is highly likely to give Ada the notes.
A. Foot-in-the-door technique
One technique used for seeking compliance from others involves making a small request first, then making a larger request that is actually desired after compliance with the smaller request has been obtained. This is known as ___.
A. Foot-in-the-door technique
One technique used for seeking compliance from others involves calling attention to relatively trivial, surprising similarities between the target person and ourselves. This is known as ___.
A. Incidental similarity
In a Crandall study, binge-eating norms in sororities showed that individual members' bingeing habits could be predicted by ___. A conflict between these behaviors and personal values may initially arise because ___.
A. Knowing their best friends' eating habits; we may be attached to a group before knowing all its norms
In Ross and Wilson's interesting experiments, participants who perceived a past self as ___ were likely to be more critical of ___ than when they perceived their past self as ___.
A. More recent; past mistakes; further in the past
When thinking about a bad or happy event and predicting our future level of happiness, we tend to ___.
A. Neglect all the other factors that will contribute to our future state of mind over time
Normative focus theory says ___.
A. Norms will influence behavior only when they are salient
Individuation is ___.
A. Our need to differ from others in some respects
One way in which symbolic social influence may work is by allowing the psychological presence of others to trigger goals with which the other persons are associated. This may, in turn, influence ___.
A. Our performance on tasks and our commitment to reaching these goals
Self-esteem refers to the ___.
A. Positive or negative evaluation of the self by oneself
Individuals tend to show the greatest decrease in their ability to show harmful obedience when they ___.
A. Question the expertise and motives of the authority figures
Whenever Mike enters his family's den where the sports trophies that he has won. are on the mantle, his self-esteem is temporarily boosted. This is best described as caused by the fact that ___.
A. Self-esteem is responsive to life events
As one of a number of ___, people are quite willing to avoid responsibility for their failures, but all too willing to accept credit for their successes.
A. Self-serving biases
Bradford, a gay man, recently applied for a job as a fifth-grade teacher. Shortly before his second interview with school administrators, which was to include some interaction time with current students, Bradford completed an on-line survey that included questions about his sexual orientation. It was explained that the survey was completely unrelated to the school system, and that the orientation items were being asked by a gay-rights organization. Bradford did not think that he was particularly nervous or anxious during his interactions with the students. Recent research (Bosson, Haymovitz and Pinel, 2004) suggests that ___.
A. non-verbal measures of anxiety may have been higher than otherwise because the on-line survey may have made Bradford's homosexuality more salient
Cognitive therapy
Aaron Beck -Therapy that helps people identify and change the maladaptive assumptions and ways of thinking that help cause their psychological disorders -Broken into phases
Example: Gambler's Fallacy
At a casino, people watch slot machines that haven't paid out in a long time and pick them as they think the chances of payout are higher because "it's just about time" for it to be a winner.
Dr. McCall found that class projects were of poorer quality when students worked in groups compared to when each student did an individual project. This difference is best explained by the phenomenon of A. cognitive dissonance. B. social loafing. C. the sleeper effect. D. polarization.
B
Research shows that the incidence of eating disorders among females may be strongly influenced by images associating celebrity thinness with ___.
B. Being liked by others
The type of social influence in which individuals change either their attitudes or behavior to adhere to existing social norms is known as ___.
B. Conformity
When Jeremy was recently asked to describe himself to his classmates, he spoke about being a member of the football team and how this helped to make his experiences different from those of other students in the class. Jeremy was primarily making ___ comparisons.
B. Intergroup
George was listening as a friend described him to someone else on the telephone. His friend's description included "Tall man, a psychologist, bicyclist" and similar terms. As a result, George is now probably thinking of himself in terms of ___.
B. Intergroup comparisons
When Karen was recently asked to describe herself to her classmates, she spoke about being a student and a member of her class. She pointed out similarities and differences between herself and her fellow students. Karen was primarily making ___ comparisons.
B. Intragroup
The type of social influence that involves one person directly ordering another person to behave in a specific way is known as ___.
B. Obedience
Jackson is a former member of a street gang. He has recently started attending classes at a local community college, has made new friends who don't know about his former gang membership, and is spending time with a girl from an upper-middle-class background. Jackson heard his new friends and his girlfriend make several snide comments about gang members shortly before he took a test in one of the classes he shares with his new friends. In the light of the stereotype threat idea, this situation may cause Jackson to ___.
B. Perform worse on the test than he otherwise might have
Gender differences in self-esteem begin to emerge during ___.
B. Puberty
One way to help people become more resistant to commands from authorities that may lead to destructive behaviors is to ___.
B. Remind people that they - not the authorities - are responsible for any harm done
A person's evaluation of his or her ability to reach a goal is known as ___.
B. Self-efficacy
The belief that we can achieve a particular goal through our own actions is known as ___.
B. Self-efficacy
As players on a social "stage," we may wish to emphasize some personal aspect to others, as well as to ourselves. This is called ___.
B. Self-promotion
Individuals who are the object of prejudice and discrimination ___.
B. Should be encouraged to place an increased emphasis on their racial or ethnic identity
People tend to describe themselves in different ways under different circumstances. According to Mendoza-Denton's (2001) research people who are given prompts that implied a particular social setting tend to describe themselves using ___ terms.
B. Situationally contingent
One technique for gaining compliance is to begin with a large request, then make a smaller desired request after the first one is refused. This is known as ___.
B. The door-in-the-face technique
A technique sometimes used for gaining compliance is to suggest that a person or object is difficult to obtain. this technique is known as ___.
B. The playing hard to get technique
Research has shown substantial cross-cultural differences in people's need for individuation. This finding suggests that there should also be cross-cultural differences in ___.
C. Conformity
Even though there is a sign that clearly says "Park closes after 9 P.M.," Mary says to herself "What a silly sign! I just want to walk around here, I'm not a 'bad guy'" and proceeds to walk in the park. Mary's behavior is ________ with normative focus theory since ________.
C. Consistent; she is disobeying an injunctive norm that she doesn't see as related to her own actions
Public conformity is ___/ private acceptance is ___.
C. Doing or saying what others around us do or say; coming to feel or think as others around us do
When we compare ourselves to others who are less capable, we are engaged in a ___.
C. Downward social comparison
Judy has recently been reflecting about all of the positive personal and professional life changes she has experienced over the past decade. The MOST likely reason she is engaging in this reflection is because she ________.
C. Finds it gratifying to see improvement over time
When confronted with the that's-not-all technique, we should always remember that the person making the request ___.
C. Ultimately just wants to gain compliance
One of the factors associated with compliance is reciprocity. This is because ___.
C. We are more likely to comply with requests from those who have previously done us a favor or made a concession to us in order to fell that we have repaid them to some extent
One of the factors associated with compliance is authority. This is because ___.
C. We are more willing to comply with requests from those who hold or appear to hold legitimate authority over us
One of the factors associated with compliance is commitment. This is because ___.
C. We are more willing to comply with requests that result in behaviors we see as consistent with positions we have made a commitment to
The elaboration likelihood model A. views people as motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior. B. explains the effects of deindividuation. C. refers to the processes by which we use social stimuli to form impressions of others. D. identifies two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route.
D
The reduction in personal identity and erosion of the sense of personal responsibility when one is part of a group is known as A. social contagion. B. the self-serving bias. C. the false consensus effect. D. deindividuation.
D
After seeing a commercial for sneaker supposedly designed by the basketball star Michael Jordan, Dave decides to buy a pair. Dave has been influenced as a result of the compliance principle of ___.
D. Authority
Pointing out incidental similarities between ourselves and those whom we wish to influence is based on the ___ principle of compliance.
E. Friendship/liking
Situational norms ___.
E. Guide behavior in a particular situation or environment
People's personal identities, and their various social identities, require them to be different people in different contexts. This results ___.
E. In a potentially variable but coherent self-definition
Speed
Effortless cognition is good for-
Cognitive bias
Self-serving, confirmation, blindness, false conscientious/uniqueness, etc
5. Occupational training and support
Sheltered workshop: A supervised workplace for people who are not yet ready for competitive jobs
According to the textbook, research findings on the self-reference effect and self schemas help explain why aspects of the self are
Stable over time
Two studies by Bodenhausen and colleagues
Study 1 >Guilt judgement and stereotyping >Participants put into one of three states >>Anger, sadness, neutral >How does anger differ from sadness? >>Anger: high arousal >>Sadness: low arousal >Arousal is a signal for action >Action discourages effortful cognition ("do something now" >Anger was found to use stereotypes more than sadness and neutral, which made no distinction >Angry people think like happy people Study 2 >Do happy moods promote stereotyping? >Participants were asked to do a motor task >Participants were asked to do a guilt judgement task >Found that people in a positive mood were more likely to use a stereotype because a positive mood discourages effortful cognition >Neutral participants made no distinction between stereotypes and non-stereotyped defendants >Not always the case
Third person effect
The belief that others are more affected by persuasive media (e.g., advertisements, propaganda) than oneself.
Backfire effect
When attempts to dissuade people of a certain belief by presenting contrary evidence leads them to hold onto their beliefs even more strongly. It triggers a confirmation bias to then selectively attend to information that supports the original belief.
Example: Fundamental attribution error
When explaining why a person is impoverished, people tend to focus on internal characteristics (e.g., they are lazy, don't want to work hard) and overlook external contributors (e.g., they do not get paid more than minimum wage and their employer only schedules them for 30 hours a week to avoid paying benefits, leaving them to foot the huge bills for medical care - the leading cause of debt).
dimensional information
a rating of how severe a client's symptoms are and how dysfunctional the client is across various dimensions of personality
For our ancestors for whom the unfamiliar was often dangerous, this effect was ______. One implication of this is that ______ against those who are culturally different may be a primitive, ______ emotional response
adaptive; prejudice; automatic
An unselfish regard for the welfare of others is called ______
altruism
Gender
behavioral distinction based on the behaviors and traits associated with a given sex
External + stable + controllable
bias
Brain Stimulation
biological approaches that are used to treat depressive disorders. Include vagus nerve stimulation, transcranial magnetic stimulation, and deep brain stimulation
Like other behaviors, aggression emerges from the interaction of ______ and ______
biology; experience
Taking on a set of behaviors, or acting in a certain way, generally ______ (changes/does not change) people's attitudes
changes
since the value function is different shapes for gains and losses, what does this imply?
different risk attitudes for positive and negative prospects
Twin studies suggest that genes ______ (do/do not) influence human aggression
do
According to Nisbett and Wilson, the best way to describe the relationship between our thoughts, feelings, and actions and our beliefs about why think, feel, and act the way we do is
doing everything we feel.
Research indicates that people who believe that they are acting autonomously, based on intrinsic motivations, are ____ compared people who believe that their behavior is guided by external forces and extrinsic motivations.
happier and often perform better
what is the "ego"?
mediates between demands of id and realities of external world; operates on reality principle
valid
must accurately measure what it is supposed to measure
what did Kahneman and Tverksy propose about who people evaluate alternatives?
not with the conventional utility function, but instead with a value function that is defined over changes in wealth
People who feel loved and supported become more ______ to and ______ of those who differ from them
open; accepting
what are the psychosexual stages of development?
oral stage; anal stage; phallic stage; latency stage; genital stage
Also, those who have been socially rejected, or ______, are more likely to respond aggressively to insults
ostracized
Mariana wonders whether she has the potential to become a first-rate social psychologist. To assess her potential, she would most likely compare herself to
other psychology majors she knows.
Self-perception theory argues that when our attitudes or feelings aren't clear, we often infer them by observing
our own behavior
Stella is very serious about dancing and starts college as a dance major. The more serious she gets about dancing, the more she worries about the pressure to succeed and the rewards associated with succeeding. She finds that dancing feels like a chore and something she has to do rather than wants to do. Her change in her views about dance is due to what social psychologists call
overjustification
Evolution shapes
patterns of behavior
implicit egotism
people think of themselves positively, we do things focused on us, about us.
diathesis
predisposition/vulnerability toward developing a disorder
observing behavior in a natural setting
preferred; reduces likelihood of altered behavior
social perception/ person perception
process by which we come to know about other people's temporary states and enduring dispositions
self-handicapping
protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure
Self esteem via social comparison process (upward vs. downward)
self esteem - how we view ourselves social comparison process - how we view ourselves compared to those doing better than us (upward social comparison) or those doing worse than us (downward social comparison)
Thought is...
shaped by motivation
ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)
social pain center, monitors environment for inclusion/exclusion
Psychologists who study how we think about, influence, and relate to one another are called ______
social psychologists
What is self-monitoring?
social ques about who we "should" be or what we are "wanted" to be
what is the somatic theory's view of abnormal behavior?
somatic = body; that physical factors cause mental disorders; Ex: syphilis
Error management theory suggests that, when it comes to dating and mating members of the opposite sex, men will be more prone to ____ than women
temporal discounting
The worse you are at something...
the less you're aware of how bad you really are at it
self-schema
the organization of self-concept in memory
Self schema
the organization of self-concept in memory >All of the things that go into our self-concept have to be accessible in memory >Otherwise how would we know who we are?
James defined "I" as
the part that is an active perceiver and initiator of action (Same as Mead)
Define social psychology
the psychology of the individual as a social being
A basic tenet of self-perception theory is that we infer our feelings from our behavior when
the reasons for our attitudes or feelings are ambiguous.
How are humans "on auto-pilot"? (add examples)
the subconscious and the routine such as habits, driving, walking, etc.
What is strategic self-presentation? (How is it shaped by social desirability?)
the way we feel we should present ourselves based on social wants; to make ourselves more socially desirable.
protective factors
they decrease the likelihood of negative outcomes, a buffer
metacognition
thinking about thinking
Rapid speech
this suggests credibility. Works best when target is opposed to message as it discourages effortful processing
define functionalism
thoughts, feelings, behaviors serve a purpose
According to the principle of insufficient punishment, which of the following parental techniques should be most effective in changing a child's behavior permanently (i.e., even behavior that occurs in the absence of the parent)?
threat of mild punishment
Self-determination theory states that people have an innate need ____.
to feel at least some degree of autonomy and internal motivation
Informational conformity
to gain correct information in ambiguous situations >Reduces uncertainty
MOST people show a tendency ____ when making decisions that require tradeoffs.
to give more losses to possible gains
A majority opinion will have the most success in swaying the majority if it takes a stance that is ______ (unswerving/flexible)
unswerving
intelligence tests
useful for when intellectual impairment or organic brain damage central to patient's problem; designed to indirectly measure intellectual ability
nonconscious mimicry
we tend to adopt other people's physical mannerisms
classical conditioning
when two things occur at the same, or close, time and become associated in our minds
what is the certainty effect?
you will pick something out of two options if you feel more certain you are going to get one of them
If a person goes through a demanding process involving lots of effort and hard work to achieve a goal, what would cognitive dissonance suggest that person will think about the experience afterwards?
"Going through all of that effort was worth it!"
what are the three simple heuristics given by K&T?
- availability - representativeness - anchoring and adjustment
___ comparisons are based around attributes ___ with ___, but which are ___ to (from) ___ group.
A. Intergroup; we may share; other members of our group; contrasted; another
Chris describes himself as liberal when thinking of himself as an American, but conservative when compared to other college students. These are ___ comparisons.
A. Intragroup
What is debriefing?
Explaining what will happen in the study
Deliberate Conscious
Explicit attitudes predict **** behavior
What is the most accurate statement regarding how humans differ from other animals in terms of goals?
Humans are able to stop a given activity in order to resume pursuit of a previously pursued goal.
Nonconscious
Implicit attitudes predict *** behavior (body language, minimal decisions -seat in class)
Psychological reactions to rejection
>Mood and pain sensitivity >Mood (increase in sadness, anger, distress) >>People who are angry are more likely to lash out (perform antisocial behavior) >Social rejection doesn't always affect mood >>Not feel anything
Realistic conflict
Intergroup conflict develops from competition for limited resources >Want more for your own group >Actual conflict isn't necessary- only the perception of conflict
Mastery
Intrinsically motivated >Attempt to increase competence Involves seeks out challenges, failure usually leads to persistence
Stability attribution
Is this stability likely to happen again
Issue Involvement
Issue is important to the self (how much i care about issue)
Angry People think like happy people
Loophole in the neg mood use effortful pos mood use effortless! it's the last one about similarities. bitch you got this
milieu therapy
Maxwell Jones -a humanistic approach to institutional treatment based on the belief that institutions can help patients recover by creating a climate that promotes self-respect, responsible behavior, and meaningful activity -changing the social environment can evoke a change in the patient -limitations: many remain impaired and must live in sheltered setting
Identify the circumstances in which a person is most likely to offer help during an emergency
People are most likely to help someone when they have just observed someone else being helpful; when they are not in a hurry; when the victim appears to need and deserve help; when they are in some way similar to the victim; when in a small town or rural area; when feeling guilt; when not preoccupied; and when in a good mood
Validity
A measure of the accuracy of a test's or study's results. -tool should not be used unless it has high predictive or concurrent validity -Ex) a scale may show 12 every time a 10 pound bag is on it. its reliable bc its consistent but not accurate.
Reliability
A measure of the consis- tency of test or research results.
Maureen thinks that her abilities are fluid and capable of changing and developing over time. She decides to try to learn to garden. Her first year of planting is a complete failure--nearly every plant dies. She only harvests a few tomatoes. Given what you know about Maureen, what can you predict about her interest in gardening?
She will try again the next year and plan to learn from her mistakes.
Stories
We use mental simulations for meaning. Construct *** as a way to make sense of event. We favor info which fits the ***. EX-Jury decisions
omission bias
We will judge actions that directly cause harm as worse (e.g., more severe, less moral) than harm that arose due to inaction, even if the outcome is the same.
Example: Von Restorff Effect
We will recall the one person dressed in red in a sea of black and grey suits better than any of the rest of the applicants we interview.
Source persuasion
What kind of person/group is doing the persuasion >Credibility >Expertise >Trustworthiness >Attractiveness >Factors >>Physical attractiveness >>Likeability >>Similarity >Only effective in peripheral route persuasion >Less effective when motivation is present
When people are setting goals, the core question is, ____. When people are pursuing goals, the core question is, ____.
Why should I do it?"; "How do I do it?"
Stereotype
a belief that certain attributes are characteristics of members in a particular group >>A collection of information- traits, qualities, etc >>Awareness of a stereotype is not the same thing as believing the stereotype
what was the deinstitutionalization movement?
a large number of hospitals closed, shift toward community-based residences
what is the representativeness heuristic?
a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case
self-serving bias
a pattern in which people claim credit for success but deny blame for failure
mental status exam
a set of interview questions and observations designed to reveal the degree and nature of a client's abnormal functioning -evaluated the clients awareness, orientation with regard to time and place, attention span, memory, judgement, and insight, thought content and processes, mood, and appearance.
self-fulfilling prophecies
a sociological term used to describe a prediction that causes itself to become true.
predictive validity
a tool's ability to predict future characteristics or behavior
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
a treatment for depression in which electrodes attached to a patient's head send an electrical current through the brain, causing a convulsion
deep brain stimulation
a treatment procedure for depression in which a pacemaker powers electrodes that have been implanted in Brodmann Area 25, thus stimulating that brain area -Helen Mayberg -her approach was modeled after techniques used successfully in brain seizure disorder and Parkinsons
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
a treatment procedure for depression in which an electromagnetic coil, which is placed on or above a patient's head, sends a current into the individual's brain. -daily for 2 to 4 weeks
vagus nerve stimulation
a treatment procedure for depression in which an implanted pulse generator sends regular electrical signals to a person's vagus nerve; the nerve then stimulates the brain -every 30 seconds for 5 min -FDA approved for long term severe depression
Biological Approach
an approach to psychology focusing on the body, especially the brain and nervous system -antidepressants or herbal supplements
how does greater self-complexity improve our ability to manage stress?
by making individual threats to self less harmful to the self overall
Jake is feeling bad about being passed over for a promotion but after he reads a news article about a politician who recently resigned after being disgraced he feels better. Jake is engaging in...
downward social comparison
Mahmoud wants his seven-year-old daughter to learn that littering is bad. According to cognitive dissonance theory, how should Mahmoud teach his daughter not to be a litterbug? Mahmoud should
give his daughter a stern look whenever she litters.
Among humans, greater freedom is associated with ____.
greater behavioral flexibility
Thoughts, feelings, emotions, and behaviors are all products of
neurological processes
What are the effects of social deprivation? (Neurologically, socially, cognitively, and psychologically?)
neurologically - less grey matter, can lead to brain death
According to self-perception theory (Bem, 1972), we infer the kind of person we are and what our attitudes are by
observing our own behaviors, just as we would observe others' behavior.
attributions
process of assigning causes to things that happen
When people try to maintain their self-esteem and reduce cognitive dissonance, they may resort to maladaptive thinking known as
rationalizing
passive effect
results from genetic similarity to parents; Ex: high IQ parents provide enriching environment that will interact positively with child's genetic endowment for IQ
cognitive inventories
reveal a person's typical thoughts and assumptions and can help uncover counterproductive patterns of thinking
Emotion
targeted specific, brief affective state
Assessment
the collecting and interpreting of relevant information about a client or research participant
concurrent validity
the degree to which the measures gathered from one tool agree with the measures gathered from other assessment techniques
Attraction
the desire to approach an individual
Stereotype threat
the fear that confirming the stereotypes that others have one's group
what is narrow framing?
the idea that risky ideas are made in isolation
Mead defined "me" as seen from
the imagined perception of others >"Paying in nickels makes me look like a jerk."
what is the Weber-Fechner law?
the property of perception whereby the just noticeable difference in a stimulus tends to be proportional to the value of the stimulus
Social psychology
the psychology as an individual as a social being
what are some weaknesses of the psychodynamic psychological perspective?
unsupported ideas; difficult to research; non-observable; inaccessible to human subject (unconscious); therapy typically takes much longer than other approaches
attribution
use of info to explain reasons for a behavior; useful for future interactions
Implicit Associations Test
if people are significantly faster in one combo block than the other, it shows an implicit association. ex) male/sport>male/nonsport
Pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC)
panic mode, highly self conscious, experience guilt, shame, embarrassment
what are low levels of dopamine associated with?
parkinson's disease
When we introspect about the reasons underlying our attitudes or feelings, the explanations we arrive at
seem reasonable because they are easy to verbalize.
What is a social norm?
seen as something that is common amongst society that people are expected to follow.
One of the chief executive functions of the ________ is making choices about what to do.
self
the psychological state in which you become aware of yourself as an object of attention is called
self awareness
According to dissonance theorists, what is the problem with severe punishment to control behaviors? Severe punishment
serves as an external justification for behavior change
positive correlation
indicates that two measures vary together in a direct corresponding manner
what do neuropsychological methods assess?
indirectly assesses brain function by assessing cognitive, perceptual, and motor functioning
operant (instrumental) conditioning
individual learns how to achieve a desired goal; concept of reinforcement is essential
gender identity
individuals experience of themselves as masc/fem
what are the 6 cognitive processes?
information processing; beliefs and expectancies; cognitive distortions; schema; attributions; attributional style
Another reason people comply is that they have genuinely been influenced by what they have learned from others; this type of influence is called ______
informational social influence
Prejudice is also fostered by the ______, a tendency to favor groups to which one belongs - called the ______ - while excluding others, or the ______
ingroup bias; ingroup; outgroup
For those with money, power, and prestige, prejudice often serves as a means of ______ social inequalities
justifying
Copycat violence is a serious example of the effects of ______ on behavior
suggestibility
DSM-5
list over 500 mental disorders. -each entry describes criteria for diagnosing and key clinical features. -features that are often related to disorder -background info: research findings -disorders prevalence, risk, course, complications, predisposing factors, family patterns. Requires clinicians to provide both categorical and dimensional info as part of proper diagnosis.
We rely on both _______ and ________ to make decisions
logic and intuition
If you are experiencing physiological arousal (heart pounding, feeling warm and a bit shaky), according to the two-factor theory of emotion, what would you do next to provide an interpretation of the arousal?
look for cues from the environment
All of the following processes except ________ are motivated by the need to preserve or maintain self-esteem.
making upward social comparisons
In Muzafer Sherif's study, two conflicting groups of campers were able to resolve their conflicts by working together on projects in which they shared ______ goals
superordinate
representativeness heuristic
mental shortcut that helps us make a decision by comparing information to our mental prototypes
The chameleon effect refers to our natural tendency to unconsciously ______ others' expressions, postures, and voice tones. This helps us to feel what they are feeling, referred to as ______
mimic; mood linkage
Recall that Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) paid participants either $1 or $20 to tell another person that a boring, tedious task was really fun and interesting. The results of their experiment demonstrated that
minimal external justification can lead to attitude change
what are some object personality tests
minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI); personality assessment inventory (PAI)
The experience of learned helplessness is ____.
more likely to occur for an entity theorist than an incremental theorist
2. short term hospitalization 3. Partial hospitalization
2. Aftercare: A program of post hospitalization care and treatment 3. Day centers/hospitals: A program that offers hospital-like treatment during the day only
The specific tools that are used to do an assessment depend o the clinicians ______ ________.
Theoretical orientation
empirically supported treatment
Therapy that has received clear research support for a particular disorder and has corresponding treatment guidelines. Also known as evidence-based treatment.
Example: Illusory correlation
There is a correlation between the occurrence of exams and the death of distant relatives, yet it seems unlikely that midterms kill grandmas.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy treating schizophrenia
These behavioral and cognitive techniques often help schizophrenic people feel more control over their hallucinations and reduce their delusional ideas. But they do not eliminate the hallucinations. They simply render the hallucinations less powerful and less destructive.
how do psychotropic medications decrease transmission of undesired neurotransmitter?
block transmission of neurotransmitter; promote re-uptake of neurotransmitter; promote enzymes that metabolize neurotransmitter
interactive method
diathesis is required; no diathesis = no dx
Mood
diffuse, nonspecific, persistent affective state (not sudden shifts)
what are some strengths of the biological method?
enjoys considerable respect in the field; constantly produces valuable new information; treatments bring great relief
Failure will most likely produce learned helplessness for ____.
entity theorists
what are decision weights not assumed to represent?
erroneous beliefs
In the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion, the central route A. is effective when people lack the time or energy to think about the message. B. is more persuasive when people have the ability and the motivation to pay attention. C. involves factors such as the source's attractiveness or the emotional power of an appeal. D. is usually used by television advertisers to persuade the viewers into buying their products.
B
The advertising committee for a politician is going door to door and asking people to put a big, ugly election sign on their lawn. If the people refuse, they ask them if they would consider putting a smaller sign on the lawn. The staff is using A. the foot-in-the-door technique. B. the door-in-the-face technique. C. the elaboration likelihood model. D. a negative appeal.
B
Raza performed very poorly on an essay test in her Social Psychology class. Later, Raza learned that the professor had been particularly harsh in his grading that day because he had just received some upsetting news. Raza's sense of well-being is likely to ___.
B. Be protected from the news of the poor grade because she can make an external attribution as to the cause
The foot-in-the-door technique is based on the ___ principle of compliance.
B. Commitment/consistency
Behavioral Assessment
Behavioral and cognitive clinicians use this to reveal specific dysfunctional behaviors and cognitions. -Goal: produce a functional analysis of how a person's behaviors are learned and reinforced.
Jacopo long-term goal of becoming a neurologist. At the moment, though, he is only seven years old. He therefore also has several "stepping stone goals" (finishing high school, going to college, going to medical school, etc.). That is, Jacopo has a complete ____.has a
Both parts of the duplex mind play a role in navigating through a hierarchy of goals. The automatic system helps to ____, while the conscious system ____.
All things considered, which of the following people would be most likely to disclose personal feelings, focus on psychological intimacy, and cooperate with a small number of close others?
Bridgette, who grew up in Bossier City, Louisiana
John is selling magazine subscriptions and chocolates. He asks you whether you are interested in buying some chocolates for $1 and you say yes. When you go to get the money to pay for the chocolates and return to the door, John asks you if you would also like to buy a $25 subscription to a variety of magazines. Even though you don't read magazines, you agree to buy a magazine subscription. This is an example of A. social loafing. B. the door-in-the-face technique. C. the foot-in-the-door technique. D. the bystander effect.
C
Juanita returned home after being away for several years. When she saw her father, whom she thought she disliked, she hugged him and cried. Based on her crying when she saw him, she determined that she must like him more than she thought. This is most consistent with the of attitudes A. evolutionary theory. B. social learning theory. C. self-perception theory. D. social identity theory.
C
Phase 2
Challenging automatic thoughts -therapist educated about negative thoughts and instructs to recognize and record them.
Phase 4
Changing primary attitudes -help change maladaptive attitudes that set stage for depression
Powerful speech
Clear and unhesitant. Conveys competence and credibility.
The factor that differentiates Jerry Burger's recreated Milgram's study from the original Milgram's experiment is that, in Burger's study A. participants could see everyone else being obedient to authority. B. the authority figure was perceived to be legitimate. C. the authority figure was far away as opposed to nearby. D. participants were never allowed to go higher than 150 volts.
D
The process by which we come to understand the causes of others' behavior is known as A. deindividuation. B. validation. C. perception. D. attribution.
D
_____ are favorable views of the self that are not necessarily rooted in reality. A. Fundamental attribution errors B. Self-serving biases C. Self-deceptions D. Positive illusions
D
Action
High arousal feelings cause *** reactions
Channel/Medium Variables
How the message is transmitted. Factors like rapid speech and powerful speech
What is self-perception theory?
Observation of personal behavior to infer personal thoughts and feelings
Self concept
The collection of information that defines the self as an object of attention >A "snapshot" of who we are >>Thoughts, actions, feelings, other people, roles, relationships, interests, etc >A basis for understanding our own behavior, abilities, and relationships >Changes over time
Summarize the findings of the Zilmann and Bryant study on the effects of pornography on attitudes toward rape
The study by Dolf Zillman and Jennings Bryant found that after viewing sexually explicit films for several weeks, undergraduates were more likely to recommend a lighter prison sentence for a convicted rapist than those who viewed nonerotic films
actor-observer bias
The tendency for those observing the actions of others to make internal attributions for the observed behaviors, whereas those engaged in the action (the actors) see external attributions as driving them.
Do people usually think in optimistic or overly ambitious ways when they are setting goals and/or striving to achieve goals?
They tend to be more or less realistic when goal setting, but optimistic when pursuing goals.
resilience
ability to successfully adapt to very difficult circumstances
biopsychosocial theory
abnormality results from the interaction of genetic, biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and cultural influences
When people are asked to list their current goals and personal projects, the average list contains ____.
about 15 items
In getting people to administer increasingly larger shocks, Milgram was in effect applying the ______ technique
foot-in-the-door
social psych's increasing focus on ____ reflects, in part, an awareness that the experience of a set of researchers is not necessarily universal a. natural selection b. culture c. self-concept d. correlation e. social neuroscience
b. culture
if somebody cut you off in traffic, and you made the fundamental attribution error in the process of trying to figure out why they did, which of the following would be the explanation you would be likely to come up with? a. he cut me off because i didnt signal in time b. ... i wasnt paying attention c. ... he's selfish and rude d. ... he didn't see me there e. ... he's got a lot on his mind
c. ... he's selfish and rude
why is it important to take cultural factors into account when studying social psych? a. it is necessary to understand what other cultures are doing before you can change their behavior to what is objectively correct b. it is important to boost the self-esteem of people who believe they are culturally inferior c. different cultures have different assumptions about what socially acceptable and unacceptable behaviors are d. otherwise you might offend people who believe they are culturally superior e. there are no universal aspects to human behavior
c. different cultures have different assumptions about what socially acceptable and unacceptable behaviors are
the process of seeking out and interpreting situations so as to attain a positive view of yourself is called a. self presentation b. self verification c. self enhancement d. self monitoring e. self promotion
c. self enhancement SE: desire to maintain, increase, or protect one's positive self-views
William James, the father of American psychology, once wrote: "Thinking is for doing." What did he mean by this?
developed its current cognitive abilities in large part to enable effective decision-making and to facilitate behavior.by this? a. The human brain probably
when asked how she managed to get aa 99 on a 100-q mc test, Leanne stated that she was lucky that the professor happened to ask only about the things she had studies. this attribution is a. dispositional, external, and focused b. dispositional, stable, uncontrollable c. external, stable, controllable d. external, unstable, uncontrollable e. internal, stable, uncontrollable
d. external, unstable, uncontrollable
what, according to lecture, is the primary importance of Kurt Lewin's Field Theory of human behavior? a. it proves that a personal explanation for human behavior is the correct one b. it proves that a situational explanation for human behavior is the correct one c. it combines theories of mind and body into a single theory d. it reconciles differences between primarily personal and situational explanations for human behavior e. it demonstrates that human behavior is essentially unknowable past what we can directly observe
d. it reconciles differences between primarily personal and situational explanations for human behavior Kurt Lewin BFT: "personal qualities and situational factors underly much of human behavior"
the ability to evaluate your ability at a task in kruger and dunning's studies is a product of a. self-esteem b. self awareness c. schematic recall d. self monitoring e. procedural knowledge
e. procedural knowledge PM: knowledge exercised in accomplishment of a task - nonconscious ex - can find a face attractive without giving a working definition of attractiveness
Benjamin Franklin
electricity to treat depression (melancholia)
what is the one year prevalence rate of disorders in adults?
in any given year, 1 in 4 adults display psycholgical disturbance and warrent clincial treatment
what is the one year prevalence rate of disorders in children?
in any given year, 1 in 5 children display psycholgical disturbance and warrent clincial treatment
Over time, the initial differences between groups usually ______ (increase/decrease)
increase
Frequent patterns of behavior change
neural structure
Does the evidence support that the controversies were much to be concerned about? Was it ethical or not? Is deception in research, in and of itself, unethical and unnecessary?
no, the benefits outweighed the costs. 84% of participants said they were glad they participated; it is ethical to a certain extent
ellen visited her college roommate's hometown in another area of the country. After just a weekend, she developed the accent of the roommate's family without realizing it. Ellen was expressing
nonconscious mimicry
One reason that people comply with social pressures is to gain approval or to avoid rejection; this is called ______
normative social influence
All cultural groups evolve their own rules for expected behavior, called ______
norms
What are the levels of an independent variable?
number of experimental conditions
Worldwide, ______ (women/men) are more likely to live in poverty. People tend to perceive women as being more ______ and ______ and less ______ than men
women; nurturant; sensitive; aggressive
One advantage of being an incremental theorist rather than an entity theorist is that ____.
you are more likely to persist in the face of challenges and setbacks
if someone attributes their success to internal, stable, controllable factors, they would most likely say: a. "i only got that A because the prof went easy on me" b. "I can't believe I got as lucky as I did" c. "I just happened to make some good guesses, that's all" d. "I was in a really good mood and felt like I couldn't lose" e. "I worked really hard for that A"
"I worked really hard for that A"
Low Warmth, Low Competence
Despise
Outgroup derogation
>Negative evaluations of outgroup members >Greater likelihood of negative or aggressive behavior >Less common than ingroup bias
impact bias
- Retrospective impact bias is when people overestimate the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to past events. - Prospective impact bias is when people overestimate the intensity and duration of their emotional reactions to possible future events.
What are the different types of deception? How were they used in the Milgram Studies?
-dissimulation, propaganda, sleight of hand, distraction, camouflage, or concealment. -the participants actually believed they were shocking a real person and were unaware the learner was a confederate of Milgram's. Some of the participants thought that it was unreal that they could go that far just because someone in a lab coat told them which could lead to mental issues.
false consensus vs false uniqueness
-false consensus: the tendency to overestimate the number of other people who share one's opinions, attitudes, values, and beliefs -false uniqueness: the tendency to underestimate the number of other people who share one's most prized characteristics and abilities
Changes in ECT procedures
-today patients get strong muscle relaxants to prevent breaking bones -anesthetics to put them to sleep to reduce terror -use has reduced bc of memory loss caused and emergence of antidepressant drugs
clinical tests
A device for gathering information about a few aspects of a person's psychological functioning, from which broader information can be inferred. -more than 500 in the US -6 kinds used most often
Attitudes
A positive or negative evaluation of object. Cannot be neutral. either pos or neg.
Explain what a reward theory of attraction is and how it can account for the three predictors of liking - proximity, attractiveness, and similarity
A reward theory of attraction says that we are attracted to, and continue relationships with, those people whose behavior provides us with more benefits than costs. Proximity makes it easy to enjoy the benefits of friendship at little cost, attractiveness is pleasing, and similarity is reinforcing to us
Passionate love
A state of intense longing for another >Most intense in the early stages of the relationship >Changes in brain chemistry >Increase firing in caudate nucleus and increased production of oxytocin >>(pleasure/reward system) >>>Chocolate and sex do the same thing
All of the following individuals would likely be considered a "compliance professional" EXCEPT ___.
A. A telephone operator
Example: Polarization
After a political discussion on Facebook, people often end up taking even stronger stances on the same issue in subsequent discussions.
Von Restorff effect
Also called the distinctiveness principle or isolation effect, we tend to pay attention more to things in our environment that are novel, surprising, or out of the ordinary (assuming we are not distracted).
The _____ is the overestimation of the degree to which everybody else thinks or acts the way we do. A. fundamental attribution error B. self-serving bias C. stereotype threat D. false consensus effect
D
Affect
General term for presence or absence of mood or emotional states- Intensity
____________ supplies energy to the brain.
Glucose
What occurs when a person starts working toward one goal and the mind automatically shuts off other goals from consciousness?
Goal shielding
Athletes like Michael Jordan and Mia Hamm feel that they aren't great athletes, but that they became great through effort and hard work, and that they can continue to grow through effort. What type of mindset does this best exemplify?
Growth
William James' theory of the self
I: part of self that is an active perceiver and initiator of action me: anything that symbolizes and affirms who we are; looking at something in environment and match them to ourselves
Approach/Avoid Motivation
Loophole in the neg mood use effortful pos mood use effortless! Low arousal is contemplation, high arousal is action.... Happiness is high arousal but so is anger. Action is not effortful, angry people rely on stereotypes, effortless but negative!
Hedonic Contingency Theory
Loophole in the neg mood use effortful pos mood use effortless! When you think hard to maintain a positive mood... it's effortful but positive!
Why does self-persuasion work better than being lectured by other people to behave in a certain way?
Self-persuasion takes place internally and involves convincing yourself of something
Standardize
The process in which a test is administered to a large group of people whose performance then serves as a standard or norm against which any indi- vidual's score can be measured.
counterfactual thinking
The tendency to imagine alternative outcomes that might have occurred but did not. If we imagine a result better than the outcome, it leads to negative emotions. If we imagine a result worse than what we got, we feel better. This is a type of simulation heuristic.
Focusing effect
When we are making judgments, we tend to place too much emphasis on some aspects, typically due to heuristics, what is novel, or what fits with a schema, and less on others, leading us to weigh factors unevenly.
Example: observational selection bias
Whenever I bought an Accord, I started noticing Accords all over the road. Or a lot of people seem to perceive that there has been "an increase in autism" but the fact is that autism has always existed we just didn't have a label for it in order to facilitate talking about it.
observational selection bias
Whenever we notice something we hadn't noticed before, we will wrongly assume that the prevalence of that event/person/thing has increased.
diagnosis
a determination that a person's problems reflect a particular disorder -with assessment data and clinical picture clinicians can make a diagnosis
Study of brain activity helps us understand how
a phenomenon works (What's going on "under the hood") >Language and music >Social rejection
Drawings
a projective technique clients are asked to draw human figures and talk about them. -evaluations are based on the details and shape of the drawing, the solidity of the line, location on the paper, size of figures, use of background, and comments made.
Sentence completion test
a projective technique where subjects are given a set of incomplete sentences and asked to complete them in their own words
Rorschach Test
a projective test composed of ambiguous inkblots; the way people interpret the blots is thought to reveal aspects of their personality. -he published 10 cards
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. -usually shown 30 black and white pictures of people in vague situations -Belief is that people will identify with one of the characters and project onto them
Psychophysiological Tests
a test that measures physical responses (such as heart rate and muscle tension) as possible indicators of psychological problems -started after studies showed anxiety is accompanied by physiological changes -ex) lie detector -cons: expensive equipment, can be inaccurate
Our first impression of another person is most influenced by the person's ______
appearance
concepts associated with self-schema...
are retrieved from memory more quickly than concepts that are not
What are the different levels of self-awareness (and which animals exhibit it and at what age [for dolphins and humans])?
subjective, objective, symbolic
Obedience
the performance of an action in response to a direct order >We tend to be socialized to respect and obey authority >Most people would rather be asked to do something than be told >>Ordering suggests a loss of freedom
self concept
collection of info that defines the self as an object of attention that changes over time
adjunctive psychotherapy
combination of medication and therapy is better than just medication
what are the 3 criteria for evaluating assessments?
must be reliable, valid, and standardized
denial
person simply refuses to acknowledge the existence of an external source of anxiety
internal attribution
personal/ dispositional; cause of behavior found in the person
Controllability attribution
some things are within our control, somethings are not
Superficial friendship
>Based on social exchange (rewards/casts only)
Normative social influence is ___.
A. Based on our desire to be liked or accepted by others
False Uniqueness
A Cognitive bias of underestimating how common our most desirable qualities/traits are
The tendency to favor one's own cultural group over other groups is called A. social identity. B. ethnocentrism. C. deindividuation. D. groupthink.
B
What theme(s) best explain decision avoidance
The idea that some choices are too difficult and the idea of anticipated regret
neurological tests
a test that directly measures brain structure or activity -electroencephalogram EEG
latency stage
ages 6-12; shift from parents to peers of the same gender group; no fixation in this stage
according to the text, research shows that state self-esteem can be influenced by
momentary mood states
nonverbal cues
sending and receiving info without using words
Cross-cultural research reveals that men judge women as more attractive is they have a ______ appearance, whereas women judge men who appear ______, ______, and ______ as more attractive
youthful; mature; dominant; affluent
what are the three key components of the K&T's Prospect Theory?
- mental accounting in which outcomes are coded in terms of gains and losses - the asymmetric value function - the weighting or probabilities
lobotomy: first
1935 Egas Moniz -"prefrontal leucotomy" drilled 2 holes on the sides of the skull and inserting and instrument into the brain tissue to cut or destroy nerve fibers. he believed that severe abnormal thinking was a result of a nerve pathway and this would fix it.
MMPI-2
567 items- many identical to the original and some rewritten and some new. -tested on a more diverse group than original -more accurate indicators of personality and abnormal functioning.
Attributions that include causes inside and specific to a person, such as his or her traits and abilities, are called A. internal attributions. B. external attributions. C. stable attributions. D. unstable attributions.
A
Based on Claude Steele and Eliot Aronson's research on stereotype threat, we should be especially concerned about instructions for standardized tests if they A. ask for race/ethnic information before the test starts. B. ask for names before the test starts. C. are administered by men and women from different racial/ethnic backgrounds. D. are culturally/racially sensitive.
A
Behavior that is meant to harm the social standing of another person through activities such as gossiping and spreading rumors is known as A. relational aggression. B. institutional aggression. C. overt aggression. D. physical aggression.
A
Despite evidence to the contrary, Denise thinks she is smarter than most of the people in her class. Denise's unfounded attitude about herself is an example of a(n) A. positive illusion. B. hallucination. C. reactive illusion. D. ideal self.
A
Festinger's social comparison theory A. provides an important rationale for how individuals come to know themselves. B. identifies two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route. C. examines potentially altruistic behavior. D. suggests that aspects of the environment may prime us to behave aggressively.
A
Self-esteem is likely to be LOWEST in ___.
A. Home-makers in India
Hugh bought a new calculator at Staples for $125. One week later, he saw an ad from Walmart showing the same calculator on sale for $65. Hugh said to himself, "I'm glad I got my calculator at Staples; the ones at Walmart are probably defective. I don't mind having paid more for mine." Hugh's statement reflects A. cognitive dissonance reduction. B. self-perception bias. C. informational influence. D. peripheral-route processing.
A
In a study based on Tajfel's theory of social identity, Cathy is randomly assigned to Group A, and Sara is randomly assigned to Group B. When asked to award money to other study participants, both Cathy and Sara award money only to members of their own groups. This behavior is predicted by Tajfel's theory and best exemplifies A. in-group favoritism. B. ethnocentrism. C. cultural bias. D. group polarization.
A
In the context of group decision making, groupthink can be prevented by A. selecting an impartial leader. B. encouraging group conformity. C. isolating the dissenters of the group. D. excluding outside experts in group discussions.
A
In the context of psychological factors in conformity, which of the following best describes informational social influence? A. It refers to the influence people have on an individual because the individual wants to be right. B. It refers to how people resist authority when they feel their authority is being threatened. C. It refers to the influence people have on an individual because the individual wants to be liked by them. D. It refers to the focused interest that some individuals have in influencing others.
A
In the context of social behavior, which of the following best explains why the bystander effect occurs? A. People tend to look to the behavior of others for cues about what to do. B. People do not wait for others to offer help during emergencies. C. When witnesses are present, individuals feel a sense of personal responsibility. D. When others are watching, individuals tend to behave more altruistically.
A
In the context of social influence, Solomon Asch's experiment demonstrates A. conformity. B. obedience. C. reactance. D. altruism.
A
Parents warn a new babysitter that their son, Dennis, is very aggressive and mischievous. As a result of this initial expectation, the babysitter starts calling Dennis "Dennis the Menace," and he behaves in ways that elicit aggressive and mischievous behaviors from Dennis. This example best demonstrates the phenomenon called A. self-fulfilling prophecy. B. self-serving bias. C. fundamental attribution error. D. social conditioning.
A
Jack and John were recently dumped by their girlfriends. Jack believes that his girlfriend broke up with him because she is selfish and unhappy, whereas John believes that his girlfriend broke up with him because she had to attend to a family emergency and could not make a commitment right now. Jack is making a(n) _____ about his girlfriend's behavior, whereas John is making a(n) _____. A. internal attribution/external attribution B. external attribution/internal attribution C. downward social comparison/upward social comparison D. upward social comparison/downward social comparison
A
Melissa and John have been happily married for 30 years because they have ensured that they have no opportunities to fight. Both of them have jobs so they contribute proportionately to the household income, and they equally share all other responsibilities. Melissa and John's happy marriage can best be explained by the A. social exchange theory. B. social contagion theory. C. social identity theory. D. elaboration likelihood model.
A
Which of the following statements best defines conformity? A. a change in a person's behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard B. behavior that resists the explicit demands of an individual in authority C. the ability of a person to overcome a social influence D. unselfish interest in helping another person
A
Which theory of attraction suggests that long-term relationships are likely to continue when both partners are committed and put a lot into the relationship and when there are few attractive tempting alternatives around? A. the investment model B. evolutionary theory C. the mere exposure effect D. social exchange theory
A
Phase 3
Identifying negative thinking and biases -help recognize that their interpretations have a negative bias
You are watching golf and see Tiger Woods scowl. You would be making the fundamental attribution error if you assumed that A. he has an angry and volatile personality. B. he just missed a putt. C. he was thrown off by the flash of a camera. D. he was in a tough situation.
A
You come to a conclusion that Carla is a naturally anxious woman. You ignore the fact that Carla is currently taking finals and working 40 hours per week. You are demonstrating the A. fundamental attribution error. B. universality mistake. C. self-serving bias. D. availability heuristic.
A
_____ involves strong components of sexuality and infatuation, and is often predominant in the early part of a love relationship. A. Romantic love B. Affectionate love C. The mere exposure effect D. Companionate love
A
_____ is an individual's fast-acting, self-fulfilling fear of being judged based on a negative idea about his or her group. A. Stereotype threat B. Self-serving bias C. False uniqueness effect D. Stereotype consensus effect
A
_____ means helping another person for personal gain, such as to feel good, or avoid guilt. A. Egoism B. Altruism C. Ethnocentrism D. Utilitarianism
A
_____ refers to the way individuals define themselves in terms of their group membership. A. Social identity B. Ethnocentrism C. Crowdsourcing D. Groupthink
A
_____ theory is Daryl Bem's take on how behaviors influence attitudes. A. Self-perception B. Social identity C. Self-serving D. Social comparison
A
Cognitive Dissonance
A feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action inconsistent with our strongly held attitudes (We are motivated to reduce discomfort by reducing dissonance by changing either attitude or behavior)
Agranulocytosis
A life-threatening drop in white blood cells. This condition is sometimes produced by the atypical antipsychotic drug clozapine.
Example: hindsight bias
A lot of times when people hear the results of a psychological study they say "Duh, wasn't that obvious? It's really just common sense." Yet they would have likely said that if the results had turned out the complete opposite. (For example, if one study finds opposites attract and another study finds similarity leads to attraction, people would have the same reaction despite the opposite results.)
Projective Tests
A test consisting of ambiguous material that people interpret or respond to -used primarily by psychodynamic clinicians -theoretically people will "project" aspects of their personality/unconscious into the task
Implying that we are not as good as another person on some dimension may result in ___ and/or ___.
A. An ingratiation effect; lower our audience's expectations
Mental Stimulation
Actively imagining past and future alterations-to consider all possibilities, we temporarily assume each are true-think of one alternative enough, we start to believe it's true
When did the interest in social psychology increase?
After WWII; people became afraid of the technical and efficient killing by the Nazi's
Why do people often experience postdecision dissonance?
Almost every alternative has both an upside and a downside, and people feel uncomfortable
Neglect of probability
Also called probability neglect, this is the tendency to completely disregard probabilities when making decisions during periods of uncertainty (base rate fallacy is an example of this general tendency).
bandwagon effect
Also called the "herd effect" or "social proof" it is the tendency for people to go along with actions or attitudes without much consideration because they perceive that is what everyone else is doing or thinking
what are low levels of glutamine associated with?
Alzheimer's or dementia
Sociocultural Approach
An approach to psychology that examines the ways in which social and cultural environments influence behavior. -Multicultural treatments and Family Social Treatments -trace unipolar depression to interpersonal, social, and cultural factors.
Idiographic
An approach to studying personality that focuses on individual case studies.
Sleeper Effect
An effect that occurs when a persuasive message from an unreliable source initially exerts little influence but later causes attitudes to shift.
Example: backfire effect
An eyewitness to a crime rates her confidence in her identification as even stronger after the man she identified has been exonerated by DNA evidence.
Cognition
Aspect of attitude- What we know about object
Behavior
Aspect of attitude- how we act in relation to object. Physically approach or avoid
Kruger and Dunning study
Assessed participants ability to successfully accomplish different knowledge checks (logic, reasoning, grammer) >>How well do people actually do >How they thought they did >The worse you are at something, the less you're aware at how bad you are at it >Because of our metacognition and procedural knowledge (a recipe on how things work) >>The recipe may be incomplete >Practice will both improve performance and estimation (complete the recipe) / get better
Ought self
The self we are expected to be by others.
According to _____, social relationships involve an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits. A. psychological exchange theory B. social exchange theory C. the concept of social contagion D. the elaboration likelihood model
B
According to _____, the most important predictor of relationship success is having both partners feel that each is doing his or her "fair share." A. social identity theory B. social exchange theory C. the investment model D. the evolutionary approach
B
Attribution theory A. is an explanation of how behaviors influence attitudes. B. views people as motivated to discover the underlying causes of their behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior. C. suggests that we feel uneasy when we notice an inconsistency between what we believe and what we do. D. is a theory of social comparison which posits that when individuals lack objective means to evaluate their opinions and abilities, they compare themselves with others.
B
Central route persuasion A. involves the use of non-message factors, such as the source's credibility and attractiveness. B. involves engaging someone thoughtfully with a sound, logical argument. C. involves emotional appeals. D. involves altruism.
B
Rosalie was invited to a black-tie dinner at the Ritz Carlton. She's never been served a 10-course meal before, so she's unfamiliar with the social etiquette regarding silverware selection. Since Rosalie is in a foreign environment, she gets through the night by watching others who appear to know what they are doing. For each course, she follows their selection of silverware. Rosalie is guided by A. normative social influence. B. informational social influence. C. group polarization. D. the bystander effect.
B
Social psychologists believe that _____ is particularly strong during the early stages of a relationship, and that _____ increases as the relationship grows and matures. A. affectionate love/romantic love B. romantic love/affectionate love C. consensual validation/romantic love D. consensual validation/passionate love
B
The hormone that is typically implicated in aggressive behavior is A. estrogen. B. testosterone. C. epinephrine. D. norepinephrine.
B
When individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person, they are displaying A. romantic love. B. affectionate love. C. the mere exposure effect. D. passionate love.
B
When people try to confront Alfred about drinking too much alcohol, he replies, "Drinking may be harmful to my health, but I'll die having a good time." This statement made by Alan illustrates his attempt to reduce A. stereotype threat. B. cognitive dissonance. C. the self-serving bias. D. the fundamental attribution error.
B
Which of the following conclusions was drawn from the Stanford prison experiment conducted by Zimbardo? A. Good people can never act evil. B. People are more likely to be evil when personal responsibility is removed. C. Bad people will act evil regardless of the situation. D. Authority forces people to act evil.
B
Which of the following statements is true of the concept of risky shift? A. It is the tendency to shift to a group that makes less risky decisions. B. It is the tendency for individuals to more willingly endorse riskier decisions when in a group than when they are alone. C. It refers to a person's risk of losing his or her of personal identity when he or she becomes a part of a group. D. It refers to each person's tendency to exert less effort in a group because of reduced accountability for individual effort.
B
Which of the following statements is true of the frustration-aggression hypothesis? A. It states that besides frustration, no other experiences can cause aggression. B. It states that frustration always leads to aggression. C. It states that aggression usually leads to obedience. D. It states that aggression stems from an attitude of altruism.
B
Which of the following theories best explains why individuals like to think of their group as an in-group? A. cognitive dissonance theory B. social identity theory C. social exchange theory D. self-perception theory
B
You watch as Emma stumbles and drops her books in the hall. If you commit the fundamental attribution error when assessing Emma, how would you explain her behavior? A. She must have tripped over something. B. She is a clumsy person. C. She couldn't help it; there were too many books to carry. D. She was trying to get out of someone else's way.
B
____ refers to rationalizing the amount of work we put into getting something by increasing its value. A. Conceptual validation B. Effort justification C. Informational social influence D. Self-perception
B
Example: Hot Hand Fallacy
Basketball fans believe that players have "hot hands," being more likely than average to make the next shot when currently on a hot streak, yet several studies have shown there is no empirical evidence for such streaks predicting their ability to make the next shot.
Derek likes to bully his little brother Matt. Their mother begins to give Derek the mild punishment of a stern look every time Derek hits Matt. This is sufficient to stop Derek's bullying, and in time, Derek stops bullying Matt even when his mother is not around. According to theories of insufficient punishment, why might this happen?
Because there was insufficient external justification for resisting, Derek began to devalue the forbidden activity.
Joe has a big Spanish exam coming up next week. Will it help him if he visualizes himself acing the exam? What about if he visualizes himself studying really hard for the exam?
Both of these things will help him—but visualizing himself studying really hard (which will likely lead to him actually studying harder) will help more than visualizing himself acing the exam.
Summarize findings of the Burger replication (be sure to note whether the modeled refusal condition made a significant difference)
Burger found that 70% of participants in the baseline condition were prepared to go past 150V, compared to 82.5% in Milgram's Variation #5. This sounds like a big difference but it is not statistically significant given the number of people involved. Burger also compared men and women but didn't find a difference in obedience. Women were slightly less likely to obey in the "model refusal" condition but this was not statistically significant. Empathy did not make a significant difference to obedience. However, in the base condition, those who stopped at 150V or sooner did have a significantly higher locus of control (but this was not the case in the "model refusal" condition).
How can you take someone's wallet just by asking for it? What are the steps?
By establishing a script (such as asking for directions) and then while going about that script- Interrupt it It throws the person off Then you suggest the next thing (such as here hold this, can you give me your wallet and phone) And then close the script and walk away
lobotomy effects
By the 1950s, better stud- ies revealed that in addition to having a fatality rate of 1.5 to 6 percent, lobotomies could cause serious problems such as brain seizures, huge weight gain, loss of motor coordination, partial paralysis, incontinence, endocrine malfunctions, and very poor intellectual and emotional responsiveness -The discovery of effective antipsychotic drugs helped put an end to this inhumane treat- ment for mental disorders
. From the perspective of the investment model of close relationships, long-term relationships are most likely to continue when A. one person is more committed to the relationship than the other person. B. both persons have invested less in the relationship. C. there are few tempting alternatives for the partners. D. one person has invested more in the relationship than the other person.
C
. Individuals who have positive illusions about the self A. are judged less positively by others. B. are psychologically less healthy. C. tend to show high levels of psychological well-being. D. display self-views that are rooted in reality
C
A classic series of experiments by Stanley Milgram demonstrated the profound effect of A. altruism. B. persuasion. C. obedience. D. attraction.
C
A man who slaps his wife during an argument is most likely exhibiting A. relational aggression. B. subtle aggression. C. overt aggression. D. covert aggression.
C
According to the social facilitation effect, the presence of others is likely to A. enhance performance on all types of tasks. B. improve performance on new tasks. C. reduce performance on difficult tasks. D. have little to no effect on performance.
C
Allison is at a workshop where a presenter is attempting to persuade people to make a rather risky but potentially profitable financial investment. The arguments for investing appeal to logic and reason. After slowly and carefully considering the presenter's arguments, Alison finds that this person's idea sounds compelling and decides to invest. This example best demonstrates the A. peripheral route to persuasion. B. norm of reciprocity. C. central route to persuasion. D. foot-in-the-door technique.
C
In the context of persuasion strategies, the door-in-the-face technique involves A. making a smaller request at the beginning. B. relying on the notion that the persuader has formed a relationship with the persuadee. C. making the biggest pitch first. D. ensuring that the persuadee does not experience cognitive dissonance.
C
June is usually very quiet, but she recently discovered a different side of herself. During Mardi Gras, she found herself swept up in the festivities, doing the things that the other party-goers were doing. These were not behaviors that she would have ever considered engaging in on her own. Social psychologists would most likely attribute June's behavior to A. inoculation. B. social loafing. C. deindividuation. D. the bystander effect.
C
Katie, who is moderately liberal, attends a very liberal college. After four years at this college, Katie is likely to become more liberal as a result of A. the fundamental attribution error. B. cognitive dissonance. C. group polarization. D. social loafing
C
Lily does not approve of abortion. She is shocked when she finds out how many people in her state hold pro-choice attitudes. This is an example of A. the self-fulfilling prophecy. B. cognitive dissonance. C. the false consensus effect. D. groupthink.
C
One explanation for the effects of deindividuation in groups is that groups A. make people more inhibited. B. reduce the diffusion of responsibility. C. give people anonymity. D. increase personal identity.
C
Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobsen conducted a study in 1968. The researchers told grade-school teachers that five students were likely to be "late bloomers"—that these students had high levels of ability that would likely emerge over time. In reality, the students had been randomly selected by the researchers. Nonetheless, a year later, the researchers found that teachers' expectations for the "late bloomers" were reflected in student performance—the academic performance of the "late bloomers" was beyond that of other students. The results from this study demonstrate which of the following concepts? A. cognitive dissonance theory B. the butterfly effect C. self-fulfilling prophecy D. self-serving bias
C
Susan drives by an unusually colorful apartment building each day on her way to and from work. Initially, she does not think much of the structure and has a mild dislike for it. However, after several months of commuting, she starts to like the apartment building and is even considering renting an apartment there. This change in Susan's feelings about the building best demonstrates A. the comparison effect. B. normative social influence. C. the mere exposure effect. D. informational social influence.
C
Which of the following is most likely to reduce the kinds of group biases that exist in face-to-face groups? A. crowd psychology B. herd mentality C. crowdsourcing D. groupthink
C
Which of the following is true of agreeableness in the context of prosocial behavior? A. It has no association with brain structures. B. It is the personality trait that is least associated with prosocial behavior. C. It is related to greater volume in the posterior cingulate cortex. D. It is most strongly associated with neuroticism.
C
Which of the following statements about research on the "beautiful is good" stereotype is FALSE? A. Infants as young as three to six months of age prefer attractive faces over unattractive faces. B. Attractive people are assumed to have a variety of positive characteristics, including being better adjusted, socially skilled, friendly, likeable, extraverted, and apt to achieve superior job performance. C. There is little truth to the "beautiful is good" stereotype. Attractive people do not really possess the positive characteristics of the stereotype. D. The "beautiful is good" stereotype can influence how we treat others, as in the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy.
C
_____ refers to the tendency to take credit for one's own successes and to deny responsibility for one's own failures. A. Positive illusion B. Learned helplessness C. Self-serving bias D. Stereotyping
C
_____ are people's opinions and beliefs about other people, objects, and ideas, and how they feel about the world. A. Attributions B. Traits C. Attitudes D. Skills
C
All of the factors that bind group members together into a coherent social entity are collectively known as ___.
C. Cohesiveness
Research indicates that self-esteem can be altered by ___. For these procedures to work, the individual ___ of the procedures.
C. classical conditioning; may be either aware or unaware
magical thinking
Cognitions based on assumptions about cause and effect that don't hold up to rational deduction/evidence (e.g., such as superstitious beliefs) but are resistant to change.
1. coordinated services
Community mental health center: -A treatment facility that provides medication, psychotherapy, and emergency care for psychological problems and coordinates treatment in the community
External compliance with private disagreement
Concerned with how it would appear if we refuse
Effortful cognition
Conscious and intentional -- uses a lot of cognitive resources >Uses rules and logic -- "fast learning" >Influences deliberate behavior -- decisions and conclusions >>>Not going to Chick-Fil-A because it's homophobic
Constraining factors (like head size)?
Could be in reference to humans being at max physical capacity to birth children (female Q angle exceeding any farther would debilitate capacity for walking and running). Children are born we soft craniums to allow passage through the pelvis (why babies typically have a cone shape appearance after birth). We are of few species that are completely helpless at birth, and the only ones completely helpless for about the first 3 years of life (some up to 30...).
"Am I as popular as Cathy?" This question is an example of gaining self-knowledge through the process of A. peer review. B. peripheral evaluation. C. peer recognition. D. social comparison.
D
why is the availability bias important?
as we often have to estimate the relative performance of alternative economic options
An important feature of optimal intergroup contact that involves working together on a shared goal is known as A. the mere exposure effect. B. effort justification. C. in-group favoritism. D. task-oriented cooperation.
D
In the context of group decision making, which of the following is a symptom of groupthink? A. willingness to hear all sides of an argument B. underestimation of the power of a group C. preference for accuracy over conformity D. pressure for unanimity
D
In the context of research in the area of physical attractiveness, which of the following faces will most likely be rated as most attractive? A. a face in which the distinctive features have been digitally enhanced B. a face with an unusually small forehead and unusually large lips C. a round face with unusually large eyes D. a composite of multiple faces that have been digitally blended to produce an "average" face
D
Joyce has the potential to be an honor student but frustrates her teachers because of her actions. Rather than working to succeed, she tends to "dummy down" to act more like the students that she hangs out with. She has at times answered questions incorrectly in class on purpose to be more like her friends. Joyce's behavior is due to A. informational social influence. B. ethnocentrism. C. groupthink. D. normative social influence.
D
The area of social psychology that explores how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information is called A. parapsychology. B. clinical psychology. C. social relativity. D. social cognition.
D
When members of a group know something that a person doesn't, the person will follow the group to be right. This explains the concept of A. groupthink. B. normative social influence. C. herd instinct. D. informational social influence.
D
bias blind spot
Despite awareness of cognitive biases, individuals do not believe that their judgments are affected by these "errors."
Example: Theory Perseverance
Despite the failure of Florida's program to drug test welfare recipients (i.e., it failed because it cost dramatically more than it saved and few individuals tested positive [lower than the national average], plus it was found unconstitutional by the Florida Supreme Court), the program continues to have strong support when people hear it proposed.
Prevention focus
Focus on minimizing losses Avoid possibility of failure "I study hard so I don't get an F"
sociocultural interviewers
ask about he family, social, and cultural environments
Humanistic clinicians
ask about the persons self- evaluation, self-concept, and values
Accuracy
Effortful cognition is good for-
The lowball procedure is based on the ___ principle of compliance.
E. Commitment/consistency
Social Cognition
Encoding, interpretation, recall, and use of info about the social world
Low Warmth, High Competence
Envied
Performance
Extrinsically motivated >Attempt to get favorable judgements or avoid criticism Involves avoiding challenges, failure usually leads to a sense of helplessness >Can mess with self-esteem
Factors in attractiveness
Facial symmetry, body shape, etc >Cultural similarities >Facial maturity (immaturity cues protection) >>Men like women that seem to look younger >>Women seem to like men that look older >Cultural differences >>Body shape >>Food supply >>>Less food, heavy is more attractive (vice-versa)
Availability
False consensus is an example of the *** heuristic
Self-Serving
False uniqueness is an example of the *** bias
lie detector
Formally known as the polygraph -Measures the participants biological reactions to being questioned -not reliable, not used in court, FBI still uses
Symbolic conflict
Fighting over resources that are not tangible >Values, rituals, traditions, etc.
Promotion focus
Focus on maximizing gains Approach the possibility of success "I study hard so I can get an A"
interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)
Gerald Klerman and Myrna Weissman -A treatment for unipolar depression that is based on the belief that clarifying and changing one's interpersonal problems helps lead to recovery -interpersonal loss, role dispute, role transition, deficits. -about 16 sessions -
Give an example of altruism
Giving food and shelter to people displaced by an earthquake, hurricane, or other major disaster without expectation of reward
Charles Osgood has advanced a strategy of reconciliation called GRIT, which stands for ______. They key to this method is each side's offering of a small ______ gesture in order to increase mutual trust and cooperation
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension Reduction; conciliatory
Example: Hyperbolic discounting
I would rather enjoy eating my Krispy Kreme donut today than wait the months it will take for the reward (e.g., losing weight) that comes from abstaining from eating Krispy Kremes. (Also linked to discounting/not caring about global warming over more immediate concerns about keeping a job bad for the environment or the immediate convenience of using plastics.)
Which of the following people is using ingratiation as a self-presentational tactic?
Iman, who brings her boss coffee and offers to do other favors for her
Dual Attitudes
Implicit and explicit attitudes are independent of each other and can hold two different general attitudes about the same object
Wikileak scandal
In 2009, an emergency room physician posted the images of all 10 Rorschach cards, along with common responses to each card. However, no legal actions took place, and to this day, the 10 cards remain on Wikipedia
Effortful
In a negative mood, perceiving a problem or threat, one is more likely to use *** cognition bc it's important to pay attention to environment an increase accuracy of judgements
Phase 1
Increasing activities and elevating mood -uses behavioral techniques to set stage for cognitive treatment -
Base-Rate Information
Information about the relative frequency of events or of members of different categories in a population.
Milgram Obedience Study
Inspired by WWII >Remote feedback version: learned was in an adjoining room and only pounding on the wall could be heard >Voice-feedback version: the participant could hear the person's pleas in the adjoining room >Proximity version: the learner received his shock in the same room where the teacher delivered it >Touch-proximity version: the teacher was required to force the learner's hand onto the shock plate >The desire to avoid the disapproval of the experimenter or anyone else >Lesson learned: the more removed we are the others, the easier it is to hurt them >50% of the sample went all the way to the end of the board (in the strongest version it was 65%)
When Jessie sits down for the first day of class, the person next to him, Blake, is wearing a "Free Tibet" shirt. After a few minutes of talking, Jessie realizes that he likes Blake. Which of the following is most likely to happen based on the idea of social tuning?
Jessie may unconsciously alter his attitude to agree that Tibet should be freed.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging category membership by matching to a prototype
Availability Heurisitc
Judging probability of event/trait by how easy it is to retrieve examples of that event/trait, the easier it is to come up with examples, the more likely we think it is the event will occur or that we/other posses the traits. ASSERTIVENESS STUDY
________ refers to the tendency of people to increase their liking for something they have worked hard to attain.
Justification of effort
Example: Counterfactual thinking
Missed connections lists on craigslist are full of people who imagine "what might have been" as better - the possibility of a romantic relationship - than what actually happened (a passing glance at the Laundromat). This is the "if only..." cognitive bias.
. ____ occurs when people think they will fail so they quit trying to succeed.
Learned helplessness
Partner enhancing bias
Like the self-serving bias, but for partner See strengths as dispositional and weaknesses as situational
When people in Western culture learn about the interdependent view of the self and people in Asian cultures learn of the independent view of the self, what is the typical reaction?
Many have difficulty understanding how the others could view the world in such a way.
Maria is on a limited budget, and can only afford one compact disk (CD). She really likes two in particular: Frank Sinatra's Greatest Hits and the soundtrack from the musical Wicked. When she gets home and listens to the Frank Sinatra CD, she cannot imagine why she ever considered the Wicked CD. This is because
Maria was motivated to reduce her postdecision dissonance
Recall that Donald Dutton and Art Aron (1974) had an attractive confederate approach men either on a high, narrow, swaying suspension bridge, or else on the other side of the bridge where they were sitting. More men called the woman after she approached them on the scary bridge. Why?
Men misattributed their fear as sexual attraction.
Availability
Mental stimulation is an example of *** Heuristic.
Who is most likely to enjoy a boring and lackluster rock and roll concert performed by washed-up, fifty-something "has beens"?
Mick, who waited in line all night for tickets
Pluralistic Ignorance
Misperception of a group norm that results from observing people who are acting at variance with their private beliefs out of a concern for the social consequences; those actions reinforce the erroneous group norm
Example: Framing effect
More people became receptive to the use of military force when it was framed in terms of how many lives could be saved instead of keeping losses to a minimum.
Identify several cultural differences in personal space, expressiveness, and pace of life
Most North Americans, the British, and Scandinavians prefer more personal space than do Latin Americans, Arabs, and the French. Cultural differences in expressiveness and the pace of life often create misunderstandings. For example, people with northern European roots may perceive people from Mediterranean cultures as warm and charming but inefficient, while Mediterraneans may see the northern Europeans as efficient but emotionally cold
Example: False Uniqueness effect
Most students rate themselves as above average on being "moral" (as per the above average effect), but when asked what percentage of their peers are as moral as they are they tend to identify less than a third.
Extrinsic
Motivation is external to the activity, not inherent >Doing something for the rewards it brings >Must be a desired outcome to be a motivator
Example: Confirmation Bias
My grandfather believes that women are bad drivers and so he notices every time a female driver makes a driving mistake but doesn't notice when men do and ignores evidence like the fact that male drivers actually have higher rates of accidents (and thus pay more insurance).
When you are deciding between two apartments, assuming you can afford both of them and they are both adequate for your needs, what feature should you pay most attention to if you want to maximize your satisfaction with the apartment a year after you have moved in?
Neighborhood quality-choose the most pleasant neighborhood.
What is handshake introduction? How does it work?
Normal interaction is firm, thumb pad to thumb pad, eye contact, brief shake, pleasantries, and release. What the guy taking wallets did was the fish hand, disrupting the social interaction script and allowing the thief to steer the conversation towards his desired goals. We are susceptible to influence when our automatic processes become degraded and we have to focus on multiple inputs at the same time (i.e. divided attention - we can on conduct this if the processes are automatic with one deliberate task).
Physiology
Not a good measurement of implicit attitudes because it's imprecise as this is the same in multiple attitude situations
List the conditions under which obedience was highest in Milgram's studies
Obedience was highest when the person giving the orders was close at hand and perceived to be a legitimate authority figure, the authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution, the victim was depersonalized or at a distance, and when there were no role models for defiance
Example: First instinct fallacy
On a multiple choice test, a student quickly chooses "B" as the correct answer but upon review thinks "D" might in fact be a better fit. Still he doesn't change it, trusting that his "gut" knows something he didn't.
Choice-supportive bias
Once we make a choice, we selectively attend to information that reaffirms our choice so we do not have to worry about regretting a decision. This is a type of confirmation bias specific to choices.
Give an example of the practical consequences of attributions
Our attributions - to individuals' dispositions or situations - have important practical consequences. A hurtful remark from an acquaintance, for example, is more likely to be forgiven if it is attributed to a temporary situation than to a mean disposition
Motivation and cognition
Our goals, emotions, and needs help determine our cognitive "strategy" >>Effortful cognition for accuracy >>Effortless cognition for speed >In general, you can be fast or accurate, but not both >Some exceptions for heavily practiced operations >>>Effortful relies on motivation and capacity
Cognitive Strategy
Our goals, emotions, and needs help us determine our-
False consensus
Overestimate how common our attitudes and beliefs are >Assume most people think the way we do >Availability heuristics
loss aversion
People attend to information more about how to avoid big losses rather than accrue big gains, which can influence their decisions.
Hyperbolic discounting (aka: current moment bias)
People choose immediate gratification (even if the payoff is smaller) over larger rewards that would come later.
Example: Magical thinking
People may credit a lucky charm (like the MSU baseball team bringing a banana with them to every game during the 2018 College World Series) with a positive outcome, but overlook it whenever there was a bad outcome when they still had their lucky charm. Also, forgetting the charm can result in anxiety about bad outcomes which can in turn lead to those bad outcomes occurring (or not-so bad events that would have otherwise been ignored being interpreted as due to the absence of the charm).
Example: Third person effect
People may support some limits on violent media for others, but when asked if they are affected by violent imagery they will say no.
framing effect
People react differently to a particular choice depending on whether it is presented with a negative frame (e.g., as a loss) or with a positive frame (e.g., as a gain).
planning fallacy
People underestimate how long it will take them to complete a task (even if they have experience in the past with misjudging the duration of similar tasks).
When people receive bad news-perhaps that they did not get a dream job they applied and interviewed for-what tends to happen?
People usually put a spin on the news that makes them feel better
Example: Bias blind spot
People will judge their "above average" ratings as accurate despite knowing that people on average rate themselves above average (and yet it is a statistical impossibility for the majority to be above average - or else "above average" is the new average).
Example: Base rate fallacy
People will overestimate the likelihood of being a victim of a violent crime based on the salience of these incidents in the news, instead of based on the actual facts that on average Americans have a 0.02% chance of being a victim of a violent crime. Or a 1 in 11,000 chance of being murdered in a mass shooting.
Tustworthiness
Perceived intent of the source. We believe those we think won't take advantage of us
behavioral therapy
Peter Lewinsohn 1. reintroduce depressed client to pleasurable events and activities (behavioral activation) 2. appropriately reward non depressive behaviors and withhold rewards for depressive (contingency management) 3. help client improve social skills
High Warmth, Low Competence
Pity
Example: Bandwagon effect
Polls revealing that the majority of Americans oppose going to war in Syria increases the likelihood that others will oppose (especially if they have little knowledge of the actual conflict or rationale).
Comment on the impression of women that pornography frequently conveys and the effects this impression has on attitudes and behavior
Pornography tends to portray women as enjoying being the victims of sexual aggression, and this perception increases the acceptance of coercion in sexual relationships. Repeatedly watching X-rated films also makes one's partner seem less attractive, makes a woman's friendliness seem more sexual, and makes sexual aggression seem less serious
________ refers to the dissonance aroused after we have chosen between two or more alternatives.
Postdecision dissonance
Which variables were introduced in the Milgram studies?
Proximity of victim, proximity of experimenter, location of experiment, availability of allies
intelligence tests
Psychological tests that measure a person's intellectual ability. -key role in diagnosis of intellectual disability -high reliability & validity -cons: low motivations when testing or cultural bias -Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in France in 20th century
According to the text, do most psychologists today believe that people have free will?
Psychologists are currently divided on the issue.
What were the predicted vs. actual results in the Milgram Study?
Psychologists believed only 2-5% of participants would go all the way to 450 volts. Actual number was 63%
state hospitals
Public mental hos- pitals in the United States, run by the individual states. -1845 to 1955 nearly 300 state hospitals opened in the US and the number of patients went from 2,000 to 600,000 -over the 110 years, the priorities and quality of care changed. overcrowding and overstaffing the emphasis shifted from humanitarian care to keeping order.
______________ occur(s) when people assume that their "true" attitudes match the underlying reasons that seem plausible or that are easy to verbalize in the moment.
Reasons-generated attitude change
Neuroplasticity
Reciprocity between brain and behavior
Which of the following statements about free will is BEST supported by your text?
Relative free will is important to social behavior
Explicit
Reportable consciously held attitudes which are based in rules and logic and are sensitive to new info-changeable
Explicit attitude
Reportable, consciously held attitude >Based in rules and logic >Sensitive to new information, can change quickly
Self disclosure
Revealing personal information about yourself through people
Positive illusions
Seeing your partners in a positive light helps May see things they don't see in themselves
second generation
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): increase serotonin activity specifically without affecting other neurotransmitters -same effectiveness as tricyclics but preferred because its harder to overdose on them -gain weight or loss of sex drive Ex. fluoxetine (Prozac), Cymbalta, escitalopram (lexapro)
_______ refers to long-lasting attitude change that arises from attempts to reduce cognitive dissonance
Self-persuasion
Example: planning fallacy
Some students always leave studying for an exam till the night before the exam because they think it won't take long, and then inevitably end up pulling "all-nighters."
Example: actor-observer bias
Someone cuts you off when driving, and you - the observer - assume they are a bad driver (internal attribution), but the driver - the actor - feels they only did it to get out of the way of another car that swerved into their lane (external attribution).
What is a confederate?
Someone who is working for the experimenter without the knowledge of the participants.
78. According to the research on goal setting and achievement, if all of the students below had similar track records, which of them should we expect to perform BEST in school in the coming month?
Student C, who states: "I want to get at least an A- on each of my exams and assignments this month."
Example: False consensus effect
Students who engage in binge drinking dramatically overestimate the frequency in which their peers engage in the same behavior.
What were the Harlow Monkey studies? (and what did they show/why did they matter?)
Studies where monkeys were given two options, a hard wire "mother" that provided food, or a cloth "mother" that did not provide any food. Monkeys typically chose the cloth "mother" and those who didn't were extremely underdeveloped. Showed we need more than just the "basics" to survive.
Induced Compliance
Subtly compelling people to behave in a manner that is inconsistent with their beliefs, attitudes, or values, in order to elicit dissonance, and therefore a change in their original views.
Mood-Congruent Perception
Tendency to interpret info in a way that matches our current mood. Most apparent in interpretation of ambiguous information.
Mood-Congruent Recall
Tendency to retrieve info from memory that matches our current mood- easier to remember good things during good mood than bad. We are also more likely to make judgements congruent with current mood-nothing to do with accurately.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
The tendency for people to act in ways that bring about the very thing they expect to happen.
first instinct fallacy
The belief that it is better not to change one's first answer even if one starts to have doubts about the accuracy of that answer (in part driven by the simulation heuristic where one can imagine feeling worse if they abandoned their first instinct and turned out wrong, than if they stuck with their "instincts" and it turned out wrong).
Message Variables
The content of the message itself. Types are fear appeals and humor appeals and evidence based appeals
Actor/Observer Effect
The difference in attribution based on who is making the casual assessment: the actor or observer >Actor: you're usually more interested in determining the situation you're dealing with >Know what intentions influences them to behave in a certain way >More likely to know whether a particular action is typical of them or not >Observer: primarily interested in determining what kind of person you're dealing with >We tend to place what we do on situations (distracted/tired/hungry)
Attribution Error
The failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behavior, along with the corresponding tendency to overemphasize the importance of dispositions on behavior >We tend to believe people do what they do because of who they are (rude, *******)
Illusion of control
The false belief that one can somehow exert control over random or chance events
Fluency
The feeling of ease (or difficulty) associated with processing information
first generation antipsychotics
The first generation antipsychotic drugs so called because they often produce undesired effects similar to the symptoms of neurological disorders -Extrapyramidal effects:
The Ben Franklin effect is named for an incident in which Ben Franklin
asked a favor of someone who had treated him coldly, and gained an ally.
fundamental attribution error
The general tendency to underestimate situational/environmental influences on people's behavior and overestimate the role of personal causes, i.e., to make internal attributions over external attributions.
Thought Polarization Hypothesis
The hypothesis that more extended thought about a particular issue tends to produce more extreme, entrenched attitudes.
Organizing principles of social psychology
The individual shapes (and is shaped by) the social environment We are self aware and aware of our surroundings We know we exist and we know what is happening inside of us and around us We are capable of modifying our behavior... In response to internal states In response to the environment Likewise our behavior modifies our environment Thinking can be deliberate or automatic
Framing Effect
The influence on judgment resulting from the way information is presented, such as the order of presentation or the wording.
How is the amygdala relevant to the social brain?
The larger the social network, the greater the volume of the amygdala, and the more grey matter
Example: omission bias
The man who stabbed the homeless man and left him on the street to die is a worse person than the bystander who walks by the homeless person, obviously injured, and does nothing to help them. In both instances the man dies, but one is due to the action of others and the other due to the inaction.
Gambler's Fallacy
The mistaken perception that the odds of something occurring changes depending on recent occurrences despite the odds actually having a fixed probability (thus they are expecting outcomes in random sequences to exhibit systematic reversals). Is a type of base rate fallacy where people believe that base rates or probabilities "self-correct."
Credibility
The more credible the source, the more persuasive they are. Based on expertise and trustworthiness
Involvement
The more invested, the harder to persuade as more likely to process effortfully
The degree to which we rely more on logic or intuition is often determined by
assorted motivational factors
How do social psychologists refer to the tendency to take whatever course of action does not require you to do anything (also called the default option)?
The omission bias
When participant's in Bazerman et al.'s (1992) study predicted their reaction to only one of two options presented to them for resolving a financial dispute with a neighbor, which option was generally preferred across participants?
The option that paid both their neighbor and themselves $500
theory perseverance (aka; perseverance effect)
The perseverance effect is the tendency to cling to one's newly held belief even after receiving new information that contradicts or disconfirms the basis of that belief. Note, unlike the backfire effect it doesn't require that one becomes stronger in the initial belief, rather they just stubbornly refuse to change their mind or listen.
Priming
The presentation of information designed to activate a concept and hence make it accessible. A prime is the stimulus presented to activate the concept in question.
Planning Fallacy
The tendency for people to be unrealistically optimistic about how quickly they can complete a particular project, even when fully aware that they have often failed to complete similar projects on time in the past.
Effort Justification
The tendency to reduce dissonance by justifying the time, effort, or money devoted to something that turned out to be unpleasant or disappointing
confirmation bias
The tendency to notice, search, and store information that confirms our preexisting beliefs/attitudes, while discounting or ignoring information that counters our beliefs
false uniqueness effect
The tendency to underestimate the number of other people who share one's desirable characteristics, attitudes, and abilities.
social therapy for schizophrenia
These clinicians offer practical advice; work with clients on problem solving, mem- ory enhancement, decision making, and social skills; make sure that the clients are taking their medications properly; and may even help them find work, financial assistance, appropriate health care, and proper housing
Functionalism
Thoughts, feelings, and behaviors serve a purpose Some behaviors are common across cultures Some facial expressions are almost universal Not strictly or exclusively evolutionary Explains some phenomena better than others
Heuristics
Time saving mental short cuts which reduce complex judgements to rules of thumbs. They allow us to make quick social judgements.
What was the cover study provided to participants during recruitment for the Milgram Studies?
To see if pain would affect learning/memory
According to social psychological research on gender differences in the definition of self, which person below is least typical of his or her gender?
Tom, whose girlfriend provides the most important and positive emotional events in his life
Agency
Traits suggest action/influence >Independent, assertive, aggressive, etc >Associated with masc >Provider role
Communion
Traits suggest nurturing/warmth/etc >Kind, gentle, compassionate >Femme >Fit a caretaker role
Effortless cognition
Unconscious and unintentional -- uses very few cognitive resources >Consciousness is the person over your shoulder going "are you done yet" >Uses associative networks -- "slow learning" >>>Self-schema is an example >Influences nonverbal behavior -- a "gut feeling"
False uniqueness
Underestimate how common our most desirable qualities and traits are >Assume most people aren't as good as us at what we do well
What are the merits of projective tests?
Until the 1950s, they were the most commonly used method for assessing personality. In recent years, they are used to gain supplementary insights. -the tests have not shown much reliability or validity
Personality Assessment
Used by psychodynamic clinicians to asses a client's personality and probe for unconscious conflicts. Enables them to piece together a clinical picture accordance with their models principles.
Source Variables
Who delivers the message? Impacted by credibility and attractiveness
Target/Audience Variables
Who is being persuaded. Depends on involvement
Attractiveness
Works as peripheral rate persuasion. Based on likability, similarity, and physical attractiveness
Social comparison theory suggests that in order to learn about our own abilities and attitudes, we
compare ourselves to others
One genetic marker of those who commit the most violence is the ______ chromosome. Studies of violent criminals reveal diminished activity in the brain's ______, which play an important role in controlling ______
Y; frontal loves; impulses
What does it mean to be a super cooperator?
complex society, how many people it takes to make a society functional
According to the authors of your text, after carefully making a decision, what is likely to happen?
You will start to think more and more about the good qualities of your decision
personality inventory
a test designed to measure broad personality characteristics, consisting of statements about behaviors, beliefs, and feelings that people evaluate as either characteristic or uncharacteristic of them
Many research studies demonstrate that our attitudes are strongly influenced by our ______. One example of this is the tendency for people who agree to a small request to comply later with a larger one. This is the ______ phenomenon
actions (or behavior); foot-in-the-door
How does the self affect how we see and interact with the world?
Your interactions with others can also shape your sense of self. For example, if your family praises your cooking ability you may come to believe that you are a good cook. However, if you were to enroll in a cooking class, your perception of your abilities may change when you are in the company of others with similar or more advanced culinary talents.
what is temperament?
a child's reactivity and characteristic ways of self-regulation
One of the common consequences of reactance is ____.
acting aggressively toward the person who triggered the reactance
In a study by Muraven and his colleagues (1998), when participants were asked to first suppress a thought, they later performed worse _____________ in the second task.
at containing their laughter at a funny video
information processing
attention (selective attention); encoding (interpretation and labeling of events); memory (selective retention or retrieval of information)
Prejudice is a negative ______, and ______ is a negative ______
attitude; discrimination; behavior
Feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose our responses are called ______
attitudes
Mrs. Hill has decided to provide her first-grade students with gold stars to reward them for reading. She has decided to use performance-contingent rewards. However, in using these, she must also be careful to __________________ so that using the rewards does not backfire
avoid making students tense about being evaluated
Susan carefully rinses her mouth with an unpleasant-tasting mouthwash every day. One day, Susan reads an article reporting credible dental research that suggests that mouthwash is completely ineffective and that mouthwash may even be related to tooth decay. The discomfort that Susan experiences in response to this article is called
cognitive dissonance
When people act contrary to their self-perceptions as reasonable and sensible people, they experience a feeling known as ________.
cognitive dissonance
That there are genetic influences on aggression can be shown by the fact that many species of animals have been ______ for aggressiveness
bred
objective self-awareness
cognitive ability to be aware of a state of mind: remember to remember; chimp and baby
According to ______ theory, thoughts and feelings change because people are motivated to justify actions that would otherwise seem hypocritical. This theory was proposed by Leon Festinger
cognitive dissonance
The classic social psychology studies of obedience were conducted by Stanley Milgram. When ordered by the experimenter to electrically shock the "learner," the majority of participants (the "teachers") in these studies ______ (complied/refused)
complied
What is Self-evaluation Maintenance theory? What sort of behavior does it predict?
concerns discrepancies between two people in a relationship. The theory posits that two people in a relationship each aim to keep themselves feeling good psychologically through a comparison process to the other person. Self-evaluation is the way people view themselves.
reinforcing contributory cause
condition that maintains maladaptive behaviors; you already have the beahvior, someone is doing something to bring the behavior back
The term that refers to the tendency to adjust one's behavior to coincide with an assumed group standard is ______
conformity
One evening after work, Barbara arrives home in a very bad mood. Noticing this, her husband James asks her why she seems so angry and upset. Barbara hadn't thought about her mood before James mentioned it, and now she thinks hard about what has caused her to be so sullen. She decides that it was because she was hungry and tired, and she tells James so. Barbara is _____ her behavior.
constructing a causal theory about
The self-concept refers to the
content of the self
Features of effective community care:
coordinated services, short term hospitalization, partial hospitalization, supervised residences, occupational training and support
what are the negative outcomes of the deinstitutionalization movement?
created problems for both the patient and society as a whole: patients with serious mental illnesses are not getting the proper treatment
subjective self-awareness
crude, distinguishes self from environment; dog videos
what is the major weakness in psychological tests?
cultural bias
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions of a group of people and transmitted form one generation to the next defines the group's ______
culture
Where do many causal theories such as "Absence makes the heart grow fonder" come from?
culture
Benjamin Rush
emphasized spiritual & moral development
according to the 2009 studies by Evans and Diekman, gender differences in career interest can be explained by... a. the amount of time men and women spend thinking about careers b. biological sex-based characteristics c. gender differences in the types of goals people have d. gender-related differences in the types of goals people have e. discrimination against women in male-stereotypic careers
d. gender-related differences in the types of goals people have - study where participants rated themselves on gendered traits, distant goals, and career interest - found that sex differences in goals matched sex differences in career interest! more traditional beliefs = more trad goals = more trad interest, vice versa - influence relies on gender role beliefs, not sex! it's not what you are, it's what you believe
jim tries hard at work, but he is just not very good at his job. According to ____, Jim should feel better about himself if he gets a new job he is good at. a. the sociometer hypothesis b. the principle of self-handicapping c. the contingencies of the self-worth account of self-esteem d. self verification theory e. dispositional attribution theory
d. self verification theory
which of the following is a possible reason for nonconscious mimicry's effectiveness? a. we prefer to imitate others instead of thinking for ourselves b. mimicry allows us to engage in behaviors automatically instead of thinking about our actions c. mimicry allows us to engage in inappropriate behaviors in situations where we are uncertain d. we prefer what is familiar to what is unfamiliar e. we are flattered when people imitate us
d. we prefer what is familiar to what is unfamiliar NM: adopting other's physical mannerisms unconsciously because we prefer what is familiar
Mark is comparing two jobs. One pays $70,000 per year, but will be very stressful. The other pays $60,000, but will be less stressful. According to research presented in your text on Money Matters, Mark will ____.
decide to take the 70,000 job but the $60,000 job would probably make him happier
what does normal expected utility function imply?
decisions should be made with regard to final states of wealth
With age, testosterone levels - and aggressiveness - ______ (increase/decrease). Although testosterone heightens aggressiveness, aggression ______ (increases/decreases) testosterone level
decrease; increases
The so-called "certainty effect" in decision-making refers to tendency for people to give greater weight to ____ than to ____.
definite outcomes; probabilities
discrimination
learning to distinguish between similar stimuli
Internal + unstable + uncontrollable
mood
Sex
physical/biological distinction differentiated by primary sex characteristics
Research on decision-making indicates that there are two main steps in making choices. They are ____.
whittling the full range of choices down to a limited few and then carefully considering these remaining few options.
